20090606 5210-armstrong-ch28 by+yiu+&+saner

28
Assessment and Accreditation
of Non-Formal Management
Education and Development
Programmes
Lichia Yiu and Raymond Saner

Summary and skills through formal management
This chapter provides an overview of the education (initial formal education at MBA
non-formal management education and in- schools) is no longer sufficient for future
service training and identifies various assess- managers to ensure successful careers and
ment tools used in Western Europe and adequate performance at the job site for the
Northern America. The chapter ends with
an examination of options of safeguard-
remaining years of their work life. Continuous
ing the value of non-formal management education and training is a must. However,
education and management development satisfactory learning outcome judging from
programmes in the spirit and context of the transferability of learning to the workplace
life-long learning. is not necessarily assured. Literature on
non-formal management education and train-
ing and its overall performance are scarce,
INTRODUCTION especially outside of the North American
context.
Impacted by rapidly evolving technology, While the demand for continued man-
global competition and instant communica- agement learning has been growing, the
tions, workers and managers alike are finding supply has also been increased. Many adult
it more difficult to keep up with their job education institutions and private service
requirements. Learning has become a syn- providers sprang forward to fill the need that
onym for survival. Acquisition of knowledge was too vast to be satisfied by the formal

[15:09 3/10/2008 5210-Armstrong-Ch28.tex] Paper: a4 Job No: 5210 Armstrong: Management Learning, Edu. and Develop. Page: 531 531–546

532 THE SAGE HANDBOOK OF MANAGEMENT LEARNING, EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT

education institutions. In a little more than Key proponent of calling for change is
a decade ago, continuing education for adult Mintzberg (2004) who criticised business
learners has taken a giant step forward to schools for failing to educate and develop true
fill the vacuum and has since blossomed managers.
into a full industry in its own. One of the While Mintzberg’s concern centres on
most dynamic and thriving sector of adult the MBA programmes of formal education
education no doubt is management studies and institutions like universities and colleges, his
management training. Revenue for the adult criticism does not extend to the growing
learning is substantial. In the UK alone, it field of non-formal management education
was estimated that 43 billion Euros are spent which so far has eluded the critical eye of
on training of adults each year. The market management scholars and researchers even
size for leadership development alone for the though the field of informal management
FT top 500 European companies is estimated training has grown in size without adequate
to be around 105 million Euros (ECUANET, quality assessments and practically without
2006). Spending for adult training in the any form of accreditation systems. What
US is also high. According to the ASTD follows is an attempt to take a closer look
estimate, the market turnover reached $280 at this under-researched and under-published
billion in 2006. Management development field of management education and training.
and training on-the-job constitute a
substantial share of this total amount spend
on adult learning. NON-FORMAL EDUCATION AND
A variety of the adult learning organisations INFORMAL LEARNING
are dedicated to management education and
development programmes. Among them are There is a confusion of terminology between
corporate universities, a hybrid between a informal learning and non-formal learning. It
‘real’ university and ‘upgraded’ training unit. is important to clearly define the meaning of
It was estimated by experts that in the US each term used before proceeding with the
alone there are more than 2,000 corporate discussion of assessment and accreditation.
universities (Knight, 2007) while Europe has In 2001, the European Commission defined
about 36 corporate universities, with France the terminology used in the discussion about
having the highest number (ECUANET, training within the EU countries (Bjørnåvold,
2006). 2001: 21):
The spread of management education and
training was made easy by the integration of Formal learning is typically provided by
internet and related communication technolo- education or training institutions, structured
gies at the workplace and the rapidly lowering (in terms of learning objectives, learning
cost of providing an ICT platform for deliver- time or learning support) and leading to
ing training and education across geographic certification or an academic degree. This is
divide. Today, access to on-line management intentional from the learner’s perspective.
education and training is unhindered in most
countries, and commercialisation of higher Informal learning results from daily life
education is gaining momentum driven both activities related to work, family or leisure.
by the institutions’ need for mobilising social It is not structured (in terms of learning
resources and by the consumers’ demand for objectives, learning time or learning support).
more education and qualification. Typically, it does not lead to certification.
In the midst of this development, concerns Informal learning may be intentional. But
over credibility of business schools have in most cases it is incidental or at random.
been voiced leading to broader reflection It comprises ‘all forms of more or less
about the essence of managerial learning and conscious self-learning outside of the formal
the core mission of the business schools. educational settings, in direct relation to life


ACCREDITATION IN NON-FORMAL MANAGEMENT 533

Facets of informal learning

International,
Incidental
self-initiated and
and implicit
subjectively designed

Explicit Learning Tacit
learning from learning
experience

Competence development / competence acquisition

Figure 28.1 Facets of informal learning
Source: (Frank in Wittwer (2003): 177).

