1. IntroductIon
What are Good Agricultural Practices?
A multiplicity of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) codes, standards and regulations
have been developed in recent years by the food industry and producers
organizations but also governments and NGOs, aiming to codify agricultural practices
at farm level for a range of commodities. Their purpose varies from fulfilment of trade
and government regulatory requirements (in particular with regard to food safety
and quality), to more specific requirements of specialty or niche markets. The
objective of these GAP codes, standards and regulations include, to a varying degree:
• ensuring safety and quality of produce in the food chain
• capturing new market advantages by modifying supply chain governance
• improving natural resources use, workers health and working conditions,
and/or
• creating new market opportunities for farmers and exporters in developing
countries.
Good Agricultural Practices are "practices that address environmental, economic and
social sustainability for on-farm processes, and result in safe and quality food and
non-food agricultural products" (FAO COAG 2003 GAP paper)
These four 'pillars' of GAP (economic viability, environmental sustainability, social
acceptability and food safety and quality) are included in most private and public
sector standards, but the scope which they actually cover varies widely.
The concept of Good Agricultural Practices may serve as a reference tool for deciding,
at each step in the production process, on practices and/or outcomes that are
environmentally sustainable and socially acceptable. The implementation of GAP
should therefore contribute to Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development
(SARD)
Potential benefits and challenges related to Good Agricultural
Practices
Potential benefits of GAP
• Appropriate adoption and monitoring of GAP helps improve the safety and
quality of food and other agricultural products.
• It may help reduce the risk of non-compliance with national and international
regulations, standards and guidelines (in particular of the Codex Alimentarius
Commission (html), World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) (html) and
the International Plant Protection Convention IPPC (html)) regarding
permitted pesticides, maximum levels of contaminants (including pesticides,
veterinary drugs, radionuclide and mycotoxins) in food and non-food
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2. agricultural products, as well as other chemical, microbiological and physical
contamination hazards.
• Adoption of GAP helps promotes sustainable agriculture and contributes to
meeting national and international environment and social development
objectives.
Challenges related to GAP
• In some cases GAP implementation and especially record keeping and
certification will increase production costs. In this respect, lack of
harmonization between existing GAP-related schemes and availability of
affordable certification systems has often led to increased confusion and
certification costs for farmers and exporters.
• Standards of GAP can be used to serve competing interests of specific
stakeholders in agri-food supply chains by modifying supplier-buyer relations.
• There is a high risk that small scale farmers will not be able to seize export
market opportunities unless they are adequately informed, technically
prepared and organised to meet this new challenge with governments and
public agencies playing a facilitating role.
• Compliance with GAP standards does not always foster all the environmental
and social benefits which are claimed.
• Awareness raising is needed of 'win-win' practices which lead to
improvements in terms of yield and production efficiencies as well as
environment and health and safety of workers. One such approach is
Integrated Production and Pest Management (IPPM).
Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) are specific methods which, when applied to
agriculture, produce results that are in harmony with the values of the proponents
of those practices. There are numerous competing definitions of what methods
constitute "Good Agricultural Practices".
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations GAP
The Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) uses Good
Agricultural Practices as a collection of principles to apply for on-farm production
and post-production processes, resulting in safe and healthy food and non-food
agricultural products, while taking into account economical, social and
environmental sustainability. GAPs may be applied to a wide range of farming
systems and at different scales. They are applied through sustainable agricultural
methods, such as integrated pest management, integrated fertilizer management
and conservation agriculture. They rely on four principles: Economically and
efficiently produce sufficient (food security), safe (food safety) and nutritious food
(food quality);Sustain and enhance natural resources; Maintain viable farming
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3. enterprises and contribute to sustainable livelihoods; Meet cultural and social
demands of society.
The concept of GAPs has changed in recent years because of a rapidly changing
agriculture, globalization of world trade, food crisis (mad cow disease), nitrate
pollution of water, appearance of pesticide resistance, soil erosion...
GAPs applications are being developed by governments, NGOs and private sector
to meet farmers and transformers needs and specific requirements. However,
many think these applications are only rarely made in a holistic or coordinated
way.
They provide the opportunity to assess and decide on which farming practices to
follow at each step in the production process. For each agricultural production
system, they aim at allowing a comprehensive management strategy, providing
for the capability for tactical adjustments in response to changes. The
implementation of such a management strategy requires knowing, understanding,
planning, measuring, monitoring, and record-keeping at each step of the
production process. Adoption of GAPs may result in higher production,
transformation and marketing costs, hence finally higher costs for the consumer.
To minimize production costs and maintain the quality of agri-food
GAPs require maintaining a common database on integrated production
techniques for each of the major agro-ecological area (see ecoregion), thus to
collect, analyze and disseminate information of good practices in relevant
geographical contexts.
Basics of Good Agricultural Practices
The specific GAPs steps are outlined in detail in the “Good Agricultural Practices
Self Audit Workbook” developed by Cornell University. GAPs principles can be
summarized as follows: clean soil, clean water, clean hands, and clean surfaces.
Examples of applicable procedures are listed below. These principles must be
applied to each phase of production (field selection, pre-plant field preparations,
production, harvest, and post-harvest) to be effective.
“Clean soil” involves taking steps to reduce the possibility of introducing
microbial contaminants into the soil, particularly via manure and other animal
excrements. GAPs address the need to properly compost, apply and store manure.
Additionally, the exclusion of domesticated animals from production fields is
essential in helping to reduce the possibility of faecal contamination. Taking steps
to minimize the presence of wild animals in fields is also important.
“Clean water” entails making sure all water used in washing, cooling and
processing is of drinkable quality. Packing ice should also be made from drinkable
water. Ground and surface water sources need to be protected from runoff and
animal contamination. Water used for irrigation and foliar applications also needs
to be free of human pathogens. Regular water quality testing may be necessary,
particularly for surface water sources.
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4. “Clean hands” applies to workers and the use of good personal hygiene in the
field and packing house. Providing washing facilities for customers at U-Pick
operations is also an important consideration.
“Clean surfaces” means ensuring that all packing bins, work surfaces, storage
areas, and transportation vehicles are properly washed and sanitized on a regular,
often daily, basis. Farm equipment should also be routinely cleaned and sanitized.
