Essentials of clinical periodontology and periodontics

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Essentials of
Clinical Periodontology
and Periodontics
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Essentials of
Clinical Periodontology
and Periodontics
Shantipriya Reddy
BDS MDS (Periodontia)
Professor and Head
Department of Periodontics
Dr Syamala Reddy Dental College and Hospital
Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
THIRD EDITION
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Essentials of Clinical Periodontology and Periodontics
© 2011, Shantipriya Reddy
All rights reserved. No part of this publication and Interactive DVD ROM should be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means: electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the author and the publisher.
This book has been published in good faith that the material provided by author is original. Every effort is made to
ensure accuracy of material, but the publisher, printer and author will not be held responsible for any inadvertent
error(s). In case of any dispute, all legal matters are to be settled under Delhi jurisdiction only.
First Edition: 2006
Second Edition: 2008
Third Edition: 2011
ISBN 978-93-5025-037-2
Typeset at JPBMP typesetting unit
Printed at

To
My late grandfather, who had believed in my abilities,
it is because of whom I chose this profession
My grandmother, for her constant support
My father and mother, for always being there
My uncle for his continuous encouragement
My husband for his unique mentorship
My daughter and son for being so understanding

PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION
I am extremely happy to present the third edition of Essentials of Clinical Periodontology and Periodontics. In planning
the third edition, a firm commitment has been made to provide a thorough and complete text. An attempt has been made
to revise and update all the chapters. The highlight of the edition is introduction of KNOW MORE section which contains
latest additional information pertaining to each chapter.
Conscious attempt has been made not to disturb the clarity and simplicity of the main text which had gained immense
popularity amongst the students. The edition also provides an add on, Manual of Clinical Periodontics which will guide
the students in recording case history and performing clinical examination so as to arrive at a proper diagnosis and
treatment planning. Also, special emphasis was given to instrumentation which will instruct the students in their clinical
work. While describing all these, we have not only mentioned what steps are to be followed but also how to carry out
these steps with the help of various illustrations and photographs.
I am grateful to all my colleagues and students who have helped me with their valuable suggestions, which in turn
enabled me to write the edition in a more understandable fashion. I hope this book will help the students and practitioners
in understanding periodontics in a simplified manner.
Shantipriya Reddy

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
The basic text when conceived in the year 2003 has been written in an attempt to make our understanding of periodontal
disease accessible to the undergraduate students, general practitioners and dental hygienists. The Essentials of Clinical
Periodontology and Periodontics is a learning textbook intended to serve the needs of several groups of dental care
professionals and is written with credibility and readability maintained at every level. Undergraduate students especially
will find it useful in integrating the concepts they have been taught in a more elaborate way. Clarity and simplicity in
language has been my objective while writing this book. The organization of the chapters and the key points with
review questions at the end of every chapter serve as a programmed-guide for the reader.
The text can be of help for the academicians to re-think the modes of presenting information and also as a model
to test whether the students have grasped the concepts they have been taught and are able to use them in a practical
manner.
All the efforts have been made to make the text as accurate as possible and the information provided in the text
was in accordance with the standards accepted at the time of publication. In order to attain these goals, suggestions as
well as critiques from many students and clinicians have been received and utilized.
Much of the style in the textbook is compact with adequate bibliographies. The reader is advised to use them to
gain greater depth of knowledge. The way of periodontist is hard and the book will reflect the difficulty of that path.
I hope that the textbook will fulfill all the requirements and expectations of the students and practitioners as this is a
special branch of our profession. The field of periodontics remains a work in progress.
Shantipriya Reddy

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Any book requires the help and assistance of others in order to be completed successfully. First and foremost, I would like
to thank Dr Deepti Sinha for drawing the excellent diagrams inserted in the book. Special thanks must go to all my
colleagues Dr Prasad MGS, Dr Amudha D and Dr Jaya for their contribution in writing Manual of Clinical Periodontics.
I owe a deep sense of gratitude to all my postgraduate students (Dr Ravi Kumar Jirali, Dr Chaitali Agrawal, Dr Soumya
Kambali, Dr Shweta Kumari, Dr Nirjhar Bhowmik, Dr Hrishikesh Asutkar) who have helped me relentlessly, while
writing the edition. I would like to extend my special thanks to Dr Jeeth Rai, Dr Satish, Dr Keshav, Dr Shabeer,
Dr Anilkumar for being so generous in helping me to collect the clinical photographs used in various editions.
My heartfelt thanks to Dr Srinivas K for writing the chapters Desquamative Gingivitis and Oral Malodor in the
edition. I am also very grateful to Dr Deepak Daryani for providing me with some of the excellent photographs published
in the edition. I would also like to thank Dr Ashwath (Smart design navigator) for helping me with animation photographs
of various suturing techniques. The excellent cooperation of the publisher is also greatly acknowledged.

PROLOG
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF PERIODONTOLOGY
Various forms of gingival and periodontal diseases have affected the human race since the dawn of history. In the earlier
historical records, almost all the writings have information regarding the diseases affecting oral cavity and majority of it
is about periodontal diseases.
Early Civilizations
Summerians of 3,000 BC first practiced oral hygiene. Babylonians andAssyrians, who also have suffered from periodontal
diseases, have treated themselves using gingival massage combined with various herbal medications. Research on embalmed
bodies of the ancient Egyptians pointed out that periodontal disease was the most common of all the diseases. Medical
writings of the time Ebers Papyrus had many references to gingival diseases and also contain various prescriptions for
strengthening the teeth and gums.
The medical works of ancient India, Susruta Samhita and Charaka Samhita describe severe periodontal disease with
loose teeth and purulent discharge from the gingiva and the treatment advised was to use a stick that is bitter for cleaning
teeth.
Periodontal disease was also discussed in Ancient Chinese books. The oldest book written in 2,500 BC describes
various conditions affecting oral cavity. Gingival inflammation, periodontal abscesses and gingival ulcerations are described
in detail. They were among the earliest people to use the toothbrush to clean the teeth.
Middle Ages
The systematic therapeutic approach was not developed until the middle ages. This was a period of golden age of Arabic
science and medicine. Avicenna and Albucasis made a refined, novel approach to surgical work. Albucasis had a clear
understanding of calculus as etiology of periodontal disease and described the technique of removing it. He had also
developed a set of scalers for removing calculus. He also wrote in detail on other treatment procedures like extraction of
teeth, splinting loose teeth with gold wire, etc.
18th Century
Modern dentistry was developed in 18th century. Pierre Fauchard in 1678 who is rightly considered as Father of Modern
Dentistry designed periodontal instruments and described the technique in detail. His book The Surgeon Dentist published
in 1728 presented all aspects of dental practice (i.e. restorative dentistry, prosthodontics, oral surgery, periodontics and
orthodontics). Fauchard wrote in that, confections and sweets destroy the teeth by sticking to the surfaces producing an
acid. John Hunter (1728-93) known as an anatomist, surgeon and pathologist of 18th century wrote a book entitled The
Natural History of the Human Teeth describing the anatomy of the teeth and their supporting structures with clear
illustrations.
Thomas Berdmore (1740-85) known as Dentist to His Majesty published the Treatise in the disorders and deformities
of the teeth and gums. He not only offered detailed descriptions of instrumentation but also stressed on prevention.

19th Century
A German born dentist, Leonard Korecker in his paper Philadelphia Journal of Medicine and Physical Sciences mentioned
the need for oral hygiene by the patient, to be performed in the morning and after every meal using an astringent powder
and a toothbrush.
Levi Spear Parmly was considered the Father of Oral Hygiene and the Inventor of Dental Floss. The name Pyorrhea
Alveolaris was used to describe periodontal disease. JohnWRiggs was the first individual to limit his practice to periodontics
and was considered the first specialist in this field. Periodontitis was known as Riggs disease. Several major developments
took place in the second half of the 19th century starting the era called modern medicine.
The first was the discovery of anesthesia and second scientific breakthrough was made by Louis Pasteur who established
the Germ Theory of Disease. The third scientific finding was the discovery of radiographs by Wilhelm Roentgen.
Also the late 19th century has witnessed a proper understanding of the pathogenesis of periodontal disease based on
histopathologic studies. GV Black in 1899 gave the term gelatinous microbic plaque and described its relationship to
caries. Xenophon recognized ANUG in 4th century BC Salomon Robicsek developed a surgical technique called
gingivectomy.
20th Century
Early 20th century witnessed major changes in the treatment of periodontal disease. Gottlieb published extensive
microscopic studies of periodontal diseases in humans. It was realized that, removal of calculus and other deposits was
not enough. In addition, removal of periodontal pockets was necessary to control the disease.
Leonard Widman and Newman described flap surgery for the removal of periodontal pockets. Removal of bone was
considered essential at that time.
After World War II, the focus was on periodontal research and this led to a better understanding of the pathological,
microbiological and immunological aspects of periodontal disease.
The first workshop in periodontology was conducted in 1951. It was realized at that time, scientific methods should
be introduced in the periodontal research. Subsequent workshops conducted in periodontics have witnessed significant
scientific contributions in the field of periodontics.
JOURNALS OF PERIODONTOLOGY
The various journals of periodontology available are:
• The Journal of Periodontology by Robert J Genco.
• Journal of Periodontal Research by Isao Ishikawa, Jorgen Slots, Maurizio Tonetti
• Journal of Clinical Periodontology by Jan Lindhe.
• Periodontology 2000 by Jorgen Slots.
• International Journal of Periodontics and Restorative Dentistry in India by Myron Nevins.
• Journal of Indian Society of Periodontology.
xii
EssentialsofClinicalPeriodontologyandPeriodonticsPROLOG