and experience – from unconscious, tacit children, life-skills, work-skills, and general culture.
learning on the one hand to conscious, self- Non-formal education programmes do not neces-
organised learning on the other hand’(adopted sarily follow the ‘ladder’ system, and may have
differing duration. (Coombs, Prosser and Ahmed,
from Fietz et al., 2006). 1973: 185)
Informal learning was conceptualised into
three elements (Frank, 2003. see Figure 28.1):
explicit learning, learning from experience Simkins (1977) compared non-formal edu-
(reflection) and tacit learning. cation with formal education in terms of
Non-formal learning on the other hand, is purpose, timing, content delivery systems and
not provided by an education or training control, and developed ideal type models
institutions and typically is not leading to of formal and non-formal education (see
certification. However, it is structured, in Table 28.1). In short, non-formal education
terms of learning objectives, learning time and training are therefore courses or pro-
or learning support, and intentional from the grammes that are not part of a universally
learner’s perspective. It refers to any activity recognised programme and involve little or
involving the acquisition of understanding, no reliance on pre-determined guidelines for
knowledge or skill which occurs outside the its organisation, delivery or assessment and
curricula of formal educational institutions do not lead to any formal qualification or
and without necessarily the presence of an certification.
institutionally-authorised instructor. Both informal learning (intentional aspect)
An important distinction was also made and non-formal learning have been greatly
between informal learning and non-formal supported by the availability of information
learning or education, which is the theme of on the internet (informal learning) and have
this chapter. According to UNESCO, non- been facilitated by access to educational
formal education implies: materials and courseware through the internet
(non-formal learning or education). Formal
Any organized and sustained educational activities educational institutions, such as MIT, have
that do not correspond exactly to the definition made available their whole teaching and
of formal education. Non-formal education may course material on-line free of charge to aid
therefore take place both within and outside individuals due to life circumstances who
educational institutions [and cater to persons
of all ages]. Depending on country contexts, it
could not afford or attend the formal education
may cover educational programmes to impart programmes. Actions taken by institutions
adult literacy, basic education for out-of-school such as MIT in the public interest have



Table 28.1 Simkins (1977) ideal type models of formal and non-formal education
Formal Non-formal
Purposes Long term and general Short term and specific
Credential-based Non-credential based
Timing Long cycle/preparatory/full time Short cycle/recurrent/part-time
Content Standardised/Input centred Individualised/Output centred
Academic Practical
Entry requirements determine clientele Clientele determine entry requirements
Delivery System Institution-based, isolated from environment Environment-based, community related
Rigidly structured, teacher-centred and Flexible, learner-centred and resource saving
resource intensive
Control External/Hierarchical Self-governing/Democratic
Adopted by Fordham (1993) from Simkins (1977: 12–15).

contributed in providing the field of informal as more effective accreditation systems, better
learning possibility also for a more structured monitoring and evaluation, improved statis-
and coherent learning in terms of subject tical systems, better performance evaluation
matter mastery. at the institution level, and better monitoring
Taking into account the difficulty in of student outcomes and destinations (OECD,
discerning the complexity (due to its hetero- 2003).
geneity) and the diversity of non-formal
education and training, the question arises
as how to strengthen the accountability of
this form of learning delivery which has ACCREDITATION AND QUALITY
become more relevant and urgent. In the ASSURANCE OF NON-FORMAL
past few years, most developed countries TRAINING AND EDUCATION
have increasingly emphasised the crucial role
of learning that takes place outside formal Although accreditation services for formal
education: in light of the increasing demands management studies and programmes have
for updating knowledge and upgrading skills matured, the same cannot be said of non-
of their working population in general and formal education. The United States is one
the more mature workers in specific. How to of the few countries providing accreditation
recognise informal and non-formal learning specifically for this purpose in a formalised
so that adults can continue their more manner and with dedicated accreditation bod-
advanced learning in a formal education ies. For example, the Accrediting Council for
setting has become a hot topic. Continuing Education & Training (ACCET,
This emphasis of enriching the human www.accet.org) is one of such organisations
capital and re-enrolling large number of specialised in continuing education. ACCET
working population into systematic learning was founded in 1974 and provides institu-
processes has led to an increasing number tional accreditation for organisations whose
of political and practical initiatives in the primary function is for educational purposes
field of informal and non-formal learning and and also for organisations offering continuing
education; thus gradually shifting the practice education as a clearly identified institutional
of lifelong learning (in other words, providing objective within the operational entity, such
lifelong learning opportunities) from the stage as in-service corporate training.
of experimentation to implementation. For the ACCET accreditation can include educa-
purpose of improving and ensuring quality tional institutions that offer programmes at
of adult training and education, different locations other than the main headquarters
measures have also been put into action, such under specified conditions and controls.