An essential aspect of GAPs procedures is accurate record keeping. While keeping
records is an important part of any farm operation, it can become critical in cases
of food safety issues. When food-borne illnesses do occur, attempts are made to
trace the contamination back to the point of original. Growers who document
their GAPs procedures will be able to provide evidence that their farm is an
unlikely source of the outbreak.
Good Agricultural Practices for Selected Agricultural Components
Soil
The physical and chemical properties and functions, organic matter and biological
activity of the soil are fundamental to sustaining agricultural production and
determine, in their complexity, soil fertility and productivity. Appropriate soil
management aims to maintain and improve soil productivity by improving the
availability and plant uptake of water and nutrients through enhancing soil
biological activity, replenishing soil organic matter and soil moisture, and
minimizing losses of soil, nutrients, and agrochemicals through erosion, runoff
and leaching into surface or ground water. Though soil management is generally
undertaken at field/farm level, it affects the surrounding area or catchment due to
off-site impacts on runoff, sediments, nutrients movement, and mobility of
livestock and associated species including predators, pests and biocontrol agents.
Good practices related to soil include maintaining or improving soil organic
matter through the use of soil carbon-build up by appropriate crop rotations,
manure application, pasture management and other land use practices, rational
mechanical and/or conservation tillage practices; maintaining soil cover to
provide a conducive habitat for soil biota, minimizing erosion losses by wind
and/or water; and application of organic and mineral fertilizers and other agro-
chemicals in amounts and timing and by methods appropriate to agronomic,
environmental and human health requirements.
Water
Agriculture carries a high responsibility for the management of water resources in
quantitative and qualitative terms. Careful management of water resources and
efficient use of water for rainfed crop and pasture production, for irrigation where
applicable, and for livestock, are criteria for GAP. Efficient irrigation technologies
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5. and management will minimize waste and will avoid excessive leaching and
salinization. Water tables should be managed to prevent excessive rise or fall.
Good practices related to water will include those that maximize water infiltration
and minimize unproductive efflux of surface waters from watersheds; manage
ground and soil water by proper use, or avoidance of drainage where required;
improve soil structure and increase soil organic matter content; apply production
inputs, including waste or recycled products of organic, inorganic and synthetic
nature by practices that avoid contamination of water resources; adopt
techniques to monitor crop and soil water status, accurately schedule irrigation,
and prevent soil salinization by adopting water-saving measures and re-cycling
where possible; enhance the functioning of the water cycle by establishing
permanent cover, or maintaining or restoring wetlands as needed; manage water
tables to prevent excessive extraction or accumulation; and provide adequate,
safe, clean watering points for livestock.
crop and Fodder productIon
Crop and fodder production involves the selection of annual and perennial crops,
their cultivars and varieties, to meet local consumer and market needs according
to their suitability to the site and their role within the crop rotation for the
management of soil fertility, pests and diseases, and their response to available
inputs. Perennial crops are used to provide long-term production options and
opportunities for intercropping. Annual crops are grown in sequences, including
those with pasture, to maximize the biological benefits of interactions between
species and to maintain productivity. Harvesting of all crop and animal products
removes their nutrient content from the site and must ultimately be replaced to
maintain long-term productivity.
Good practices related to crop and fodder production will include those that select
cultivars and varieties on an understanding of their characteristics, including
response to sowing or planting time, productivity, quality, market acceptability
and nutritional value, disease and stress resistance, edaphic and climatic
adaptability, and response to fertilizers and agrochemicals; devise crop sequences
to optimize use of labour and equipment and maximize the biological benefits of
weed control by competition, mechanical, biological and herbicide options,
provision of non-host crops to minimize disease and, where appropriate, inclusion
of legumes to provide a biological source of nitrogen; apply fertilizers, organic and
inorganic, in a balanced fashion, with appropriate methods and equipment and at
adequate intervals to replace nutrients extracted by harvest or lost during
production; maximize the benefits to soil and nutrient stability by re-cycling crop
and other organic residues; integrate livestock into crop rotations and utilize the
nutrient cycling provided by grazing or housed livestock to benefit the fertility of
the entire farm; rotate livestock on pastures to allow for healthy re-growth of
pasture; and adhere to safety regulations and observe established safety
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6. standards for the operation of equipment and machinery for crop and fodder
production.
crop protectIon
ii) Maintenance of crop health is essential for successful farming for both yield
and quality of produce. This requires long-term strategies to manage risks by the
use of disease- and pest-resistant crops, crop and pasture rotations, disease
breaks for susceptible crops, and the judicious use of agrochemicals to control
weeds, pests, and diseases following the principles of Integrated Pest
Management. Any measure for crop protection, but particularly those involving
substances that are harmful for humans or the environment, must only be carried
out with consideration for potential negative impacts and with full knowledge and
appropriate equipment.
Good practices related to crop protection will include those that use resistant
cultivars and varieties, crop sequences, associations, and cultural practices that
maximize biological prevention of pests and diseases; maintain regular and
quantitative assessment of the balance status between pests and diseases and
beneficial organisms of all crops; adopt organic control practices where and when
applicable; apply pest and disease forecasting techniques where available;
determine interventions following consideration of all possible methods and their
short- and long-term effects on farm productivity and environmental implications
in order to minimize the use of agrochemicals, in particular to promote integrated
pest management (IPM); store and use agrochemicals according to legal
requirements of registration for individual crops, rates, timings, and pre-harvest
intervals; ensure that agrochemicals are only applied by specially trained and
knowledgeable persons; ensure that equipment used for the handling and
application of agrochemicals complies with established safety and maintenance
standards; and maintain accurate records of agrochemical use.
Harvest and on-Farm processIng and storage
xiii) Product quality also depends upon implementation of acceptable protocols
for harvesting, storage, and where appropriate, processing of farm products.