CONTENTS
PART I: THE NORMAL PERIODONTIUM
1. Anatomy and Development of the Structures
of Periodontium....................................................... 3
External Anatomic Features ...................................... 3
Development of Periodontium .................................. 4
Early Development of Cementum ...................... 4
Later Development of Cementum ...................... 5
Development of Junctional Epithelium.............. 6
2. Biology of Periodontal Tissues ............................... 8
The Gingiva .............................................................. 8
Macroscopic Features ........................................ 8
Microscopic Features ....................................... 10
TOOTH-SUPPORTING STRUCTURES
Periodontal ligament ............................................... 16
Definition ......................................................... 16
Structure ........................................................... 16
Development of Principal Fibers
of Periodontal Ligament ............................ 18
Structures Present in the Connective Tissue .... 19
Functions of Periodontal Ligament .................. 20
Clinical Considerations .................................... 20
Alveolar bone.......................................................... 21
Definition ......................................................... 21
Parts of Alveolar Bone ..................................... 21
Composition of Alveolar Bone......................... 22
Osseous Topography ........................................ 22
Fenestrations and Dehiscences......................... 22
Periosteum and Endosteum .............................. 23
Remodeling and Resorption ............................. 23
Blood Supply to the Bone ................................ 24
Clinical Considerations .................................... 24
Cementum ............................................................... 24
Definition ......................................................... 24
Classification.................................................... 24
Functions .......................................................... 25
Composition ..................................................... 25
Thickness of Cementum................................... 25
Cementoenamel Junction ................................. 25
Cemental Resorption and Repair ..................... 25
3. Periodontal Structures in Aging Humans ........... 29
General Effects of Aging ........................................ 29
Skin .................................................................. 29
Bone ................................................................. 29
Age Changes in the Periodontium .......................... 29
Gingiva and other Areas of the Oral Mucosa ... 29
Periodontal Ligament and Age Changes
in the Periodontium ................................... 30
Changes in the Alveolar Bone and Cementum. 30
Bacterial Plaque and Immune Response .......... 30
Effects of Aging on the Progression
of Periodontal Diseases........................................... 30
Effects of Treatment on the Aging Individuals ....... 30
PART II: CLASSIFICATION AND EPIDEMIOLOGY
OF PERIODONTAL DISEASES
4. Classification Systems of Periodontal Diseases .. 35
Need for Classification ........................................... 35
Current Classification Systems of
Periodontal Diseases ............................................... 35
World Workshop in Clinical
Periodontics (1988) .......................................... 35
Genco (1990) ................................................... 36
Ranney (1993) .................................................. 36
European Workshop in Periodontology (1993) 36
Classification of Periodontal Disease and
Condition.......................................................... 36
5. Epidemiology of Gingival and
Periodontal Diseases ............................................. 42
Epidemiology .......................................................... 42
Definition ......................................................... 42
Types of Epidemiologic Research .................... 42
Aims of Epidemiology ..................................... 43
Index ....................................................................... 43
Definition ......................................................... 43
Purposes and Uses of an Index ........................ 43
Characteristics of an Index............................... 44
Indices Used to Assess the
Periodontal Problems ....................................... 44

xiv
EssentialsofClinicalPeriodontologyandPeriodonticsCONTENTS
Indices Used to Assess Gingival Inflammation ...... 45
Papillary Marginal Attachment (PMA)
Index by Schour and Massler (1944) ............... 45
Gingivitis Component of the
Periodontal Disease .......................................... 45
Gingival Index by Loe H
and Sillness J (1963) ................................. 45
Indices of Gingival Bleeding ........................... 45
Indices used to Measure Periodontal Destruction... 46
Russell’s Periodontal Index by
Russell AL (1956) ............................................ 46
Periodontal Disease Index by
Sigurd P Ramfjord (1959) ................................ 47
Extent and Severity Index by Carlos
and Coworkers........................................... 48
Radiographic Approaches to
Measure Bone Loss .......................................... 48
Indices used to Measure Plaque Accumulation ...... 48
Plaque Component of Periodontal
Disease Index by Ramfjord .............................. 48
Simplified Oral Hygiene Index by
Greene and Vermillion (1964) .......................... 48
Turesky-Gilmore-Glickman Modification
of the Quigley Hein Plaque Index (1970) . 49
Plaque Index by Sillness and Loe (1964)......... 50
Modified Navy Plaque Index ........................... 50
Tooth Mobility Indices ..................................... 50
Patient Hygiene Performance Index (PHP)
by Podshadley and Hadley ........................ 50
Plaque Weight .................................................. 51
Plaque-free Score by Grant, Stern and Everett 51
Plaque Control Record by O’Leary.................. 51
Indices used to Measure Calculus ........................... 51
Calculus Component of the Simplified
Oral Hygiene Index by Greene and
Vermillion......................................................... 51
Calculus Component of the
Periodontal Disease Index by Ramfjord .... 51
Probe Method of Calculus Assessment
by Volpe and Associates ............................ 52
Calculus Surface Index by Ennever
and Coworkers........................................... 52
Marginal Line Calculus Index by
Mühlemann and Villa ................................ 52
Indices Used to Assess Treatment Needs ................ 52
Gingival Periodontal Index .............................. 52
Community Periodontal Index of Treatment
Needs by Ainamo and Associates.............. 53
Periodontal Treatment Need System
by Bellini HT ............................................. 53
PART III: ETIOPATHOGENESIS
6. Periodontal Microbiology (Dental Plaque) ......... 57
Definition ................................................................ 57
Dental Plaque ................................................... 57
Plaque............................................................... 57
Biofilms............................................................ 57
Dental Plaque as a Biofilm ..................................... 57
Types of Dental Plaque ........................................... 58
Supragingival Plaque ....................................... 58
Subgingival Plaque .......................................... 58
Composition of Dental Plaque ................................ 59
Formation/Development of Dental Plaque ............. 59
Bacterial Adherence ......................................... 60
Growth and Accumulation of Bacteria ............. 60
Structural and Microscopic Properties of Plaque.... 61
Supragingival Plaque ....................................... 61
Clinical Significance of Plaque............................... 61
Subgingival Plaque .......................................... 62
Microbial Specificity of Periodontal Diseases........ 62
Specific Plaque Hypothesis.............................. 62
What makes plaque pathogenic?............................. 62
Microorganisms Associated with
Periodontal Diseases ............................................... 63
Bacteria Associated with Periodontal
Health and Disease ........................................... 63
Health ............................................................... 63
Chronic Gingivitis ............................................ 63
7. Calculus and other Etiological Factors ............... 70
Calculus .................................................................. 70
Definition ......................................................... 70
Types ................................................................ 70
Structure ........................................................... 70
Composition ..................................................... 71
Differences between Supragingival and
Subgingival Calculus ....................................... 72