ACCET also accredits non-collegiate con- (5) learning success, and (6) quality assurance
tinuing education and training organisations and development. Increasingly, eduQua certi-
throughout the United States and accredits fication has been put forth as a prerequisite
programmes abroad. Institutions that may be for public funding in different Swiss cantons1
eligible for accreditation include: (a) Trade (EduQua, 2007). There is also talk among
and professional associations; (b) Private educational officials about applying the same
career schools; (c) Corporate training depart- quality criteria to the providers in the
ments; (d) Intensive English programmes; education sector in all of Switzerland and
(e) Labour union training programmes; make national subsidies dependent on a proof
(f) Religious organisations and ethical soci- of quality.
eties; (g) Public affairs and cultural societies; A different approach was taken by experts
and (h) Social service, volunteer and personal focusing on quality of training from an ISO
development organisations. perspective. A team of international experts
Accreditation of non-formal training and developed the ISO 10015 Standard which
education is an effort to safeguard the public is an international standard approved by
interests and to provide a minimum guarantee ISO member states. ISO certification is an
of educational and training quality through internationally recognised quality label which
third party actors. Often these third party demonstrates an organisation’s commitment
actors also seek certification of their own to quality and a well-functioning quality
management systems in order to demonstrate assurance system.
their commitment to certain quality standards The ISO 10015 Quality Standard for Train-
and in turn strengthen their reputation and ing was published in December 1999. The
credibility. These third party accreditation Centre for Socio-Eco-Nomic Development
bodies could be public or private entities. (CSEND) is the first organisation to become
What follows is a short survey of the a certification body for ISO 10015 related
accreditation of non-formal education by quality assurance work. CSEND received its
different European countries. accreditation from the Swiss Accreditation
Agency (SAS) in February 2003 and has
since certified training systems in China,
Switzerland
India, Bahrain and conducts seminars on the
Switzerland has established a special moni- application of ISO 10015 to management
toring and certification instrument for adult training. In contrast to the EduQua, ISO
learning in the 1990s. The Swiss Certification 10015 focuses not only on the four-stage
for Institutions of Continuing Education was training process, i.e., defining training needs,
the entity to offer quality certificate ser- designing and planning training, providing for
vice named EduQua (http://www.eduqua.ch) training, and evaluating training outcomes;
to the adult continuing education institu- it puts equal emphasis on the alignment of
tions in Switzerland. Its members are 800 training to the needs of the organisation. By
schools, institutions, and academies through- so doing, training is not only focused on
out Switzerland. In Geneva, the Foundation the individual acquisition of knowledge and
for Adult Training (IFAGE) is one of the many skills, but equally on the application of these
eduQua certified non-formal institutions that acquired knowledge and skills in solving indi-
provides courses either for professionals or vidual performance issues and in enhancing
beginners in business and finance. organizational performance (Saner, 2002; Yiu
EduQua assesses training and education and Saner, 2005) (see Figure 28.2).
providers by using the following six criteria,
which it considers to be keys to the quality of
Europe
an institution: (1) the course offer, (2) commu-
nication with clients, (3) performance based In the rest of Europe, certification of educa-
value, (4) staff – meaning the educators, tional institutions is a relatively new concepts.



It is not common in Europe to see accreditation informal learning are considered as basic
organisations cater specifically for the adult features to increase individual skills and
learning and non-formal sector. In Nordic work competences. Recently, the Learning
countries and in Austria, accreditation bodies and Skills Council (LSC, www.lsc.gov.uk)
usually have the dual role of accrediting has taken a strategic interest in the recognition
both formal and non-formal training. For of non-formal learning for adults. LSC has
example, in Austria, accreditation of non- therefore become an accreditation agency
formal training programmes is given by the focusing on non-formal training and educa-
Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Arbeit tion. The Adult learning Inspectorate (ALI),
(Federal Ministry of Economics and Labour) now merged with the Office for Standards
according to the Austrian Akkreditierungsge- in Education (Ofsted, www.ofsted.gov.uk), is
setz (Accreditation Act). another quality control body for both formal
In other countries, institutions delivering and non-formal education funded by the
accreditations in the non-formal system con- public funded provisions in the UK.
centrate their task primarily on management British Accreditation Council (BAC,
of the learning environment such as class- www.the-bac.org) is a registered charity
rooms and educational facilities, but taking (non-profit-making organisation) in the UK
little into account the quality of actual training which was established in 1984 to act as the
and learning. For example, in the United national accreditation body for independent
Kingdom and also recently in Germany, further and higher education. Until 2000,
regular inspections by the public authority BAC accreditation was only available to
constitute part of the approval procedure colleges in the United Kingdom, but there are
for non-formal training bodies to apply for now accredited colleges in different countries
public financial support. These inspections including Switzerland. At present BAC
are targeted mostly at the institutional man- accredits over 200 colleges in the United
agement systems and do not focus specially Kingdom, and nearly 30 overseas. These
on the training programmes themselves. accredited independent colleges include
Nevertheless, in the United Kingdom, there business and professional education and
is an established practice of adhering to training.
an output-oriented and performance-based
model to education and training. This is
Scandinavian countries
not the case in Germany, however, where
validating informal learning still appears Adult education and training in the Scan-
to be rather low (Fietz et al., 2006). On dinavian countries is mostly regulated with
the whole these particular cases reveal the the same tools and the same institutions
excessive diversity in the monitoring of non- involved in the formal educational system.
formal training all over Europe. A focus Nevertheless, it is not possible to speak
on specific European countries and regions of a ‘Nordic model’. Finland, Norway,
that have different background in non-formal Denmark and Sweden have chosen differ-
training will show evidence for improving ent approaches and are working accord-
the coherence of training and education ing to different schedules. These differ-
monitoring both at a national and at an ences do not change the fact that ‘all
international level. four countries have taken practical steps
through legislation and institutional initia-
tives towards strengthening the link between
United Kindom
formal education and training and learning
In the United Kingdom, there is general accep- taking place outside of schools’(Colardyn
tance of learning outside formal education and and Bjørnåvold, 2004). In fact, these coun-
training institutions as a valid and important tries have created institutes in charge of
pathway to competences. Non-formal and evaluating the quality of education and