Harvesting must conform to regulations relating to pre-harvest intervals for
agrochemicals and withholding periods for veterinary medicines. Food produce
should be stored under appropriate conditions of temperature and humidity in
space designed and reserved for that purpose. Operations involving animals, such
as shearing and slaughter, must adhere to animal health and welfare standards.
xiv) Good practices related to harvest and on-farm processing and storage will
include those that harvest food products following relevant pre-harvest intervals
and withholding periods; provide for clean and safe handling for on-farm
processing of products. For washing, use recommended detergents and clean
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7. water; store food products under hygienic and appropriate environmental
conditions; pack food produce for transport from the farm in clean and
appropriate containers; and use methods of pre-slaughter handling and slaughter
that are humane and appropriate for each species, with attention to supervision,
training of staff and proper maintenance of equipment.
energy and Waste management
xv) Energy and waste management are also components of sustainable
production systems. Farms require fuel to drive machinery for cultural
operations, for processing, and for transport. The objective is to perform
operations in a timely fashion, reduce the drudgery of human labour, improve
efficiency, diversify energy sources, and reduce energy use.
xvi) Good practices related to energy and waste management will include those
that establish input-output plans for farm energy, nutrients, and agrochemicals to
ensure efficient use and safe disposal; adopt energy saving practices in building
design, machinery size, maintenance, and use; investigate alternative energy
sources to fossil fuels (wind, solar, biofuels) and adopt them where feasible;
recycle organic wastes and inorganic materials, where possible; minimize non-
usable wastes and dispose of them responsibly; store fertilizers and
agrochemicals securely and in accordance with legislation; establish emergency
action procedures to minimize the risk of pollution from accidents; and maintain
accurate records of energy use, storage, and disposal.
gap For groWers
A farmer who practices Good Agricultural Practices implements proactive food
safety control measures to prevent crop contamination. GAP guidelines can be
grouped into four categories; health and hygiene, water quality, soil supplements,
and environmental hazards. A brief discussion of each is discussed.
Health and Hygiene – Growing fresh produce requires a significant amount of
hand contact during harvesting, sorting, and packing. A worker who shows signs
of diarrhea, vomiting, or sudden yellowing of the skin or eyes may have a disease
that can be transmitted through food and should not handle fresh produce. Every
food handler should wash his or her hands before starting work, after breaks, and
especially after using the restroom. It may be difficult to provide the necessary
sanitary facilities, but clean, accessible, and appropriately stocked restroom and
hand washing stations are essential for preventing product contamination.
Water quality—Water has a many pre- and post-harvest uses for irrigation,
pesticide application, washing harvested produce, cleaning harvest containers,
and for drinking and hand washing. Food safety risks are greatest when surface
water from ponds, streams, or rivers comes into contact with the edible parts of
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8. fruits and vegetables. Ground or well water is usually a safer choice, but it should
be tested regularly and wells should be inspected to make sure they are intact and
not located in areas that are subject to runoff during storms or floods. Municipal
water is the safest source because you can be sure it has met government safety
requirements. The choice of water to use and the level of risk is determined by the
timing and application method. For instance, a safer source of water should be
used as harvest time approaches or when overhead irrigation is used since the
edible portions of the plant is likely to come into contact with the water just
before harvest. Water used after harvesting should be free of human pathogens. If
the safety of the water is in doubt, a sanitizer should be added to the water.
Soil supplements—Healthy soils contain abundant populations of
microorganism and most are harmless to people. In fact, they are beneficial to
crops because they break down organic matter into more readily available plant
nutrients. However, when animal manure is used as a soil conditioner or a source
of nutrients, contamination risks increase. It should be assumed that all raw
manure contains microorganism that can make people sick. Therefore, proper
manure management and application techniques are essential. If raw manure is
applied to fields where fresh produce is grown, allow a minimum of 120 days
between manure application and harvest. Working it into the soil in the fall of the
previous year is even better since long term exposure to the elements greatly
reduces pathogen levels. A better choice when using animal manures is to follow
established aerobic composting techniques that will raise core temperatures to
above 130 oF for at least 5 days. Turn the pile several times to ensure even heat
exposure to all parts of the pile. It is also important to store raw and incompletely
composted manure as far away as possible from crop growing areas and to
prevent runoff after heavy rains or flooding.
Field and Packinghouse Hazards—Farms and packing houses are by no means
sterile environments and there are ample opportunities for contamination from
harvest equipment and containers, harvest implements, packing equipment,
storage facilities, and during transportation. Growers need to be aware of
potential contamination sources from adjacent properties such as junk yards,
toxic waste sites, and dairy or cattle operations and, to the extent possible, keep
wild animals away from the crop. Harvest containers and totes should be cleaned
before each use and stored so they are protected from sources of contamination.
The voluntary recommendations described above are applicable to all fresh
produce growers. But growers who supply fresh produce to grocery stores and
restaurants are increasingly being asked to supply documented evidence that GAP
standards are being followed. An inspection from an independent third party
auditor is typically required at some point during the harvest season.
There are resources available to those who have received certification notices
from their wholesale buyers. A new United States Department of Agriculture audit
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9. service is available that is supported by funds from the Pennsylvania Department
of Agriculture. Currently under development from Penn State Extension and the
Department of Food Science is a training program that will help growers
understand farm food safety risks and develop a food safety plan.
GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE (GAP)
The methods of land use which can best achieve the objectives of agronomic and
environmental sustainability are described in several different Codes of Practice
designed by producers organizations (eg COLEACP), importers and retailers
consortia (e.g. BRC, FPC, CIMO, EUREP) and Government bodies representing
consumers (e.g. UK Food Standards Agency). Many UK supermarkets have in
addition their own codes of practice which their suppliers must satisfy. American
retailers use a different standard called SQF 2000, which is based on HACCP. More
information can be found on the SGS website
The European Retailers Group (EUREP) is attempting to consolidate the
agronomic and environmental components of all these codes into one universal
set of rules or guidelines under the name EUREPGAP (= EUREP Good Agricultural
Practice). This is intended to present a clear message to suppliers and reduce the
confusion that flows from the current multiplicity of codes. The EUREP website
sets out the rules and procedures which growers or traders must comply with in
order to qualify for EUREPGAP certification. COLEACP is also trying to develop a
harmonised framework taking the important parts of each code of practice. It is
not clear how long this process of consolidation will take.
FERTILIZER USE
Application of fertilizers, whether organic or inorganic, is usually necessary for
achieving economically viable returns but it is important to determine application
rates on the basis of soil analysis, cropping history and actual requirements of the
crop at each stage in its development.For smallholders who also keep livestock,
use of organic manures - whether animal manure, green manure or mulch - is
often desirable as a way of saving costs, improving soil structure and enabling
farmers to access organic markets, but proper treatment of the manure is
necessary to ensure food safety and to avoid leaching of nutrients into streams or
groundwater.