xv
CONTENTS
Attachment to the Tooth Surface...................... 72
Formation of Calculus...................................... 72
Pathogenic Potential of Calculus
in Periodontal Diseases ............................. 73
Other Contributing Etiological Factors
including Food Impaction ....................................... 73
Iatrogenic Factors............................................. 73
Food Impaction ................................................ 75
Calculus............................................................ 79
Other Contributing Etiological Factors ............ 79
Classification of Stains..................................... 79
Extrinsic Stains ................................................ 80
Intrinsic Stains.................................................. 80
8. Host Response: Basic Concepts ........................... 82
Role of Saliva in the Host Defence ......................... 82
Gingival Epithelium ................................................ 83
Gingival Crevicular Fluid ....................................... 83
Complement ............................................................ 83
Classical Pathway ............................................ 83
Alternative Pathway ......................................... 83
The Inflammatory Cell Response ........................... 84
Neutrophils....................................................... 84
Neutrophil Disorders Associated
with Periodontal Diseases ................................ 86
Periodontal Diseases Associated
with Neutrophil Disorders................................ 86
Functions of Macrophages in the Gingiva,
Crevice and Pocket........................................... 86
Immunological Mechanisms ................................... 88
Type I: Anaphylactic Reactions ....................... 89
Type II: Cytotoxic Reactions ........................... 89
Type III: Immune Complex or
Arthus Reactions .............................................. 89
Type IV: Cell-mediated or
Delayed Hypersensitivity ................................. 90
Immunology of Periodontal Disease ....................... 90
9. Trauma from Occlusion........................................ 94
Physiologic Adaptive Capacity of the
Periodontium to Occlusal Forces ............................ 94
Trauma From Occlusion (TFO) .............................. 94
Definition and Terminology ............................. 94
Types ................................................................ 95
Signs and Symptoms ........................................ 95
Histologic Changes .......................................... 95
Other Properties ............................................... 97
Role of the Trauma from Occlusion in the
Progression of Periodontal Disease.................. 97
Pathologic Tooth Migration .................................... 98
Pathogenesis..................................................... 99
Other Causes ........................................................... 99
10. Role of Systemic Diseases in the Etiology
of Periodontal Diseases ....................................... 101
Dietary and Nutritional Aspects of
Periodontal Disease............................................... 101
The Consistency of Diet................................. 101
Protein Deficiency and
Periodontal Disease ........................................ 102
Vitamins and Periodontal Disease.................. 102
Effects of Hematological Disorders
on Periodontium.................................................... 103
White Blood Cell Disorders ........................... 103
Neutropenias .................................................. 103
Leukemia........................................................ 104
Thrombocytopenic Purpura............................ 104
Disorders of WBC Function........................... 105
Red Blood Cell Disorders .............................. 105
Metabolic and Endocrine Disorders ..................... 106
Diabetes Mellitus and Periodontal Disease.... 106
Thyroid Gland ................................................ 107
Pituitary Gland ............................................... 107
Parathyroid Glands......................................... 107
Gonads ........................................................... 107
Cardiovascular Diseases ....................................... 109
Arteriosclerosis .............................................. 109
Congenital Heart Disease ............................... 109
Antibody Deficiency Disorders ............................ 109
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome ........ 109
Other Systemic Diseases ....................................... 109
Bismuth Intoxication ...................................... 109
Lead Intoxication ........................................... 110
Mercury Intoxication...................................... 110
Other Chemicals ............................................. 110
Psychosomatic Disorders ...................................... 110
11. Oral Malodor....................................................... 111
Classification of Halitosis ..................................... 111
Genuine Halitosis ........................................... 111

xvi
Pseudohalitosis ............................................... 112
Halitophobia ................................................... 112
Etiology................................................................. 112
Causes for Physiologic Halitosis.................... 112
Causes for Pathologic Halitosis ..................... 112
Diagnosis of Halitosis ........................................... 112
Treatment and Management of Oral Malodor ...... 113
Summary ............................................................... 114
12. Pathogenesis of Periodontal Diseases ................ 116
Role of Bacterial Invasion .................................... 116
Role of Exotoxins ................................................. 117
Role of Cell Constituents ...................................... 117
Role of Enzymes ................................................... 117
Evasion of Host Responses ................................... 117
The Host Derived Bone Resorbing Agents ........... 118
Cytokines ....................................................... 118
Other Inflammatory Mediators....................... 119
Role of Cytokines ................................................. 119
13. Periodontal Medicine .......................................... 121
Era of Focal Infection ........................................... 121
Periodontal Disease and Coronary
Heart Disease/Atherosclerosis .............................. 122
Effect of Periodontal Infection.............................. 123
Ischemic Heart Diseases ................................ 123
Periodontal Infection and Stroke.................... 124
Periodontal Disease and Diabetes Mellitus........... 124
Role of Periodontitis in Pregnancy Outcome........ 124
Periodontal Disease and Chronic
Obstructive Pulmonary Disease ............................ 125
Periodontal Disease and Acute
Respiratory Infection ............................................ 126
Periodontal Medicine in Clinical Practice ............ 126
14. Smoking and Periodontal Diseases .................... 128
Effect of Smoking on the Prevalence and
Severity of Periodontal Disease ............................ 128
Effect of Smoking on the Etiology and
Pathogenesis of Periodontal Disease .................... 128
Microbiology.................................................. 128
Immunology ................................................... 129
Physiology...................................................... 129
Effect of Smoking on the Response to
Periodontal Therapy .............................................. 129
Effect of Smoking Cessation................................. 129
15. Host Modulation in Periodontal Therapy ......... 131
Introduction........................................................... 131
Specific Aspects of Disease Pathogenesis
as Potential Targets for Host Modulation....... 131
Regulation of Immune and
Inflammatory Responses ....................................... 131
Excessive Production of Matrix
Metalloproteinases (MMPs).................................. 132
Role of MMPs in Human Periodontal
Diseases.......................................................... 132
Production of Arachidonic Acid Metabolites........ 132
Regulation of Bone Metabolism ........................... 133
PART IV: PERIODONTAL PATHOLOGY
Section 1: Gingival Diseases
16. Defence Mechanisms of the Gingiva.................. 137
Defence Mechanisms ............................................ 137
Nonspecific Protective Mechanisms .............. 137
Specific Protective Mechanism ...................... 138
Sulcular Fluid........................................................ 138
Anatomy of Gingival Crevice or Sulcus ........ 138
Significance of Gingival Sulcus and Fluid .... 139
Significance of Gingival Vasculature and
Crevicular Fluid ............................................. 139
Permeability of Sulcular and
Junctional Epithelium .................................... 139
Methods of Collection.................................... 140
Composition of Gingival Crevicular
Fluid (GCF) .................................................... 141
Clinical Significance ...................................... 144
17. Gingival Inflammation ....................................... 147
Stage I Gingivitis: The Initial Lesion.................... 147
Stage II Gingivitis: The Early Lesion ................... 148
Stage III Gingivitis: The Established Lesion ........ 148
Stage IV Gingivitis: The Advanced Lesion .......... 149
Progression from Health to Periodontitis ....... 149
18. Clinical Features of Gingivitis ........................... 151
Types of Gingivitis................................................ 151
Depending on the Course and Duration ......... 151
Depending on the Distribution ....................... 151
Clinical Findings................................................... 151
Gingival Bleeding on Probing........................ 152
Color Changes in the Gingiva ........................ 153

xvii
CONTENTS
Changes in the Consistency of Gingiva ......... 153
Changes in the Size of the Gingiva ................ 155
Surface Texture .............................................. 155
Changes in the Position of Gingiva................ 156
Changes in Gingival Contour......................... 158
19. Gingival Enlargement......................................... 159
Classification ........................................................ 159
Inflammatory Enlargement ................................... 160
Acute Inflammatory Enlargement .................. 160
Chronic Inflammatory Enlargement............... 161
Noninflammatory Gingival
Enlargement (Fibrotic Gingival Enlargement)...... 162
Phenytoin-induced Gingival Hyperplasia ...... 162
Treatment of Drug-associated
Gingival Enlargement .................................... 164
Idiopathic Gingival Fibromatosis................... 165
Combined Enlargement.................................. 165
Enlargement Associated with Systemic
Diseases or Conditions.......................................... 165
Conditioned Enlargement............................... 167
Enlargement in Pregnancy ............................. 167
Enlargement in Puberty .................................. 168
Vitamin C Deficiency..................................... 168
Plasma Cell Gingivitis ................................... 168
Nonspecific Conditioned Enlargement
(Granuloma Pyogenicum) ....................... 169
Systemic Disease Causing
Gingival Enlargement .................................... 169
Granulomatous Diseases ................................ 171
Neoplastic Enlargement (Gingival Tumor) ........... 171
Benign Tumors of the Gingiva ....................... 171
Malignant Tumors of the Gingiva .................. 171
False Enlargement................................................. 173
Underlying Osseous Lesions.......................... 173
Underlying Dental Tissues ............................. 173
20. Acute Gingival Infections ................................... 175
Classification of various Acute
Gingival Lesions ................................................... 175
According to Manson ..................................... 175
Necrotizing Ulcerative Gingivitis (NUG) ............. 176
Terminology ................................................... 176
Clinical Features ............................................ 176
Intraoral Signs and Symptoms ....................... 176
Oral Symptoms............................................... 176
Extraoral Signs and Symptoms ...................... 176
Clinical Course............................................... 177
Etiology .......................................................... 177
Histopathology ............................................... 178
Diagnosis........................................................ 178
Treatment ....................................................... 178
Acute Herpetic Gingivostomatitis (AHG) ............ 179
Etiology .......................................................... 180
Histopathology ............................................... 180
Diagnosis........................................................ 181
Differential Diagnosis .................................... 181
Treatment ....................................................... 181
Recurrent Aphthous Stomatitis (RAS) ........... 181
Pericoronitis .......................................................... 182
Definition ....................................................... 182
Types .............................................................. 182
Acute Pericoronitis......................................... 182
21. Periodontal Diseases in Children and
Young Adolescents ............................................... 185
Anatomic Considerations in Children................... 185
Changes in Gingiva ........................................ 185
Cementum ...................................................... 186
Periodontal Ligament ..................................... 186
Alveolar Bone ................................................ 186
Histopathology of Gingivitis in Children ............. 186
Microbiology of Periodontal
Diseases in Children ............................................. 186
Classification of Periodontal
Diseases in Children ............................................. 186
Gingival Lesions ............................................ 186
Periodontal Lesions ........................................ 186
Periodontitis Associated with Systemic Disease... 186
Gingival Lesions ............................................ 186
Types of Periodontitis .................................... 189
Periodontitis Associated with Syndromes ...... 191
22. Desquamative Gingivitis..................................... 194
Classification ........................................................ 194
Clinical Features ................................................... 195