training both in the formal and informal a recent reform process that increasingly
sector. Documenting and recognising high takes into account the non-formally and infor-
qualifications acquired through non-formal mally acquired competences. The vocational
and informal learning has been emphasised for qualification system is widely appreciated and
decades in the Scandinavian countries (Fietz the tendency is that all kinds of skills and
et al., 2006). competences should get formally validated
In Denmark, for example, the Danish credits.
Evaluation Institute (EVA, www.eva.dk) is
an independent agency formed under the
France
auspices of the Danish Ministry of Education
in 1999 under national legislation (Act on the In several respects, France can be charac-
Danish Institute of Evaluation, Consolidated terised as one of the most advanced European
Act of September 2000). It is responsible countries in the area of identification, assess-
for external quality assurance at all levels ment and recognition of non-formal learning
of education in Denmark, including higher (OECD, 2003). Concerning the ‘opening up’
education (public and private subsidised of the national vocational education and
higher education institutions). It initiates and training system including management related
conducts systematic evaluations of higher training for competences acquired outside
education programmes. Their activities may formal institutions, nowadays there are
include institutional, auditing and other forms several different forms of recognition for
of evaluation. competences acquired outside formal courses
Accreditation of all programmes leading of study. The bilan de competences and
to a professional Bachelor’s degree began the Validation des Acquis Professionnels
in 2004. EVA conducts the accreditation/ (VAP) legally regulate the recognition of
evaluation, and the Ministry of Education vocationally acquired competences in order
makes the accreditation decision. EVA also to undertake certain courses of study in the
conducts accreditation of private courses as formal educational system. Since 1992, voca-
part of the Ministry of Education proce- tional certificates like the Certificat d’aptitude
dure determining whether students at private professionelle can be obtained (to various
teaching establishments should be eligible for degrees) on the basis of assessments of non-
Danish state study grants. Business schools, formal and prior learning. Another important
for example, the Copenhagen Business initiative was taken by the French Chambers
School (CBS), may go for double accred- of Commerce and Industry where the aim was
itations. In the case of CBS, it has the to set up procedures and standards to assess
national accreditation from EVA, but also independently the informal education and
obtained EQUIS accreditation for interna- training system (OECD, 2003). Concerning
tional recognition. the competences strictly in management and
The Norwegian Agency for Quality Assur- business, there has been an initiative in 1999
ance in Education (NOKUT, www.nokut.no) of the French employers’ association MEDEF
was created in 2003 to be responsible for (Mouvement des Entreprises de France) under
the evaluation and accreditation of all higher the title of ‘Objectif Compétence’ that aims
education institutions. As from 1 January to anchor this competence aspect more
2002, an accreditation has become mandatory strongly especially in small and medium-sized
and universal for all formally recognised enterprises.
higher education in Norway which covers
both institutional and programme based
Mediterranean countries
accreditations. Non-formal learning is recog-
nised on the individual basis; there is no In the Mediterranean countries, despite the
formal accreditation procedure for non-formal fact that informal training and education
education providers. The Finnish case shows are very spread, there is still a lack of