Where chemical fertilizers are applied even greater care is needed to match the
amount and timing of applications to crop needs, food safety and environmental
protection.
INTEGRATED CROP MANAGEMENT (ICM)
ICM is a system of crop production which conserves and enhances natural
resources while producing food on an economically viable and sustainable
foundation. It is based on a good understanding of the interactions between
biology, environment and land management systems.
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10. ICM is particularly appropriate for small farmers because it aims to minimize
dependence on purchased inputs and to make the fullest possible use of
indigenous technical knowledge and land use practices.
KEY COMPONENTS AND OBJECTIVES OF INTEGRATED CROP MANAGEMENT
Component Aim
Minimum tillage and soil conservation Low-cost maintenance of soil structure
techniques and fertility
Use of nitrogen-fixing plants, green Improvement of soil fertility
manures and agro-forestry techniques
Biological methods of pest and disease Cheap and sustainable plant protection
control
Crop rotations Prevent build-up of pests, disease and
weeds
Productive use and disposal of plant Prevent damage to soil, water, human,
and animal residues plant and animal health
Maintenance and improvement of Avoid loss of biodiversity and damage to
ecological diversity habitat
Minimum use of purchased inputs and Reduce production costs and
non-renewable fuel resources environmental damage
8 Plantation crops in North Eastern India: Constraints and Strategies
Plantation crops are high-value crops of great economic importance and provide
huge employment opportunity, specially to the women throughout the year. The
sub-tropical climate of Northeastern India is extremely favourable to the
cultivation of many plantation crops. Among the three important crops viz, tea,
coffee and rubber, tea was introduced in Assam and Tripura as an industrial crop
during the middle of nineteenth century, which has spread to other non-
traditional states in the region in recent years. Suitable land and climatic
conditions provide favourable environment for tea, coffee and rubber plantation
in Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland, but it is not
fully exploited. At present 3.33 lakh ha area are under these crops in the region,
which is a major source of revenue to the economy of the states. The data reveal
that out of 14.6 per cent total geographical area under cultivation in the region,
the plantation crops cover only 8.97 per cent, of which tea alone covers 7.5 per
cent (2.79 lakh ha), rubber 1.20 per cent (4419 ha) and coffee only 0.27 per cent
(10.1 thousand ha). The share of tea is the largest, covering 85 per cent of area
under plantation crops. Historically, the cultivation of tea being a corporate
activity, the involvement of common farmers was totally absent in the past, but in
the changing environment, a marginal presence is seen with a total area of 40.0
thousand ha in the small-scale sector. The development of this emerging
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11. phenomenon of small-scale tea cultivation in Assam attracted the non-traditional
states to introduce it as cash crop among the small farmers.
Assam is the largest producer of tea in India (about 53 per cent of total
production). Its share in the region is about 96.8 per cent of area and 98 per cent
of production. The productivity of tea is about 1850 kilograms per ha.
Coffee was introduced in NE states during 1960s. The implementation of the
scheme of expansion of subsidy of Coffee Board Of India in 1979-80 has helped in
increasing its area. The Assam Plantation Crops Development Corporation took
initiatives to establish coffee and rubber plantation.
Rubber occupies 44.72 thousand ha in NE India, which is about 8 per cent of the
total area at the all India level and produces 2.28 per cent of total rubber
production in the country. Though the entry of this crop started on experimental
basis during 1950s, but gained momentum only after 1985 through the project
"Accelerated Development of Rubber Plantation". Presently Tripura alone grows
25.38 thousand ha of rubber, which is 56.7 per cent of the total rubber area in the
region.
Plantation Crop Based Farming System
The monoculture in small holdings is a nightmare during the year of slump and
epidemic of pest and diseases. Raising more than one crops alongwith a particular
plantation crop not only reduce the gestation period but also ensure steady and
higher farm income even in the period of slump. Seasonal crops like vegetables in
the formative years of the plantation crops and permanent crops like orange,
arecanut, agar, tree beans, black pepper, gooseberry etc. could be grown in the
matured plantation to augment productivity and profitability. Intercropping also
stands as insurance against crop failure and price slump.
premIum organIc FarmIng
The organically, grown products have been gaining popularity worldwide and
fetching premium price both at the domestic as well as international market. Since
the virgin soil in the hill areas is favourable for tea cultivation, the natural
production condition in the NE India could be highly gainful in the production of
user-friendly tea. On account of high amount of organic matter and other plant
nutrients in these soils, the plantation crops can be grown organically with
minimum of agro-chemicals. The strategy to produce organic tea and popularize
among the consumers would pay high dividend. Such innovation in value-addition
of tea is potentially economically remunerative and helps conserve the precious
soil and water resource.
.
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12. Research Needs
The identification of proper cropping system for plantation crops requires more
research initiatives. The companion crops along with plantation crops as base
crop, must have varying morphological frame and rooting habit for minimum
competition for space, light, moisture and nutrients. Further, the selection of host
crops is crucial or else it attracts pests and diseases. The promotional activity in
the sector should take cognizance of local needs, knowledge network, agroclimatic
condition and market facilities in a multi-pronged manner.
Conclusion
Plantation crops are highly income generating if managed properly. The
cultivation of these crops was traditionally limited to corporate sector. The
corporate revenue however, did not percolate down to the benefit of the society.
Although, the region occupies a strategic position as the highest producer of tea in
the country, the social gains due to the corporate agriculture is negligible. The
changes are taking place in the recent years, resulting in the emergence of small-
scale cultivation of tea. The implication of this development on the farm income
has been significant. There are, of course, several inherent problems of small-scale
cultivation of plantation crops like capital lock up due to long gestation period,
capital intensive nature of production system, processing and marketing
problems. The solution to these multi-dimensional problems requires effective
state intervention. The farmers also face the problems such as quality
deterioration of green leaves due to delay in processing and locational
disadvantage of tea processing units. The capital infrastructure facilities such as
processing units need to be located in the site around the cluster of smaller
plantations and the production management by the cooperatives of the user
groups. A cluster of village model may be encouraged to grow particular type of
plantation crops, viz, tea, coffee or rubber so that processing can be done in the
central processing units. The location of the central unit should accompanied by
the infrastructure facilities like electricity, water, road and marketing network.