xviii
Histopathology ...................................................... 195
Diagnosis .............................................................. 195
Therapy ................................................................. 196
Diseases Clinically Presenting
as Desquamative Gingivitis ........................... 196
Lichen Planus........................................................ 196
Histopathology ............................................... 196
Treatment and Prognosis ................................ 196
Cicatricial Pemphigoid ......................................... 197
Histopathology ............................................... 197
Treatment and Prognosis ................................ 197
Bullous Pemphigoid .............................................. 197
Histopathology ............................................... 197
Treatment ....................................................... 197
Linear IgA Disease................................................ 197
Oral Lesions ................................................... 198
Histopathology ............................................... 198
Treatment ....................................................... 198
Dermatitis Herpetiformis ...................................... 198
Histopathology ............................................... 198
Treatment ....................................................... 198
Pemphigus Vulgaris .............................................. 198
Histopathology ............................................... 198
Treatment ....................................................... 199
Drug Reaction or Eruptions .................................. 199
Diseases Clinically Presenting as
Desquamative Gingivitis....................................... 199
Section 2: Periodontal Diseases
23. The Periodontal Pocket ...................................... 203
Definition .............................................................. 203
Classification ........................................................ 203
Signs............................................................... 204
Symptoms....................................................... 204
Pathogenesis ......................................................... 204
Summary of Pathogenesis .............................. 207
Histopathology ...................................................... 207
Changes in the Soft Tissue Wall..................... 207
Microtopography of the
Gingival Wall of the Pocket ........................... 208
Periodontal Pocket as a Healing Lesion......... 208
Pocket Contents ............................................. 208
Changes in the Root Surface Wall.................. 208
Periodontal Disease Activity .......................... 209
Periodontal Cyst.................................................... 209
Determination of Pocket Depth...................... 209
Treatment of Periodontal Pocket........................... 210
24. Bone Loss and Patterns of Bone Destruction ... 213
Normal Anatomy of Alveolar Bone ...................... 213
Mechanism of Bone Formation and
Bone Destruction .................................................. 214
Local Factors .................................................. 214
Systemic Factors ............................................ 215
Factors Determining Bone
Morphology in Periodontal Disease...................... 216
Normal Variation in Alveolar Bone................ 216
Bone Destruction Patterns in Periodontal Disease 216
Horizontal Bone Loss..................................... 216
Vertical or Angular Defects ............................ 216
Osseous Craters .............................................. 217
Bulbous Bony Contours ................................. 217
Reversed Architecture .................................... 218
Ledges ............................................................ 218
Furcation Involvements.................................. 218
Prevalence and Distribution of Bone Defects
in Moderate Adult Periodontitis ..................... 218
25. Chronic Periodontitis.......................................... 220
Definition .............................................................. 220
Diagnostic Criteria for Chronic Periodontitis ....... 220
Microbiological Features ............................... 221
Radiographic Features.................................... 221
Types ..................................................................... 221
Disease Distribution ....................................... 221
Disease Severity ............................................. 221
Nature of Disease Progression .............................. 222
Risk factors for Disease ........................................ 222

xix
CONTENTS
General Concept for Etiology of
Chronic Periodontitis ............................................ 223
26. Aggressive Periodontitis ..................................... 225
Localized Aggressive Periodontitis/Localized
Juvenile Periodontitis............................................ 225
Historical Background ................................... 225
Radiographic Findings ................................... 227
Histopathology/Microscopic Features ........... 228
Bacteriology ................................................... 228
Immunology ................................................... 228
Treatment ....................................................... 228
Generalized Aggressive Periodontitis ................... 228
Clinical Characteristics .................................. 229
Radiographic Findings ................................... 229
Risk Factors for Aggressive Forms
of Periodontitis ........................................ 229
27. Necrotizing Ulcerative Periodontitis,
Refractory Periodontitis and Periodontitis
as a Manifestation of Systemic Disease ............. 231
Necrotizing Ulcerative Periodontitis (NUP) ......... 231
Non-AIDS Type Necrotizing
Ulcerative Periodontitis.................................. 231
AIDS-Associated Ulcerative Periodontitis..... 232
Refractory Periodontitis ........................................ 232
Etiology .......................................................... 232
Treatment ....................................................... 233
Periodontitis as a Manifestation of
Systemic Disease .................................................. 233
Papillon-Lefévre Syndrome ........................... 233
Chédiak-Higashi Syndrome (CH Syndrome) . 233
Down’s Syndrome (Mongolism, Trisomy 21) 234
Hypophosphatasia .......................................... 234
Neutropenia .................................................... 234
Leukocyte Adhesion Deficiency .................... 234
28. AIDS and the Periodontium ............................... 236
HIV Opportunistic Infections ............................... 236
Classification of Periodontal Diseases
Associated with HIV Infection ............................. 236
Linear Gingivitis ............................................ 237
Necrotizing Ulcerative Gingivitis (NUG) ...... 237
Necrotizing Ulcerative Periodontitis.............. 237
Necrotizing Stomatitis.................................... 238
CDC Surveillance Care Classification (1993) 238
Most Common Oral and Periodontal
Manifestations of HIV Infection ........................... 238
Management.......................................................... 238
Treatment of Linear Gingival Erythema and
Necrotizing Ulcerative Gingivitis ......................... 238
Treatment of Necrotizing Ulcerative
Periodontitis ................................................... 238
Treatment of Necrotizing Stomatitis .............. 239
29. Diagnosis of Periodontal Diseases...................... 240
Periodontal Diagnosis ........................................... 240
Principles of Diagnosis ......................................... 240
Clinical Diagnosis................................................. 240
Key Stages of Periodontal Diagnosis ............. 240
Clinical Diagnosis with Detailed
Case History Recording ................................. 241
Case History Proforma .......................................... 242
Chief Complaint ............................................. 242
Oral Hygiene Methods ................................... 242
Clinical Examination...................................... 243
Gingival Status ............................................... 243
Investigations ................................................. 244
Diagnosis........................................................ 244
Treatment Plan ............................................... 245
30. Determination of Prognosis ................................ 246
Definition of Prognosis ......................................... 246
Determination of Prognosis .................................. 246
Factors for Determination of Prognosis ......... 247
Overall Versus Individual Tooth Prognosis........... 250
Overall Prognosis ........................................... 250
Individual Tooth Prognosis ............................ 250
Relationship between Diagnosis and Prognosis ... 251
Prognosis for Patients with Gingival Disease 251
Prognosis for Patients with Periodontitis ....... 251
Re-evaluation of Prognosis after Phase I Therapy 252
31. Related Risk Factors Associated with
Periodontal Diseases ........................................... 254
Definition .............................................................. 254
Risk Factors for Periodontal Disease .................... 254

xx
Risk Determinants/Background Characteristics
for Periodontal Disease .................................. 255
Risk Indicators for Periodontal Disease................ 255
Risk Markers/Predictors ....................................... 255
Clinical Risk Assessment for Periodontal Disease 255
Demographic Data ......................................... 256
Medical History.............................................. 256
Dental History ................................................ 256
Clinical Examination...................................... 256
32. Various Aids including Advanced
Diagnostic Techniques ........................................ 257
Aids Used in Clinical Diagnosis ........................... 257
Periodontal Probes ......................................... 257
Aids Used in Radiographic Diagnosis .................. 259
Orthopantamograph (OPG) ............................ 259
Xeroradiography ............................................ 259
Advanced Radiographic Techniques .............. 259
Aids in Microbiological Diagnosis ....................... 260
Microbiology and Disease Progression.......... 260
Speciation Techniques.................................... 262
Methods/Aids in Immunological
Diagnosis .............................................................. 262
Immunofluorescence ...................................... 262
Latex Agglutination ....................................... 262
Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent
Assay (ELISA) ............................................... 262
Flow Cytometry ............................................. 263
Biochemical Diagnosis ......................................... 263
Prostaglandins ................................................ 263
Collagenase .................................................... 263
Other Diagnostic Aids........................................... 263
N-benzoyl-DL-arginine 2-naphthylamide
(BANA).......................................................... 263
Filter Separation Enzyme
Immunoassay (FSEIA) ................................... 263
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) ................ 264
33. Treatment Plan .................................................... 266
Sequence of Therapeutic Procedures .................... 266
Preliminary Phase or Emergency Phase ......... 266
Phase I Therapy (Etiotropic Phase) ................ 266
Phase II Therapy (Surgical Phase) ................. 266
Phase III Therapy (Restorative Phase) ........... 267
Phase IV Therapy (Maintenance Phase) ........ 267
Preferred Sequence of Periodontal Therapy ......... 267
34. Rationale for Periodontal Treatment ................ 268
Objectives of Periodontal Therapy ....................... 268
Factors which Affect Healing ............................... 269
Local Factors .................................................. 269
Systemic Factors ............................................ 269
Healing after Periodontal Therapy ........................ 269
35. Periodontal Instrumentarium ............................ 272
Periodontal Instruments ........................................ 272
Classification of Periodontal Instruments ...... 272
Section 2(A): Nonsurgical Therapy
36. Principles of Periodontal Instrumentation
including Scaling and Root Planing................... 280
Accessibility (Positioning of Patient
and Operator) ........................................................ 280
Neutral Seated Position for the Clinician....... 280
Patient’s Position ............................................ 280
Visibility, Illumination and Retraction .................. 281
Dental Mirror ................................................. 281
Condition of Instruments (Sharpness) .................. 282
Advantages of Sharpness ............................... 282
Maintaining a Clean Field..................................... 282
Instrument Stabilization ........................................ 282
Instrument Grasp ............................................ 282
Finger Rest ..................................................... 283
Instrument Activation ........................................... 284
Adaptation ...................................................... 284
Angulation...................................................... 285
Lateral Pressure .............................................. 285
Strokes............................................................ 285
Principles of Scaling and Root Planing ................ 286
Scaling............................................................ 286
Root Planing................................................... 286
Ultrasonic Instruments .......................................... 287
Equipment and Armamentarium for
Ultrasonic and Sonic Instrumentation ............ 288
Aerosol Production ............................................... 289
37. Plaque Control .................................................... 291
Definition of Plaque Control................................. 291
Goals of Plaque Control Measures ....................... 291
Rationale ............................................................... 291
Basic Approaches for Plaque Control ................... 291
Mechanical Plaque Control................................... 291