monitoring and evaluating. Nevertheless, topic of higher learning. It is obvious that
some countries in the South of Europe knowledge production and related services,
have taken important initiatives. In Spain, including accreditation and recognition of
institutional level work led to the creation non-traditional learning, have become one
of a system for assessment, recognition and of the major drivers of Western economy.
accreditation of vocational skills acquired This sector, i.e., accreditation, could warrant
through non-formal and informal channels greater regulatory control.
(‘The Law on Qualifications and Vocational
training of June 2002’). An important further
step could be marked with the set up of the
ERA program – ‘Evaluación, Reconocimi- SHOULD NON-FORMAL
ento y Acreditatión de las competencias MANAGEMENT TRAINING
profesionales’(Fietz et al., 2006). Recently, INSTITUTIONS BE ACCREDITED
Portugal has undertaken a programme for OR SUBJECT TO QUALITY
Certification of Training Institutions named CERTIFICATION SCHEMES?
QUALFOR that can be compared to the
EduQua certification in Switzerland. Many The proliferation of the ‘private’ accred-
firms and financial institutions deliver learn- itation bodies reflects the reality of the
ing programmes for their employees. Some increasingly deregulated education market
of them aim to set up corporate universities to worldwide, making it easier to provide non-
deliver specific training in management and formal management training and course work.
leadership. This informal scope of manage- This proliferation has also created challenges
ment development is generally not aligned to and difficulties in recognition of learning
standardisation or accreditation because their attainments, making it more of an increasing
education and training are strictly focused on concern regarding the compatibility of diplo-
their employees. As a result, the quality of mas, certifications and qualifications by the
the teachings and the training mostly depends employers.
on the quality and the success of the firm in Seeing it from the providers’ point of
its fields. Nevertheless, some major firms or view, organisations which manage training
banks have voluntarily asked for accreditation programmes would like to differentiate their
of their training units and programmes. products by acquiring quality certification
EFMD through its CLIP (Corporate Learning through an accreditation procedure offered
Improvement Process) programme provides by an independent entity. Accreditation could
accreditation of corporate learning func- help screen-out sub-standard or unqualified
tion. So far 12 leading Corporate Learning management education and development pro-
Organisations from across Europe have been gramme suppliers. Yet, it does not necessarily
awarded the Corporate Learning Improve- address the question of learning outcome or
ment Process. that of an active instrument in protecting
A summary list of the accrediting institu- the public and private interests of achieving
tions and quality assurance systems of non- quality non-formal management education
formal management training is presented in or learning. It is also questionable whether
Table 28.2. the self-regulated accreditation bodies abide
According to Business Podium Boards by stringent standard of good governance
(BPB, www.business-podium.com), there are imposed by international organisations such
more than 100 unrecognised accreditation as the International Organisation for Stan-
associations of higher learning in the US, dardisation and affiliated international metal
UK and Europe (see Table 28.3). Some of organisations or government bodies. Unless
the accreditation associations listed by BPB verification mechanisms exist to monitor
are discipline or professional specific. A large and regulate these non-state ‘soft’ regulators,
number of them are dealing with the general accreditation of the non-formal training and


Table 28.2 Examples of accrediting institutions and quality assurance systems of non-formal management training in Western Europe and North America
Organisation Scope of work Methods of Accreditation procedure Validity Level of recognition Accreditation Territory and size External quality Oversight Type of programme Status of Organisational
regulation of informal of the users assurances recognition status
education/training measures
Accrediting council ACCET accredits Independent 1. Inquiry 3 to 5 years Recognised by the Specifically informal USA 248 No – All sorts of private Private initiative Private accrediting
for continuing non-collegiate peer-review 2. Application U.S. Department schools & career schools agency

[15:09 3/10/2008 5210-Armstrong-Ch28.tex]
education & continuing and evaluation 3. Accreditation and of education programmes corporate training
training (ACCET) education and evaluation workshop Certified as an
departments
training 4. Analytic self-evaluation ISO 9001-quality For our interest:
organisations report (ASER) management Trade and
throughout the 5. Examination team

Paper: a4
system Professional -
United States 6. On-site examination Associations
and accredits 7. Team report Labour union
programmes 8. Accrediting commission training-Public
abroad action affairs and
9. Time schedule cultural societies

Job No: 5210
Eduqua Eduqua is the Voluntary 1. Subscription within 3 years Secrétariat d’Etat à Schools & Switzerland 49 No Proformation All sorts of Label –
first Swiss a certification l’Economie (SECO) programmes of business & SQS
accreditation/ organisation all sorts management SGS
label for adult 2. Adult education type of schools for 800 ProCert
education programme institutions of IQB-FHS
3. Work on the type of all sorts SCEF
programme
4. Sending off the final
work
Qualifications and QCA develops Voluntary A two-stage process Variable Sponsored by the Specifically informal: UK No – All sorts of QCA is a non- It is governed by
curriculum criteria which must be completed: department for Schools programmes in departmental a board whose
authority (QCA) awarding bodies the recognition education and programmes Business and public body members are
and their process; the skills (DfES) Personals: administration appointed by
qualifications application for accreditating for the Secretary of
must meet, and accredited example ILM State for
processes they qualifications dedicated to Education and
must go through. advancing the Skills, and
Examinations and capability of managed on a
qualifications managers and day-to-day
leaders basis by an
executive team

Armstrong: Management Learning, Edu. and Develop.
(continued)

Page: 539 531–546

Table 28.2 Continued
Organisation Scope of work Methods of Accreditation procedure Validity Level of recognition Accreditation Territory and size External quality Oversight Type of programme Status of Organisational