The ancillary infrastructure such as regular supply of raw materials, inputs, agro-
chemicals and other requirements must be available. In view of existence of
customary laws and property ownership rights prevailing in the tribal societies,
such a socially acceptable arrangement could substantially benefit the hill states.
Tea(CamelliasinensisL.O.Kuntze.)
Camelliaceae
Varieties
Pandian, Sundaram, Golconda, Jayaram, Evergreen, Athrey, Brookeland, BSS 1,
BSS 2, BSS 3, BSS 4, BSS 5, Biclonal seed stocks and Grafts.
Soil and climate
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13. Tea requires well drained soil with high amount of organic matter and pH 4.5 to
5.5. The performance of tea is excellent at elevations ranging from 1000 - 2500 m.
Nursery
The nursery soil should be well drained and deep loam in nature with pH of 4.5 to
4.8. The soil and sand used in the preparation of rooting medium should be tested
for pH and nematode infestation.
Pre-treatment of rooting medium
Treating with Aluminium sulphate can reduce soil pH. For this purpose the
nursery soil is formed into beds of one metre width and about 8 cm height and of
a convenient length. Then the beds are drenched with 2% solution of Aluminium
sulphate applied at 10 litres/2.5 sq.m of area. Over this another layer of soil of 8
cm height is spread and again drenched with equal quantity of water twice. Then
the soil is allowed to dry and the pH is checked before use in the nursery.
Preparation of sleeves
Polythene sleeves of 150 or 200 gauge and 10 cm width and 30 - 45 cm length
may be used. Drainage holes may be provided at the bottom. The lower 3/4 of the
sleeves should be filled with 1:3 sand and soil mixture and the top 1/4 with 1:1
sand and soil mixture and staked in rows. Overhead shade is provided.
Selection of mother bush and its treatment
Healthy and vigorously growing high yielding bushes should be selected. Apply to
each selected bush with 40 g of young tea mixture + 60:90 NK mixture up to 5
years. The following mixture has to applied before taking the cuttings.
0.5 % AlSO4 + 1 % MgSO4 (before 3 weeks)
2 % Zn SO4 (before 2 weeks)
1 % Urea (before 1 week)
Preparation of cuttings Cuttings are taken on April - May and
August - September. Semi hard-wood cuttings are prepared with one leaf and an
internode with a slanting cut at the bottom.
Planting of cuttings
The sleeves are watered thoroughly and holes are made in the soil. The cuttings
are inserted in the hole and the soil around is pressed firmly to avoid airspace
followed by watering. Small polythene tents may be provided which maintain high
humidity and regulate the temperature inside. Cuttings may take 10 - 12 weeks
for rooting. After 90 days i.e. when all the cuttings have rooted, the polythene tent
may be removed gradually over a period of 10 - 15 days.
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14. Manuring of nursery
After the tent is removed the cuttings are sorted and staked. 30 g of Nursery
soluble mixture of the following composition dissolved in 10 litres of water may
be applied over an area of 4 sq.m. This should be done fortnightly.
Composition of the fertilizer
Ammonium phosphate (20:20) 35 parts by Wt
Potassium sulphate 15 parts by Wt
(or)
MOP 12 parts by Wt
Magnesium sulphate 15 parts by Wt
Zinc sulphate 3 parts by Wt
Total 80 parts by Wt
Hardening of the cuttings
Hardening of 4 - 6 months old young cuttings should be done by removing shade
gradually in stages over a period of 4 - 6 weeks starting from a few hours
exposure to sun every day initially and extending the time of exposure gradually.
metHodsoFplantIng
Single Hedge System
In this method, the spacing adopted is 1.20 x 0.75 m accommodating 10,800
plants/ha.
Double Hedge System
In this method, the spacing adopted is 1.35 x 0.75 x 0.75 m accommodating 13,200
plants/ha.
Season and planting
May - June or September - October
Sleeves should be opened lengthwise without injuring the roots and planted in the
pit and the soil is gently pressed.
Irrigation
Subsoil irrigation may be given for young tea seedlings during summer months.
Manuring
Manuring should be done 2 months after planting. Phosphorous should be applied
at 80 - 100 kg/ha as Rock phosphate once in a year by placement at 15 - 25 cm
depth up to the first pruning and thereafter once in two years. N : K ratio 2 : 3
should be adapted for the first 3 years and a ratio 1 : 1 thereafter.
14

15. Total weight
Qty/plant (g)
Year of kg/ha/annum No. of
application applications Ammonium
N K Urea
Sulphate
I year 180 270 5 13 27
II year 240 360 6 23 15
III year 300 450 6 29 18
IV year
300 300 6 33 19
onwards
Application of fertilizers should be done before the onset of monsoon. Fertilizers
should be broadcast around the drip circle avoiding contact with the collar.
Aftercultivation
Perennial grasses (Forbicot weeds) can be controlled by spraying Glyphosate 1.75
lit + Kaoline 2 lit + 2 kg of wetting agent in 450 lit. of water followed by
Gramoxone 500 ml in 200 lit of water to control dicot weeds.
traInIng young tea
Centering
To induce more laterals, centering should be done 3 - 5 months after planting.
The main leader stem should be cut, leaving 8 - 10 matured leaves.
Tipping
Tipping is done at a height of 35 cm from the second tipping at 60 cm from ground
level.
Pruning
Pruning is done to maintain convenient height of bush and to remove dead and
diseased branches.
Area to be pruned every year = Total extent of the garden
Pruning cycle
Pruning interval = (Elevation in feet / 1000) + 1
Pruning should be done in April - May or August - September.
types oF prunIng
15

16. Rejuvenation pruning
The whole bush should be cut near the ground level less than 30 cm with a view to
rejuvenate the bushes.
Hard pruning
Hard/ formation pruning of young tea is done at 30 to 45 cm (12" to 18") for
proper spread of bushes.
Medium pruning
To check the bush growing to an inconvenient height this type of pruning is done
in order to stimulate new wood and to maintain the foliage at lower levels less
than 60 cm.
Light pruning
Pruning depends on the previous history of the bush raising the height of medium
pruning by an inch or less to manageable heights for plucking (less than 65 cm).
Skiffing
This is the lightest of all pruning methods. A removal of only the top 5 - 8 cm new
growth is done so as to obtain a uniform level of pruning surface (more than 65
cm).