xxi
CONTENTS
According to Design of the Flap/
Management of the Papilla ...................... 327
Incisions ................................................................ 327
Horizontal Incisions ....................................... 327
Crevicular Incision ......................................... 328
Vertical Incision ............................................. 328
Flap Techniques for Pocket Therapy..................... 329
Modified Widman Flap .................................. 331
Undisplaced Flap............................................ 332
Palatal Flap..................................................... 334
Apically-displaced Flap ................................. 336
Distal Molar Surgery ...................................... 336
Healing after Flap Surgery .................................... 337
Healing after Full Thickness Flap ......................... 339
42. Osseous Surgery .................................................. 340
Definition .............................................................. 340
Rationale ............................................................... 340
Terminology .......................................................... 340
Types of Osseous Surgery ..................................... 341
Resective Osseous Surgery ................................... 341
Indications ...................................................... 341
Contraindications ........................................... 341
Examination Prior to Surgery......................... 341
Methods.......................................................... 342
Technique .............................................................. 342
Vertical Grooving ........................................... 342
Radicular Blending ........................................ 342
Flattening of the Interproximal Bone ............. 342
Gradualizing Marginal Bone .......................... 342
Healing after Surgery ..................................... 343
Reconstructive Osseous Surgery........................... 343
Evaluation of New Attachment
and Bone Regeneration ........................... 343
Nongraft-associated New Attachment............ 344
Graft-associated New Attachment.................. 346
43. Mucogingival Surgery ........................................ 351
Definition .............................................................. 351
Mucogingival Problems ........................................ 351
Objectives, Indications and Contraindications
of Mucogingival Surgery ...................................... 351
Objectives ...................................................... 351
Indications ...................................................... 352
Brushing Techniques............................................. 293
Chemical Plaque Control ...................................... 297
Section 2(B): Surgical Therapy
38. Principles of Periodontal Surgery ..................... 302
Indications of Periodontal Surgery ....................... 302
Contraindications of Periodontal Surgery............. 302
General Principles of Surgery ............................... 302
Preparation of the Patient...................................... 302
General Conditions that are Common
to all Procedures ...................................... 303
Suturing Techniques ....................................... 304
Complications during Surgery .............................. 311
Complications during the First
Postoperative Week ................................. 311
Hospital Periodontal Surgery ................................ 312
39. Gingival Curettage .............................................. 314
Definition .............................................................. 314
Types ................................................................. 314
Rationale ............................................................... 314
Indications............................................................. 315
Procedure .............................................................. 315
Basic Technique ............................................. 315
Other Techniques ........................................... 315
Healing after Scaling and Curettage ..................... 316
Clinical Appearance after Scaling and Curettage . 316
40. Gingivectomy....................................................... 318
Definitions ............................................................ 318
Prerequisites .......................................................... 318
Indications............................................................. 318
Contraindications .................................................. 319
Types of Gingivectomy ......................................... 319
Surgical Gingivectomy................................... 319
Gingivectomy by Electrosurgery ................... 323
Laser Gingivectomy ....................................... 323
Gingivectomy by Chemosurgery.................... 324
41. Periodontal Flap.................................................. 325
Indications/Objectives of Flap Surgery................. 325
Definition .............................................................. 326
Classification ........................................................ 326
According to the Placement of Flap
after Surgery ............................................ 326

xxii
Techniques to Increase the Width of
Attached Gingiva .................................................. 352
Gingival Extension Operation........................ 352
Free Soft Tissue Autograft ............................. 352
The Classic Technique ................................... 352
Apically-displaced Flap ................................. 356
Other Techniques for Widening the
Zone of Attached Gingiva .............................. 358
Free Gingival Autograft ................................. 367
Subepithelial Connective Tissue Graft ........... 368
Procuring the Graft from the Donor Site........ 368
Guided Tissue Regeneration Technique
for Root Coverage................................................. 372
Indications ...................................................... 372
Modifications ................................................. 372
Operations for Removal of Frena ......................... 372
Indications ...................................................... 373
Techniques for the Removal of the Frenum ... 373
PART V: TREATMENT
OF PERIODONTAL DISEASES
44. Furcation Involvement and its Management.... 381
Definition .............................................................. 381
Etiology................................................................. 381
Primary Etiologic Factor ................................ 381
Classification ........................................................ 383
Clinically ........................................................ 385
Microscopically.............................................. 385
Prognosis............................................................... 385
Treatment .............................................................. 385
Traditional Treatment Procedures .................. 386
Reconstructive and Regenerative
Treatment Procedures..................................... 386
Indications and Contraindications for
Root Resection and Separation ............................. 387
Indications ...................................................... 387
45. Pulpoperiodontal Problems ................................ 390
Pathways of Communication between
Pulp and Periodontium.......................................... 390
Effects of Pulpal Disease on the Periodontium..... 390
Effects of Periodontitis on the Dental Pulp........... 391
Endoperiolesions................................................... 391
Classification.................................................. 391
Microbiological Findings ............................... 392
Diagnosis and Treatment................................ 392
Treatment ....................................................... 394
46. Splints in Periodontal Therapy .......................... 395
Definition .............................................................. 395
Harmful Aspects ............................................. 395
Beneficial Aspects .......................................... 395
Objectives of Splinting ......................................... 395
Classification of Splints ........................................ 396
According to the Period of Stabilization ........ 396
According to the Type of Material ................. 396
According to the Location on the Tooth ........ 396
Various commonly used Splints ............................ 396
Principles of Splinting .......................................... 396
Indications and Contraindications of Splinting .... 396
Indications ...................................................... 396
Advantages ........................................................... 397
Disadvantages ....................................................... 397
47. Dental Implants: Periodontal Considerations .. 398
Terminology .......................................................... 398
Historical Background .......................................... 399
The Ancient Era (Before 1000 AD) ............... 399
The Medieval Era (1000 to 1799 AD)............ 399
The Foundation Era (1800 to 1910 AD) ........ 399
The Modern Era (1910 to 1978 AD) .............. 399
The Contemporary Era (1978 Till Date) ........ 399
Biological Considerations of Implants.................. 399
Soft Tissue Implant Interface ......................... 399
Bone Implant Interface................................... 400
Biomaterials used for Implants ............................. 400
Metals and Alloys........................................... 400
Inert Ceramics ................................................ 400
Calcium Phosphate Ceramics ......................... 400
Bioactive and Biodegradable Ceramics ......... 400
Polymers......................................................... 400
Classification of Implants ..................................... 401
Based on the Shape and Form ........................ 401
Based on Surface Characteristics ................... 401