[15:09 3/10/2008 5210-Armstrong-Ch28.tex]
regulation of informal of the users assurances recognition status
education/training measures
EFMD-CLIP- A quality Independent 1. Application Accredited: Supported by a EQUIS is not Worldwide 11 Granting of the EFMD Banks and firms An international A voluntary
Corporate improvement tool peer-review 2. On-site briefing 3 years broad primarily focused EQUIS award not-for-profit affiliation of
learning for the corporate and evaluation and initiation of reaccredited international body on the MBA or is made by an association organisations

Paper: a4
improvement learning function the process 5 years of academics and any other specific independent
process 3. Eligibility professionals. programme. Its EQUIS
4. Guided ENQA
scope covers all accreditation
self-assessment programmes awarding board
5. On-site peer review offered by an
6. Awarding of the institution

Job No: 5210
quality label
7. Follow-up: Quality
improvement and
institutional
development
International ISO 10015 is a Voluntary Third party audit on Certified and Recognised by Applicable for all Worldwide Yes. National IAF (Interna- All International International NGO,
organisation for quality assurance annual basis for registered national standard training functions authority tional recognition governed by
standardisation, tool for the certification for 3 year setting authorities accredits ISO accreditation a Board and
(ISO 10015) in-service training purpose cycle and international certification forum) and Swiss laws
system and mutual bodies. respective
custom-tailored recognition National national
training system authority is authority
programmes also subject to responsible
international for standard-
peer review isation
in order to
sustain good
governance

Armstrong: Management Learning, Edu. and Develop.
Page: 540 531–546


Table 28.3 Unrecognised accreditation associations of higher learning according
to BPB Survey as of 30 September 2007
• Accrediting Commission International (ACI) (in Beebe, Arkansas) (aka International Accrediting Commission)
• Accrediting Council for Colleges and Schools (ACCS)
• Accreditation Governing Commission of the United States of America
• Alternative Institution Accrediting Association (AIAA)
• American Accrediting Association of Theological Institutions (AATI) (in Rocky Mount, North Carolina)
• American Association of Bible Colleges
• American Association of Drugless Practitioners Commission on Accreditation (AADPCA)
• American Association of Independent Collegiate Schools of Business
• American Association of International Medical Graduates (AAIMG)
• American Association of Non-traditional Colleges and Universities (AANCU)
• American Association of Schools (AAS)
• American Council of Private Colleges and Universities (ACPCU) (connected to the operator
of Hamilton University, now called Richardson University)
• American Federation of Colleges and Schools (AFCS)
• American Federation of Colleges and Seminaries (AmFed)(AFCS) (in Lakeland, Florida)
• American Naturopathic Certiﬁcation Board (ANCB)
• American Naturopathic Medical Certiﬁcation and Accreditation Board (ANMCAB or ANMAB)
• American Naturopathic Medicine Association (ANMA)
• American Universities Admission Program (AUAP)
• Arizona Commission of Non-Traditional Private Postsecondary Education
• Asia Theological Association (ATA)
• Association for Distance Learning (ADLP) (aka National Academy of Higher Education and
Association of Distance Learning Programmes)
• Association for Online Academic Excellence (AOAE) (in Wales)
• Association of Christian Colleges and Theological Schools (in Louisiana)
• Association of Christian Schools International (ACSI) (in Colorado Springs, Colorado)
• Association of Distance Learning Programs (ADLP) (aka Association for Distance Learning and
National Academy of Higher Education)
• Association of International Education Assessors
• Association of Reformed Theological Seminaries
• Board of Online Universities Accreditation (BOUA)
• Board of Theological Education of the Senate of Serampore College (BTESS)
• British Learning Association (BLA)
• Central States Consortium of Colleges & Schools (CSCCS) (connected to the operator of Breyer State University)
• Centre of Academic Excellence UK (CAEUK)
• Central States Council on Distance Education (CSCDE)
• Christian Accrediting Association (CAA)
• Commission on Medical Denturitry Accreditation (COMDA)
• Council for Distance Education Accreditation (CDEA; connected to Association of International Education Assessors)
• Council for International Education Accreditation (CIEA)
• Council of Online Higher Education (COHE)
• Council on Medical Denturitry Education (COMDE)
• Distance Education Council (DEC) (connected to the operator of Saint Regis University) (not to be confused with the
legitimate Distance Education Council recognised by the Indian Department of Education)
• Distance Graduation Accrediting Association
• Distance Learning Council of Europe (DLCE) (connected to University Degree Programme)
• European Committee for Home and Online Education (ECHOE) (connected to University Degree Programme)
• European Council for Distance and Open Learning (ECDOE) (connected to University Degree Programme)
• Examining Board of Natural Medicine Practitioners (EBNMP)
• Global Accreditation Commission (GAC)
• Higher Education Accreditation Commission (HEAC)
• Higher Education Services Association (HESA) (connected to University Degree Programme)
• Integra Accreditation Association (IAA)
• Inter-Collegiate Joint Committee on Academic Standards (ICJCAS)
(continued)