Shade regulation
Pollarding of shade trees should be done prior to heavy rains at a height of 8 - 10
m from the ground level. Annually cut the erect growing branches.
plant protectIon
Scales
Scales can be controlled by spraying Carbaryl 50 WP @ 2 g/lit. or Endosulfan 35 EC @
2 ml/lit or Quinalphos 25 EC @ 2 ml/lit or Chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 2 ml/lit.
Thrips and Aphids
Thrips and Aphids can be controlled by spraying Phosalone 35 EC or Endosulfan 35
EC @ 2 ml/lit.
Mites
Mites can be controlled by spraying Dicofol 18.5 EC @ 2 ml/lit or Sulphur 40 WP @ 2
g/l or Sulphur 80 WP @ 1 g/l.
dIseases
Blister blight
Blister blight can be controlled by adopting the following control measures.
• Spray 210 g Copper oxychloride and Nickel chloride per ha at 5 days interval
from June - September; 11 days intervals in October and November.
16

17. • Spray Hexagonazole 200 ml + Copper oxychloride 210 g 5 days interval/ha
(or)
• Spray Copper oxychloride 210 g + 200 ml Propiconazole/ha 10 days interval
(or)
• Spray Contaf 85 g / Tilt 80 g + 85 g Copper oxychloride at 7 days interval
starting from the onset of monsoon
Blister blight
Crop duration and harvest
Banji bud Harvesting in tea
Plucking commences when the tea bush is 3 years old. The plucking of extreme tip of
the growing branch consists of an unopened bud together with two leaves is
popularly known as "Two leaves and a bud", while fine plucking is anything less than
this. In South India plucking continues throughout the year at weekly intervals during
March - May and at intervals of 10 -14 days during the other months.
Rush period
During rush period harvesting is done at 7 to 10 days interval.
Lean period
During lean period harvesting is done at 10 – 15 days interval.
Yield
The yield of green leaves is 10 t/ha
Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis Muell-Arg.)
Euphorbiaceae
17

18. Varieties
Tjir 1, PB 86, BD 5, BD 10, PR 17, GT 1, RRII 105, RRIM 600, PB 28/59, PB 217, PB
235, RRIM 703, RRII 5, PCK-1, 2 and PB 260
Soil and climate
It requires deep and lateritic fertile soil with an acidic pH of 4.5 to 6.0 and highly
deficient in available phosphorous. Tropical climate with annual rainfall of 2000 –
4500 mm is suited for cultivation. Minimum and maximum temperature should be
ranged from 25 to 34°C with 80 % relative humidity is ideal for cultivation.
Regions prone to heavy winds should be avoided.
Season
June – July is optimum for cultivation
Method of propagation
Propagated by green budding, brown budding and crown budding.
Planting
In the cleared forest area, pits at 1 m x 1 m x 1 m are dug and filled up with soil
and compost. The spacing of 3 x 2 m or 5 x 5 m is adopted.
Seed at stake planting
Germinated seeds are sown in situ in the pits. Healthy ones are retained and the
others removed.
Manuring
For immature rubber trees at pre-tapping stage Apply 12 kg of compost or
FYM and 120 g of rock phosphate in each pit before planting. Apply 10:10:4:1.5
NPK and Mg as per schedule given below:
Quantity per plant
Period of application
10:10:4 12:12:6
Months after planting
3 September/October 225 g 190 kg
9 April/May 445 g 380 kg
15 September/October 450 g 380 kg
21 April/May 450 g 480 kg
27 September/October 550 g 480 kg
33 April/May 550 g 380 kg
39 September/October 450 g 380 kg
Apply 400 kg of mixture/ha in 2 doses, once in April/May and another in
September/October from the 5th year till the tree is ready for tapping.
18

19. Matured rubber trees under tapping
Apply NPK 12:6:6 mixture at the rate of 400 kg/ha every year in two split doses.
Add 10 kg commercial Magnesium sulphate for every 100 kg of the above mixture
if there is magnesium deficiency.
After cultivation
Growing of cover crops, incorporation of cover crops and weeding are important
operations. Pueraria phaseoloides, Calopagonium muconoides, Centrosema
pubescens and Desmodium evalifolium are common cover crops.
Tapping
Trees attain tappable stage in about 7 years. First tapping in seedling trees will
commence when the trunk attains a girth of 55 cm at 50 cm height from the
ground. In budded trees the girth should be 50 cm at 125 cm height from the bud
union.
Ethrel treatment
Ethrel is recommended to increase latex yield of trees. It is applied at 5% a.i.
concentration with a brush below the tapping cut to a width of 5 cm after light
scraping of the outer bark. The first application may be done after a drought
period preferably after a few pre-monsoon showers and subsequent applications
may be done in September and November. However, continuous application of
Ethrel is not recommended for periods of more than 3 years at a stretch.
plant protectIon
Pests
Scale insect
When severe infestation is noticed, spray Organophosphorus insecticides like
malathion 50 EC 2 ml/lit.
Mealy bug
Spray fish oil rosin-soap 25 g/lit. Release Austalian lady bird beetle, Cryptolaemus
montrouzieri @ 10/tree.
Termite (White ant)
Drench the soil at the base of affected plants with Chlorpyriphos 20 EC 2 ml/litre.
19

20. Cockchafer grub
Drench soil at the base of plants in the affected area with the solution of
Chlorpyriphos 20 EC 2 ml/litre.
Mites
Spray Sulphur 50 WP at 2 g/lit or spray Dicofol 18.5 EC 2.5 ml/lit.Diseases
Abnormal leaf fall
Prophylactic spraying on the foliage prior to the onset of South-West monsoon with,
Bordeaux mixture 1% at 4000 - 5000 lit/ha using high volume sprayers.Oil based
Copper oxychloride dispersed in diluent spray oil employing either low volume air
blast sprayers (Micron 420 or Minimicron 77 or Shaw Duster Sprayer) from the
ground or through aerial application.For micron spraying on the tree spread, foliage
intensity, planting material used and age of plants, two rounds of spray using about
17 to 22 lit of fungicide oil mixture per ha per round (1:6 proportion) with gap of 10
to 15 days or a single round of spray with about 30 - 37 lit of fungicide oil mixture per
ha (1:5 proportion) may be necessary.