xxiii
CONTENTS
Classification of Implant Systems......................... 401
Treatment Planning ............................................... 401
Clinical Assessment ....................................... 401
The Absolute Requirements for
Treating Implant Patients ............................... 401
Indications for Implant Therapy..................... 401
Absolute Contraindications for
Implant Treatment .......................................... 402
Surgical Procedures........................................ 402
Healing following Implant Surgery ...................... 404
Different Phases of Healing ........................... 404
Peri-implant Complications .................................. 404
Peri-implant Diseases............................................ 404
Types of Peri-implant Diseases ...................... 404
Diagnosis........................................................ 405
Probing ........................................................... 405
Radiographs ................................................... 405
Microbial Monitoring..................................... 405
Management and Maintenance ...................... 405
48. Maintenance Phase
(Supportive Periodontal Treatment) ................. 408
Importance of Maintenance Phase ........................ 408
Rationale for Supportive
Periodontal Therapy .............................................. 408
Causes for Recurrence of Periodontal Disease ..... 408
Goals of Supportive
Periodontal Treatment ........................................... 408
Objectives of Maintenance Phase ......................... 409
Parts of Maintenance Phase .................................. 409
Part–I: Examination
(Approximate Time –7 Min) ................... 409
Part–II: Treatment
(Approximate Time – 35 Min) ................ 410
Part–III: Schedule Next Procedure................. 410
Sequence of Maintenance Visits .................... 410
Determination of Maintenance
Recall Intervals ..................................................... 410
Procedures to be Performed at Recall ............ 410
Management of Particular Type of
Recall Patients ................................................ 410
49. Occlusal Evaluation and Therapy in the
Management of Periodontal Disease ................. 412
Terminology .......................................................... 412
Clinical Evaluation of Occlusion .......................... 412
Temporomandibular Disorders (TMDs)......... 412
Management of Trauma from Occlusion .............. 413
Possible Requirements for Occlusal Stability ....... 413
Occlusal Therapy ........................................... 413
50. The Role of Orthodontics as an Adjunct
to Periodontal Therapy....................................... 415
Rationale for Orthodontic Treatment
in Periodontal Therapy.......................................... 415
Reducing Plaque Retention ............................ 415
Improving Gingival and Osseous Form ......... 415
Facilitating Prosthetic Replacements ............. 416
Improving Esthetics ....................................... 416
Use of Orthodontics as an Adjunct
to Overall Treatment ...................................... 416
Indications and Contraindications
of Orthodontic Therapy .................................. 416
Indications ...................................................... 416
Timing of Orthodontic Procedures
in Periodontal Treatment....................................... 416
Iatrogenic Effects Associated
with Orthodontic Treatment .................................. 417
Root Resorption ............................................. 417
Effects of Orthodontic Bands on the
Periodontium .................................................. 417
Microbiology around Orthodontic Bands ............. 417
Effects of Orthodontics on Dentition with
Normal Height of Attachment Apparatus ....... 417
Dentition with Reduced Height of
Attachment Apparatus ............................. 417
Response of the Periodontal Ligament
to Orthodontic Forces .............................. 417
51. Periodontal-Restorative Inter-relationship....... 419
Margins of the Restorations .................................. 419
Rules for Margin Placement ................................. 419
Restorative Margins Encroaching on
the Biologic Width ......................................... 420

xxiv
Methods to Correct Biological
Width Violation .............................................. 420
Crown Contour ..................................................... 420
Hypersensitivity to Dental Materials .................... 420
Proximal Contact and Embrasure ......................... 420
Pontic Design ........................................................ 421
52. Drugs Used in Periodontal Therapy .................. 423
Classification of Various Drugs used
in Periodontal Therapy.......................................... 423
Depending on Antimicrobial Efficacy
and Substantivity ..................................... 423
Chemicals used for Supragingival
Plaque Control ............................................... 424
Phenols ........................................................... 424
Quaternary Ammonium Compound ............... 424
Antibiotics used in Periodontal Therapy............... 424
Systemic Administration of Antibiotics ......... 424
Local Administration of Antibiotics ............... 425
Tetracyclines .................................................. 425
Metronidazole ................................................ 426
Penicillins....................................................... 427
Dosage............................................................ 427
Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory
Drugs (NSAIDs) ................................................... 427
Actions of Flurbiprofen.................................. 427
Mechanism of Action of NSAID.................... 427
Local Drug Delivery Systems ............................... 427
Local Administration of Antibiotics and
Antimicrobial Agents ............................................ 428
Vehicles for Local Delivery ........................... 428
Methods of Delivery of
Chemotherapeutic Agents .............................. 429
Currently Available Local Drug Delivery
Systems in Periodontal Therapy ........................... 430
Frequently used Local Antimicrobials
with Dosage Specification....................... 430
Conclusion ............................................................ 430
53. Questionnaire for Clinical Case Discussion ...... 432
Questions .............................................................. 432
Questions Related to Periodontal
Instruments and Treatment.................................... 433
Questions and Answers ......................................... 433
Mouthbreathing .............................................. 434
Tonguethrusting ............................................. 434
Cigarette Smoking.......................................... 434
Bruxism .......................................................... 435
Mechanical Plaque Control ............................ 435
Chemical Plaque Control ............................... 435
Scrub Technique ............................................. 436
Roll Technique ............................................... 436
Bass Method................................................... 436
Modified Bass Method ................................... 436
Modified Stillman Method ............................. 436
Charter’s Technique ....................................... 436
Changes in Epithelium ................................... 444
Changes in Connective Tissue ....................... 444
Classification of Furcation Involvement ........ 448
Grading of Mobility ....................................... 449
Complete Blood Count................................... 451
Advantages of OPG ....................................... 453
Disadvantages of OPG ................................... 453
Advantages of IOPA....................................... 453
Disadvantages of IOPA .................................. 453
Nonsurgical Instruments ................................ 455
Surgical Instruments....................................... 455
Characteristics of a Scaler .............................. 455
Characteristics of Curette ............................... 456
Supragingival Scalers..................................... 456
Subgingival Scalers ........................................ 456
Finger rest ...................................................... 457
Advances in Diagnostic Instruments.............. 459
Advances in Root Planing Instruments ................. 459
Glossary ................................................................. 461
Index ................................................................. 481

ChapterChapter1
Anatomy and Development of
the Structures of Periodontium
 EXTERNAL ANATOMIC FEATURES
 DEVELOPMENT OF PERIODONTIUM
• Early Development of Cementum
• Later Development of Cementum
• Development of Junctional Epithelium
INTRODUCTION
The term periodontium arises from the Greek word peri
meaning around and odont meaning tooth, thus it can be
simply defined as the “tissues investing and supporting the
teeth”. The periodontium is composed of the following
tissues namely alveolar bone, root cementum, periodontal
ligament (supporting tissues) and gingiva (investing tissue).
The various diseases of the periodontium are collectively
termed as periodontal diseases. Their treatment is referred
to as periodontal therapy. The clinical science that deals
with the periodontium in health and disease is called
periodontology. The branch of dentistry concerned with
prevention and treatment of periodontal disease is termed
periodontics or periodontia.
EXTERNAL ANATOMIC FEATURES
The oral mucosa consists of three zones:
1. Masticatory mucosa: It includes the gingiva and the
covering of the hard palate.
2. Specialized mucosa: It covers the dorsum of the tongue.
3. Lining mucosa: It is the oral mucous membrane that
lines remainder of the oral cavity. Among all the
structures of the periodontium, only the gingiva is visible
clinically. The gingiva is divided anatomically into free
or marginal, attached and interdental gingiva. The border
or groove between marginal and attached gingiva is
called as a free gingival groove, a shallow depression
on the faciogingival surface that roughly corresponds
to the base of the gingival sulcus. The junction between
the attached gingiva and alveolar mucosa is called as
mucogingival line or junction (Fig. 1.1).
The normal gingiva is pink in color (salmon coral pink)
and accumulation of melanin pigmentation is normal. The
surface of the gingiva exhibits an orange peel-like
appearance referred to as stippling. In health, the gingiva
completely fills the embrasure spaces between the teeth and
is known as the interdental gingiva. In the posterior teeth,
where the contact areas between the teeth are usually broad,
the interdental gingiva consists of two papillae, facial and

4
PARTITheNormalPeriodontium
Fig. 1.1: Surface characteristics of the
clinically-normal gingiva
lingual which are connected by the col. The significance of
col is that, it is made up of nonkeratinized epithelium and
hence represents the most frequent site for initiation of
disease process.
DEVELOPMENT OF PERIODONTIUM
To understand the development of periodontal tissues one
has to have a clear understanding of the root formation.
Development of cementum and roots of the teeth starts once
the formation of enamel is completed. The outer and inner
epithelia together form the epithelial root sheath of Hertwig,
which is responsible for determining the shape of the root.
Early Development of Cementum
The outer and inner epithelial layers become continuous
(without stratum intermedium or stellate reticulum) in the
area of the future cementoenamel junction and form a two-
layered sheath, which grows into the underlying
mesenchyme. The apical portion of the root sheath remains
constant whereas the coronal portion, which is associated
with dentin and cementum formation moves in the direction
of the oral cavity. The root sheath bends horizontally at the
level of future cementoenamel junction forming the
epithelial diaphragm, following which the cervical opening
becomes smaller (Figs 1.2 and 1.3).
Once the crown formation is complete the cells of the
inner enamel epithelium loose their ability to form enamel
and is called reduced enamel epithelium. They retain the
ability to induce perimesenchymal cells to differentiate into
odontoblasts and to proceed with the formation of predentin
and dentin.
Fig. 1.2: Root sheath of Hertwig
Fig. 1.3: Proliferation of root sheath and further dentine
formation in an apical direction