Table 28.3 Continued
• Interfaith Education Ministries (IEM)
• International Academic Accrediting Commission (IAAC)
• International Accreditation Agency for Online Universities (IAAOU) (connected to operators of Ashwood University,
Belford University, and Rochville University)
• International Accreditation Association (IAA)
• International Accreditation for Universities, Colleges and Institutes (IAUCI)
• International Accreditation and Recognition Council (IARC)
• International Accrediting Association for Colleges and Universities (IAACU)
• International Accrediting Commission (IAC) (aka Accrediting Commission International)
• International Accrediting Commission for Postsecondary Institutions (IACPI)
• International Association of Educators for World Peace (There are different groups by the same name
though none are authorized accreditors.)
• International Association of Universities and Schools (IAUS)
• International Commission for Higher Education (ICHE)
• International Commission of Open Post Secondary Education (ICOPSE)
• International Council for Accrediting Alternate and Theological Studies (Kerala, India)
• International Council for Open and Distance Education (ICODE)
• International Distance Learning Accrediting Association (IDLAA)
• International Interfaith Accreditation Association (IIAA) (closed down operations at the end of May 2007)
• International University Accrediting Association (IUAA) (in California)
• Kingdom Fellowship of Christian Schools and Colleges
• Middle States Accrediting Board (MSAB)
• Midwestern States Accreditation Agency (MSAA)
• National Academy of Higher Education (NAHE) (aka Association for Distance Learning)
• National Accreditation Association (NAA)
• National Association for Private Post-Secondary Education (NAPSE)
• National Association of Alternative Schools and Colleges (NAASC)
• National Association of Open Campus Colleges (NAOCC)
• National Association of Private Nontraditional Schools and Colleges (NAPNSC; Grand Junction, Colorado)
• National College Accreditation Council (NCAC)
• National Council of Schools and Colleges (NCSC)
• National Commission on Higher Education (NCHE)
• National Distance Learning Accreditation Council (NDLAC) (Glenndale University and Sufﬁeld University
claim NDLAC accreditation)
• National Learning Online Council (NLOC)
• Naturopathic National Council (NNC)
• Non-Traditional Course Accreditation Body (NTCAB)
• Online Christ Centered Ministries
• Paciﬁc Association of Schools and Colleges (PASC)
• Regional Education Accreditation Commission
• Southern Accrediting Association of Bible Institutes and Colleges (SAABIC) [6]
• The Association for Online Distance Learning (TAODL)
• Transworld Accrediting Commission International (TWACI)
• United Congress of Colleges (UCC) (Ireland, UK)
• US-DETC – Nevada (not to be confused with the legitimate DETC, based in Washington DC.)
• Universal Council for Online Education Accreditation (UCOEA)
• Virtual University Accrediting Association (VUAA)
• West European Accrediting Society (WEAS)
• Western Association of Private Alternative Schools (WAPAS)
• Western Council on Non-Traditional Private Post Secondary Education (WCNPPSE)
• Virtual University Accrediting Association (in California) (VUAA)
• World Association of Universities and Colleges (WAUC) (in Nevada; operated by Maxine Asher)
• World Online Education Accrediting Commission (WOEAC)
• World-wide Accreditation Commission of Christian Educational Institutions (WACCEI)