Secondary leaf fall
The control measures suggested for abnormal leaf fall will check this disease also.
Powderymildew
Dusting during the defoliation period commencing from the bud break in about 10%
of the trees, giving 3 to 5 rounds at weekly to fortnightly intervals before 10.00 a.m.
using 11 to 14 kg 325 mesh fine Sulphur dust per round per ha. Sulphur dust can be
mixed with talc in the proportion of 7:3. Wettable sulphur (1 kg in 4000 lit of water)
is also effective in nurseries and for young plants as a spray.
Bird's eye spot
Repeated sprayings with Bordeaux mixture 1% or Mancozeb or Copper oxychloride
0.2%. Provide shade in nursery. Give balanced manuring to increase tree vigour.
Leaf spot
Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture or 0.2% Mancozeb, or 0.1% Carbendazim at fortnightly
intervals.
Pinkdisease
Frequent tree to tree inspection should be done during July – September period for
detecting the infected trees and application of Bordeaux paste in the early stages upto
30 cm above and below the affected region. In advanced cases apply Bordeaux paste
and when it dries up scrape off the superficial mycelium and damaged bark and apply
Bordeaux paste once again. Prune off and burn the dried up branches after
disinfecting by Bordeaux spraying.
20

21. Patch canker or Bark cankers
The affected region may be scraped to remove all the rooting bark and the coagulated
rubber and the wound washed well with Emisan solution. (Emisan 10 g in 2 lit).
When the fungicide dries up apply wound dressing compound.
Dry rot, Stump rot, Collar rot or Charcoal rot
Clean up affected areas, by washing with Emisan solution. Scrape out the
fructifications. Affected bark and wood show black lines. Wash the wound again with
fungicide solution. When it dries up apply a wound dressing compound. Avoid
accumulation of rubber at the base of the trees. For root infection see the treatment
for brown root disease.
Brown root disease
Open up the root system. Completely killed and dried roots may be traced and
pruned. Partially affected and healthy roots washed with Emisan solution. When the
fungicide dries up, a thin coating with a wound dressing compound may be given.
Refill the soil and drench the base with fungicide solution.
Yield
Rubber yield steeply increases year by year, reaching a peak after 14 years of
planting. In South India, the annual yield of rubber is 375 kg/ha from seedlings trees,
whereas budded plants yield 800 - 1000 kg/ha.
COCONUT(Cocosnucifera)
Palmae
Varieties
1. East Coast Tall
2. West Coast Tall
3. VPM-3 (Selection from Andaman Ordinary Tall)
4. ALR (CN -1) (Selection from Arasampatty Tall)
5. COD (Dwarf for tender coconut purpose only)
Hybrids
Tall x Dwarf
(To be grown under well managed conditions)
1. VHC 2 - ECT X MYD
2. VHC 3 - ECT X MOD
21

22. Soil
Red sandy loam, laterite and alluvial soils are suitable. Heavy, imperfectly drained
soil is unsuitable.
Planting seasons
June - July, December - January
The planting can also be taken up in other seasons wherever irrigation and
drainage facilities are available.
Spacing
Adopt a spacing of 25' x 25' (7.5 x 7.5 m) with 175 plants/ha. For planting in field
border as a single row, adopt 20' spacing between plants.
Planting
Dug pit size of 3’ x 3' x 3'. In the pits, sprinkle Lindane 1.3 % D to prevent white
ant damage. Fill the pit to a height of two feet (60 cm) with FYM, red earth and
sand mixed in equal proportions. At the center of the pit, remove the soil mixture
and plant the seedling after removing all the roots. Press the soil well around the
seedling and provide the seedling with shade by using plaited coconut leaves or
palmyrah leaves. Keep the pits free from weeds. Remove soil covering the collar
region. As the seedlings grow and form stem, fill up the pits gradually by cutting
the sides.
Water management
From 5th year onwards, adopt the following irrigation schedule based on pan
evaporation for drip irrigation and basin irrigation.
Western region of Tamil Nadu
Moderate
Severe water
Normal condition water
Months scarcity
(for best yield) scarcity
condition
condition
A. Drip irrigation
February to May 65 lit / day 45 lit/ day 22 lit / day
January, August and 55 lit / day 35 lit / day 18 lit/day
September
June and July, 45 lit / day 30 lit/ day 15 lit / day
October to
22

23. December
B. Basin irrigation
February to May 410 lit / 6 days *
January, August and 410 lit /7 days*
September
June and July, 410 lit /9 days*
October to
December
Months Normal Moderate water Severe water
condition scarcity scarcity
(for best yield) condition condition
A. Drip irrigation
March - September 80 lit / day 55 lit / day 27 lit/day
October – 50 lit / day 35 lit/ day 18 lit /day
February
B. Basin
irrigation
March – 410 lit / 5 days*
September
October – 410 lit /8 days*
February
Eastern region of Tamil Nadu
Quantity of water to be applied in the basin. Add 30 - 40 % of
the above quantity of water (135 -165 litres/palm) to meet the conveyance
loss.For drip irrigation, open four pits size of 30 x 30 x 30 cm opposite to each
other at one meter distance from the trunk. Place 40 cm long PVC pipe (16 mm) in
a slanting position in each pit and place the drippers inside the tube and allow the
water to drip 30 cm below the soil surface. Fill the pits with coir pith to prevent
evaporation. In the first year, irrigate on alternate days and from the second year
to the time of maturity irrigate twice in a week based on the water requirement.
Basin system
Drought management and soil moisture
conservation
23

24. Mulching with coconut husks/leaves/coir pith
Apply coconut husks with convex surface facing upwards (100
Nos.) or dried coconut leaves (15 Nos) or coir pith up to a height of 10 cm in the
basin of 1.8 m radius around the palms as mulch for soil moisture conservation
particularly during summer season.
Burial of coconut husk or coir pith
Husk burial can be done in coconut basins or in the
interspaces to overcome drought and button shedding. Bury husks @ 100 Nos.
with concave surface facing upwards or 25 kg of coir pith /palm in circular
trenches, dug 30 cm width and 60 cm depth at 1.5 metres radius. The husk can be
also buried in the trenches at a distance of 3 m from the palm with a size of 45 cm
deep and 150 cm width in between two rows of coconut. The soaking of the
coconut husk or coir pith as the case may be preserves the monsoon rains.