5
CHAPTER1AnatomyandDevelopmentoftheStructuresofPeriodontium
After the dentin formation is completed, certain
changes occur in the root sheath. Recent studies have
shown that, the epithelial cells of the root sheath produce
a layer on the root dentin, which is 10 μm thick, has a
hyaline appearance and contains fine granules and fibrils.
This layer is called the hyaline layer of Hopewell Smith or
intermediate cementum. The epithelial cells of the root
sheath secrete enamel proteins such as amelogenin or
enameloids. The root sheath at this stage becomes
discontinuous and enables the surrounding follicular
mesenchyme to come in contact with the amelogenin.
These follicular cells then differentiate into cementoblasts
and deposit the organic matrix of cementum on the root
surface (Figs 1.4 and 1.5).
Later Development of Cementum
Cementoblasts are cuboidal cells that are arranged on the
outer surface of the hyaline layer. These cells are responsible
for the deposition of the organic matrix of cementum, which
consists of proteoglycan ground substance, intrinsic collagen
fibers and is followed by subsequent mineralization of the
organic matrix (Fig. 1.6).
Mineralization starts with the formation of a thin layer
called cementoid. Mineral salts are derived from the tissue
fluid containing calcium and phosphate ions and are
deposited as hydroxyapatite crystals.
The disintegrated Hertwig’s root sheath slowly moves
away from the root surface and remain in the periodontal
ligament as epithelial cell rests of Malassez.The periodontal
ligament forms from the dental follicle soon after root
formation begins. Before a tooth erupts, fibers from the
follicle are incorporated in the cementum and they lie
parallel to the root surface. Once the tooth erupts, the fibers
are arranged in an oblique manner and are regarded as the
precursor of the periodontal ligament fibers. As the
cementum continues to increase in thickness, more fibers
become incorporated into the cementum and eventually
called as Sharpey’s fibers, when periodontal ligament
becomes established.
Alveolar bone forms around the periodontal ligament.
With continuous bone deposition the periodontal ligament
space gradually becomes narrower. The alveolar process
Fig. 1.4: Fragmentation of root sheath
Fig. 1.6: Early deposition of matrix
Fig. 1.5: Follicular cells and fibers contact dentine surface

6
Fig. 1.7: Advanced formation of cementum
develops during the eruption of the teeth and cells
responsible for bone formation are osteoblasts (Fig. 1.7).
Development of Junctional
Epithelium (Fig. 1.8)
When the enamel formation is complete the ameloblasts
become shorter, and they leave a thin membrane on the
Fig. 1.8: Development of junctional epithelium
surface of the enamel called primary enamel cuticle. The
inner enamel epithelium after laying down enamel reduces
to a few layers of flat cuboidal cells, which is then called as
reduced enamel epithelium. It covers the entire enamel
surface extending till the cementoenamel junction. During
eruption, the tip of the tooth approaches the oral mucosa
leading to fusion of the reduced enamel epithelium with
the oral epithelium.As the crown emerges into the oral cavity
the former ameloblasts that are in contact with the enamel
get transformed into junctional epithelium. Coronally, the
junctional epithelium is continuous with the oral epithelium.
As the tooth erupts, the reduced enamel epithelium grows
shorter gradually.Ashallow groove, the gingival sulcus may
develop between the gingiva and the tooth surface.
Hence, the ameloblasts pass through two phases, in one
they form enamel and in the other phase they help in
formation of primary epithelial attachment or junctional
epithelium. When the junctional epithelium forms from the
ameloblasts it is called primary epithelial attachment.
Junctional epithelium that forms after surgical therapy takes
its origin from the basal cells of oral epithelium instead of
ameloblasts. This is called secondary epithelial attachment.

7
CHAPTER1AnatomyandDevelopmentoftheStructuresofPeriodontium
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Define periodontology and periodontics.
2. What are the parts of periodontium?
3. Describe the development of structures of periodontium.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Jansen BG,Van Rensburg. Oral Biology, Chapter 8. Quintessence
Publishing Co Ltd, 1995;301-7.
2. Varma BRR, Nayak RP. Current Concepts in Periodontics,
Chapter 2. Arya Publishing, 2002;4-8.
3. Bhasker SN. Orbans, Oral Histology and Embryology, 10th
edition. CBS Publishers and Distributers, New Delhi, 41-4.
4. Tencate. Oral Histology, Development, Structure and Function,
3rd edition. Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers, 228-43.
1. The periodontium is composed of alveolar bone, root
cementum, periodontal ligament (supporting tissue) and
gingiva (investing tissue).
2. The gingiva is the only structure of the periodontium that
is clinically visible and anatomically it can be divided into
marginal, attached and interdental gingiva.
3. The junction between the marginal and attached gingiva
is called free gingival groove, whereas the junction
between the attached gingiva and alveolar mucosa is
called as mucogingival junction.
4. Once the dentin formation is completed, the root sheath
becomes discontinuous and allows the surrounding
mesenchyme to come in contact with the products of the
epithelial cells of the root sheath, i.e. amelogenin. These
follicular cells then differentiate into cementoblasts,
fibroblasts and osteoblasts by which cementum,
periodontal ligament fibers and alveolar bone are
deposited.
5. Fusion of the oral epithelium along with the reduced
enamel epithelium gives rise to the junctional epithelium
or epithelial attachment.

ChapterChapter2
Biology of
Periodontal Tissues
 THE GINGIVA
• Macroscopic Features
• Microscopic Features
 TOOTH-SUPPORTING STRUCTURES
 PERIODONTAL LIGAMENT
• Definition
• Structure
Cellular Composition
Extracellular Components
• Development of Principal Fibers of
Periodontal Ligament
• Structures Present in the Connective Tissue
• Functions of Periodontal Ligament
• Clinical Considerations
 ALVEOLAR BONE
• Definition
• Parts of Alveolar Bone
• Composition of Alveolar Bone
• Osseous Topography
• Blood Supply to the Bone
• Clinical Considerations
 CEMENTUM
• Definition
• Classification
• Functions
• Composition
• Thickness of Cementum
• Cementoenamel Junction
• Cemental Resorption and Repair
INTRODUCTION
Periodontium is the functional unit of tissues supporting
the tooth including gingiva, the periodontal ligament, the
cementum and the alveolar process. The tooth and
periodontium are together called as the dentoperiodontal
unit. The main support of the tooth is provided by the
periodontal ligament, which connects the cementum of the
root to the alveolar bone or tooth socket, into which the
root fits. The main function of the gingiva is to protect the
surrounding tissues from the oral environment.
THE GINGIVA
Macroscopic Features
The gingiva is that part of the oral mucosa (masticatory
mucosa) that covers the alveolar process of the jaws and
surrounds the necks of the teeth. Anatomically, the gingiva

9
CHAPTER2BiologyofPeriodontalTissues
is divided into—marginal, attached and interdental gingiva
(Fig. 2.1).
Marginal Gingiva or Free Gingiva or
Unattached Gingiva
It is defined as the terminal edge or border of the gingiva
surrounding the teeth in a collar-like fashion. In some cases,
it is demarcated apically by a shallow linear depression
called the free gingival groove. Though the marginal gingiva
is well-adapted to the tooth surface, it is not attached to it
(Fig. 2.2).
Gingival Sulcus
It is defined as the space or shallow crevice between the
tooth and the free gingiva, which extends apical to the
junctional epithelium. It is V-shaped and barely permits the
entrance of a periodontal probe. Under normal or ideal
conditions it is about 0 mm (seen only in germ free animals).
The so-called probing depth of a clinically-normal gingival
sulcus in humans is 2 to 3 mm (Fig. 2.3).
Attached Gingiva
It is defined as that part of the gingiva that is firm, resilient
and tightly-bound to the underlying periosteum of the
alveolar bone. On the facial aspect it extends up to the loose
and movable alveolar mucosa, from which it is demarcated
by the mucogingival junction.The width of attached gingiva
is the distance between the mucogingival junction and the
projection on the external surface of the bottom of the
gingival sulcus or the periodontal pocket.
It varies in different areas of the mouth, greater in the
maxilla than mandible, least width in the mandibular first
premolar area, greatest width in the maxillary incisor region.
The width of attached gingiva increases with age and in
supraerupted teeth.
Interdental Gingiva
Usually, occupies the gingival embrasure. There are three
parts of interdental gingiva, facial papilla, lingual papilla
and col, which is a valley-like depression that connects the
Fig. 2.1: Normal gingiva in health
Fig. 2.3: Sulcus depth in healthy gingivaFig. 2.2: Anatomic land marks of gingiva

10
facial and lingual papilla. The lateral borders and tips of
the interdental papilla are formed by continuation of
marginal gingiva and the intervening portion by the attached
gingiva. In the presence of diastema the interdental papilla
will be absent (Figs 2.4 and 2.5).
Microscopic Features
The gingiva consists of a central core of connective tissue
covered by stratified squamous epithelium. Three types of
epithelium exists in the gingiva.
1. The oral or outer epithelium (keratinized epithelium)
(Fig. 2.6).
2. The sulcular epithelium
3. The junctional epithelium (nonkeratinized epithelium)
(Fig. 2.7).
In the keratinized epithelium, the principal cell type is
the keratinocyte, which can synthesize keratin. The process
of keratinization involves a sequence of biochemical and
morphological events that occur in a cell as it migrates from
the basal layer towards the cell surface.
The nonkeratinized epithelium contains clear cells,
which include melanocytes, Langerhans cells, Merkel cells
and lymphocytes.
The oral epithelium has the following cell layers:
1. Basal layer (Stratum basale or Stratum germinativum).
2. Spinous layer (Stratum spinosum).
3. Granular layer (Stratum granulosum).
4. Keratinized cell layer (Stratum corneum).
Fig. 2.5: ‘COL’ in various types of contacts
Fig. 2.6: Orthokeratinized epitheliumFig. 2.4: Absence of interdental papilla in diastema cases