education might not fulfil its mandate in Initiatives to create an international common
assuring quality of learning experience and professional competence standard, such as
outcomes. certification of project management managers
For instance, accreditation of corporate (PMM), has gained credence. Similar trends
university is no guarantee either in ensuring could be predicated for other management
that an enterprise’s training inputs will applications.
actually result in the attainment of strategic No amount of accreditation, however,
objectives of the corporation or productivity would be able to guarantee minimum stan-
improvement of the manager. It is the view dards of non-formal management training
of the authors that accreditation has not yet or outstanding learning outcome of in-
fulfilled the expectation of ensuring a return service management education. The former is
on training investment. There is a need to influenced less by the subject matter expertise
strengthen both the outcome assessment and yet more by the ability of the faculty to
the quality assurance of the learning process. communicate his material in a motivating
While the outcome assessment is complex and manner and connected to the actual practices
not fully reliable, in-process quality control and issues of the business.
and assurance become all the more important Many young management teachers started
and urgent. their career without proper training in ped-
The analysis of the individual countries agogy or with little experience in actual
relating to the goal of ensuring quality of practice as managers. Their teaching remains
non-formal learning/education in continuing theoretical and to some extent, hearsay. Situa-
education and higher education shows that tion in the non-formal management training
further development is required, even in programmes are similar, even though these
those countries that have already implemented programmes tend to have a greater mix of
national systems for validating informal and academicians and practitioners. Experienced
non-formal learning. In contrast to the frag- managers or practitioners are often asked
mented approach that can be observed in many to conduct these courses because of their
countries, a holistic approach encompassing personal reputation or because of the firms
both non-formal and informal learning as that they represent. Often their teaching
well as general education, vocational edu- is rich in anecdotes but poor in reflection
cation and enterprise training – requires co- and short in generalisable conceptualisation.
ordination at a national level. This shortcoming does not seem to matter,
Approaches used in Scandinavian countries since non-formal management education and
could serve as model for this combination development programmes are designed with
of accreditation and recognition of formal a commercial purpose where entertainment
and informal leaning and the corresponding value is supreme.
service providers. Moreover, developing a co- Accreditation of non-formal management
ordinated approach at an international level education and development programmes is
between the different actors involved in non- only half of a measure, necessary but not
formal learning process could be a preliminary sufficient. It is time also to look at the
step toward standardisation of professional other end of the pipe: What competen-
qualification in different fields of management cies are actually acquired by graduates of
studies. Based on a transnational model, the non-formal management education and
public and private agencies that provide development programmes? What difference
certification and accreditation in tertiary edu- would this type of learning make to the
cation and management studies need to agree persons, to their work organisations, and to
upon a professional qualification standard for the economic development of their society?
various branches of management studies in The institutional arrangements and basic
order to benchmark different offers and to infrastructure for quality assurance for this
provide guidance for curricula development. sector are yet to be completed. The emergence



Organisational
performance
GAP

A
Wrong or Under- Wrong
Wrong or Insufficient
deficient raw performing products?
ineffective financial
material or human (no market
equipment? resources?
parts? resources? demand?)

A

Inadequate Inadequate
Recruitment Remuneration Inadequate
organisa- Ineffective competencies
of staff with not labour motivation?
tional leadership? and skills
wrong skills market (e.g. work
structure? of current
portfolio? competitive? overload?)
HR?

A

Solution through Solution Solution through Solution
rationalisation through hiring training of through job
(substitution of HR of new staff with existing staff? rotation as
through adequate (acquiring of new strategy for skills
automation)? competencies? competencies?) improvement?

Legend: A
S1 = Analyse S1
S2 = Plan
S3 = Deliver
S4 = Evaluate S4 TRAINING S2
B

S3

Figure 28.2 ISO 10015 based training management process
Source: ©Centre for Socio-Economic development, 2003.

of ISO 10015 quality standard could fill part Countries with knowledge based economies
of the gap (see Figure 28.2). have come to rely on education production
as one of the major engines of their economic
performance and well-being. Individuals from
Conclusions
the emerging markets wanting to benefit from
Non-formal education and training became the economic opportunities are also eager
part of the international discourse on edu- customers for these management training
cation policy in the late 1960s and 1970s programmes and education. In this context,
in the context of recurrent and lifelong short-term, focused non-formal education is
learning. The 21st century, with its changing also thriving.
international economic conditions, has not Proliferation of service providers formed
only revived this policy discussion but a diverse landscape in terms of management
also heightened the demand for continued training and education, with formal business
education, especially in the management field. schools offering short courses or executive



programmes at one end of the spectrum to Bjørnåvold, J. (2001) Cited in Fietz and Junge (2006)
private operators at the other end. In between, ‘The changing institutional and political role of
corporate universities occupy the space in non-formal learning: European trends’, in P. Descy,
providing their own brand of management M. Tessaring (eds), Training in Europe. Second
education and training. Proliferation caused Report on vocational training in Europe 2000.
Background report (CEDEFOP Reference series):
difficulty in consumer choice and recognition
Luxembourg: Office of Official Publications of
of qualification, certificates and diploma. As a European Communities.
result, both business schools and non-business Coombs, P.H. with Prosser, C. and Ahmed, M. (1973)
school-based management education and New Paths to Learning for Rural Children and Youth,
development programmes have been seeking West Haven, CT: International Council for Educational
accreditation in order to boost its credibility Development Publications.
and competitiveness in the marketplace. Colardyn, D. and Bjornavöld, J. (2004) ‘Validation of
Does accreditation post an entry bar- formal, non-formal and informal learning: Policy and
rier for the unqualified service providers? practices in EU member states’. European Journal of
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education and relevance of learning outcome?
Education_and_Continuing_Training.aspx
Does accreditation strengthen the quality
Department for Education, Lifelong Learning, and Skills
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Note: This publication has been made available by CSEND.org with the agrement of the author.

The Centre for Socio-Eco-Nomic Development (CSEND) aims at
promoting equitable, sustainable and integrated development through dialogue and
institutional learning.

Diplomacy Dialogue is a branch of the Centre for Socio-Eco-Nomic Development
(CSEND), a non-profit R&D organization based in Geneva, Switzerland since 1993.

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