11
There are three distinct differences between the oral
sulcular epithelium, oral epithelium and the junctional
epithelium:
a. The size of the cells in the junctional epithelium is,
relative to the tissue volume, larger than in the oral
sulcular epithelium.
b. The intercellular space in the junctional epithelium is,
comparatively wider than in the oral epithelium.
c. Granular layer, which is seen in the oral epithelium, is
absent in sulcular and junctional epithelium.
Morphologic Characteristics of the Different
Areas of Gingival Epithelium
Oral or outer epithelium: It covers the crest and outer surface
of the marginal gingiva and the surface of the attached
gingiva. It is keratinized or parakeratinized or combination
of both. Keratinization varies in different areas in the
following order: Palate (most keratinized), gingiva, ventral
aspect of the tongue and cheek (least keratinized). The
keratinized epithelium of the gingiva consists of four layers,
namely stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum
granulosum and stratum corneum.
The cells of the basal layer are either cylindrical or
cuboidal and are in contact with the basement membrane.
The basal cells possess the ability to divide, it is in the basal
layer that the epithelium is renewed and therefore this is
also called as stratum germinativum. When two daughter
cells have been formed by cell division an adjacent “older”
basal cell is pushed into the spinous cell layer and starts as
a keratinocyte, to traverse the epithelium. It takes approxi-
mately one month for a keratinocyte to reach the outer
epithelial surface where it becomes desquamated from the
stratum corneum.
The basal cells are separated from the connective tissue
by a basement membrane. In light microscopy this
membrane appears as a zone approximately 1 μm wide and
reacts positively to a PAS stain (periodic acid Schiff stain),
which indicates the presence of carbohydrates
(glycoproteins) in the basement membrane. In electron
micrograph, immediately beneath the basal cell, an
approximately 400 Å wide electrolucent zone can be seen
which is called lamina lucida. Beneath the lamina lucida an
electron dense zone – lamina densa is observed. From the
lamina densa so-called anchoring fibrils project in fan-
shaped fashion into the connective tissue. The epithelial
cells facing the lamina lucida contain a number of electron
dense, thicker zones called hemidesmosomes. The
hemidesmosomes are involved in the attachment of the
epithelium to the underlying basement membrane.
Stratum spinosum consists of large cells with short
cytoplasmic processes resembling spines. Since they are
arranged at regular intervals they give the cells a prickled
appearance. The cells are attached to one another by
numerous desmosomes (pairs of hemidesmosomes), which
are located between the cytoplasmic processes of adjacent
cells.
Composition of a desmosome: It consists of two adjoining
hemidesmosomes separated by a zone containing electron
dense granulated material (GM). In addition, outer and inner
leaflets of the cell (OL, IL) and the attachment plaque (AP),
represent granular and fibrillar material in the cytoplasm
(GM) (Fig. 2.8).
Stratum granulosum: Electron dense keratohyalin bodies
begin to occur, these granules are believed to be related to
the synthesis of keratin. Here, there is conversion of cells
Fig. 2.7: Nonkeratinized epithelium

12
to “acellular” structure bordered by a cell membrane
indicating keratinization of the cytoplasm of the
keratinocyte.
Stratum corneum: The cytoplasms of the cells in this layer
are filled with keratin and the entire nucleus is lost. But in
parakeratinized epithelia, the cells contain remnants of
nuclei.
Keratinization is considered as a process of diffe-
rentiation rather than degeneration. The keratinocytes while
traversing from the basal layer to the epithelial surface
undergoes certain changes.
a. From the basal layer to the granular layer both the
number of tonofilaments in the cytoplasm and the
number of desmosomes increase significantly.
b. In contrast, the number of organelles such as
mitochondria, lamellae of rough endoplasmic reticulum
and Golgi apparatus decrease.
Oral sulcular epithelium: The soft tissue wall of the
gingival sulcus is lined coronally with sulcular epithelium,
extending from the gingival margin to the junctional
epithelium. It is made up of basal and prickle cell layer.
The sulcular epithelium resembles the oral/gingival
epithelium in all respects with the exception that it does not
become fully keratinized.Although it contains keratinocytes
they do not undergo keratinization. However, the surface
cells are flattened and exhibit a tendency towards partial
keratinization in response to physical stimulation. Normally,
there are no regular rete pegs in sulcular epithelium but
they form during the inflammation of the lateral wall.
Junctional epithelium: Denotes the tissue that joins to the
tooth on one side and to the oral sulcular epithelium and
connective tissue on the other. It forms the base of the sulcus.
It has been examined in detail by several investigators, many
hypothesis have been put forward to explain the mode of
attachment of the epithelium to the tooth surface. Prior to
the Gottlieb concept, it was believed generally, that the
gingival soft tissues were closely opposed, but not
organically united to the surface of the enamel. This concept
was based on the clinical finding that the gingiva could be
easily deflected from the tooth surface during
instrumentation. However, experimental and clinical
observations have led Gottlieb to the concept that the soft
tissues of the gingiva are organically united to the enamel
surface. He termed it as “epithelial attachment”. Although
it was accepted generally, the concept did not explain how
exactly junctional epithelium attaches to the root surface
(Fig. 2.9).
Waerhaug in 1952, based on his observations presented
the concept of the “epithelial cuff, he concluded that the
gingival tissues are closely apposed, but not organically
united to the tooth surface. In 1962, Stern showed that the
attachment to the tooth surface is through hemidesmosomes.
This was supported by extensive studies conducted by
Schroeder and Listgarten, they revealed that there is a
structural continuity between the tooth surface and
epithelium. These studies by Schroeder and Listgarten states
that the epithelium-tooth interface was observed to be
similar to the epithelium-connective tissue interface and that
is by hemidesmosome and basal lamina. A basal lamina is
always interposed between epithelial cells and crown or root
surface, and the epithelial cells are united to the basal lamina
by hemidesmosomes.
The junctional epithelium is attached to the tooth surface
by internal basal lamina and to the gingival connective
tissue by an external basal lamina. The internal basal lamina
Fig. 2.8: Composition of a desmosome

13
consists of a lamina densa (adjacent to the enamel) and a
lamina lucida to which hemidesmosomes are attached.
Various studies have also shown that junctional epithelial
cells are involved in the production of laminin and play a
key role in the adhesion mechanism. The attachment of the
junctional epithelium to the tooth surface is reinforced by
the gingival fibers. Hence the junctional epithelium and
gingival fibers are considered as a functional unit, referred
to as the dentogingival unit.
General structural features of junctional epithelium:
It consists of a collar like band of stratified squamous non
keratinizing epithelium. Thickness varies from three or four
layers in early life and increases with age up to 15 to 20
layers at the base of the gingival sulcus, and only 1 or 2
cells at the most apical portion. The length of the junctional
epithelium ranges from 0.25 to 1.35 mm. The cells are
arranged into basal and suprabasal layers and they do not
have granular layer or cornified layers. They exhibit unusual
cytologic features and differ significantly from other oral
epithelia. Three zones in junctional epithelium have been
described, apical, coronal and middle. Apical is for
germination, middle is for adhesion and coronal is
permeable.
The basal cells are cuboidal or in some cases, flattened.
They contain slightly more rough endoplasmic reticulum
and lysosomal content. The content of mitochondria of the
cells as they migrate toward and along the tooth surface
decreases. Cells of the suprabasal layer especially those
adjacent to the tooth surface exhibit complex microvillus
formation and interdigitation. Junctional epithelial cells,
especially those near the base of the gingival sulcus, appear
to have phagocytic capacity.
The structural features of junctional epithelium indicate
that it is highly permeable. Leukocytes and lymphocytes
within junctional epithelium are seen even in clinically
healthy gingiva. The densities of desmosomes that
interconnect the cells are considerably less than that of oral
epithelia and represents wider intercellular junctions.
Epithelium-Connective Tissue Interface
Histological sections have demonstrated that, the rete pegs
of epithelial cells project deeply into the connective tissue
leading to the formation of a series of interconnecting
epithelial ridges. Basement membrane seems to form a
continuous sheet that connects the epithelium and
connective tissue. Electron microscope reveals a faintly
fibrillar structure, called as the basal lamina, which is a part
of the basement membrane. This structure has lamina lucida
adjacent to the basal epithelial cells and lamina densa
towards connective tissue. Basal lamina is produced by
adjacent epithelial cells and is made up of collagenous
proteins and proteoglycans binded together into a totally-
insoluble complex. It also contains laminin and fibronectin.
Fibrils measuring 20 to 40 nm in diameter seem to extend
from the basal cells through the basal lamina and into the
lamina propria of the connective tissue. These structures
called as anchoring fibrils are supposed to bind the basal
cells, basal lamina and connective tissue together (Fig. 2.10).
Fig. 2.9: Concepts of epithelial attachment

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