Manuring
From 5 th year onwards, apply 50 kg of FYM or compost or green manure.
1.3 kg urea (560 g N), 2.0 kg super phosphate (320 g P2O5) and 2.0 kg muriate of
potash (1200 g K2O) in two equal splits during June – July and December –
January. Apply manures and fertilizers in circular basins of 1.8 m from the base of
the palm, incorporate and irrigate. During 2nd, 3rd and 4th year ¼, ½ and ¾
doses of the above fertilizer schedule should be adopted respectively. Sufficient
moisture should be present at the time of manuring. Fertigation may be done at
monthly intervals with 75% of the recommended dose of the above fertilizers.
Phosphorous may be applied as super phosphate in the basins and incorporated
or as DAP through drip when good quality of water is available.
TNAU Coconut tonic
For nut bearing coconut, root feed TNAU coconut tonic @200ml/palm
once in six months.
Bio-fertilizer recommendation
Mix 50 g of Azospirillum, 50 g of Phosphobacteria ( or ) 100
g Azophos and 50 g of VAM in sufficient quantity of compost or FYM and apply
near feeding roots once in 6 months / palm starting from planting. Don’t mix with
chemical fertilizers and pesticides
Organic recycling
Any one of the green manure crops like sunnhemp,
Calapagonium or Daincha may be sown and ploughed in situ at the time of
flowering as a substitute of compost to be applied. Sow sunnhemp @ 50 g/palm
in the basin and incorporate before flowering. Coir pith compost/vermicompost
made from coir pith/ coconut leaves/ other wastes from coconut grove can be
applied.
24

25. Inter-cultural operation weed management
The inter-space in the coconut garden has to be ploughed
twice in a year in June - July and December - January. Intercultural operation is
essential to keep weed population under check, to enhance the utilisation of the
applied plant nutrients by the coconut trees, to facilitate proper aeration to the
roots of coconut, to induce fresh root growth.
Weed management
For the broad-leaved weeds, pre-emergence spraying of
atrazine @1.0 kg a.i./ ha for the control of grasses and sedges. Post emergence
spraying of glyphosate @ 10 ml and 20 g ammonium sulphate/litre of water.
Weed free coconut garden
Inter cropping
Inter/mixed crops may be selected based on the climatic
requirement of the inter/mixed crop, irrigation facilities and soil type. The canopy
size, age and spacing of the coconut are also to be considered. Market suitability
should be taken into consideration before selecting an intercrop.
Below 7 years of age: Any suitable annual crop for particular soil type and
climatic condition may be raised as intercrops upto 5 years after planting
depending upon the canopy coverage. Groundnut, sesamum, sunflower, tapioca,
turmeric and banana can be grown. Avoid crops like paddy and sugarcane etc.
7 – 20 years of age: Green manure crops and fodder crops (Napier grass and
guinea grass) alone can be grown.
Above 20 years of age (20 years of age has to be adjusted based on the sunlight
transmission of above 50% inside the canopy): The following crops can be grown
depending on the soil and climatic suitability.
Annuals: Groundnut, bhendi, turmeric, tapioca, sweet potato, sirukizhangu,
elephant foot yam, ginger, pineapple Biennials: Banana varieties Poovan and
Monthan are suitable.Perennials: Cocoa*, pepper*(Panniyur 1 or Panniyur 2 or
Panniyur 5 or Karimunda), nutmeg* and vanilla* *Suitable areas in Pollachi tract
of western region and Kanyakumari district. For vanilla, use disease free planting
material and maintain high vigilance to maintain a disease free crop.
Multiple cropping system
25

26. Coconut + banana + sirukizhangu + bhendi is suitable system for
the eastern region. Crops like banana, pepper, cocoa, nutmeg, vanilla can be tried
under multiple cropping system in suitable areas in the western region. In all the
systems, apply recommended quantity of water and manures and fertilizers to the
intercrops separately.
Coconut mother palm selection and nursery
management
The need for collecting seed materials from high yielding coconut palms is highly
essential in a perennial crop like coconut.
The following points may be remembered.
Mother palm selection
Select seed gardens, which contain large proportion of high yielding trees with
uniformity in yielding ability. Trees growing closer to households, cattle shed,
compost pits and other favorable conditions should be avoided.
High yielding mother palms giving not less than 100 nuts/palm/annum should be
chosen for collecting seednuts. Alternate bearers should be avoided. The age of
the palm chosen be middle age i.e., from 25 to 40 years. Even trees with 15 years
age can be selected, if it is high yielding and has stabilized yield.
The mother palm should have straight trunk, spherical or semi spherical crown,
high rate of leaf and spathe production, short and stout petiole, more number of
female flowers regular bearing habit, non – buckling bunches, high setting
parentage, medium in nut size, high copra outturn and free from pest and
diseases. A good regular bearing mother palm produces on an average one leaf
and an inflorescence in its axil every month. So, there will be twelve bunches of
varying stages of maturity at any one time. Avoid trees producing habitually
barren nuts.
Harvest seednuts during the months of February - August to get maximum
germination and good quality seedlings. Harvest the bunches intended for
seednut by lowering them to the ground using a rope to avoid injury to seednuts
The seednuts should be round in shape and when tapped by finger should
produce metallic sound. Fully ripe nuts develop twelve months after fertilization.
To get more quality seedlings, the seednuts of tall and hybrid are to be air cured
for one month followed by sand curing for two months. For dwarf varieties, the
air curing should be lesser than one month followed by sand curing for two
months.
26

27. Nursery management
Select nursery area in a well drained plot with coarse texture soil near water
source for irrigation. Nursery can be raised in the open space with artificial shade
or in the adult coconut garden.Plant seednuts in a long and narrow bed at a
spacing of 30 x 30 cm either horizontally or vertically in deep trenches with 20-25
cm depth. Five rows of nuts may be planted in each bed accommodating 50 nuts
per row.
Irrigate the nursery beds once in three days.Keep the nursery free of weeds. To
manage the weed problem in coconut nursery, growing sunnhemp 2 times (each
harvested at flowering stage) followed by one hand weeding at 6th month was
found to be very effective besides yielding green manure for manuring the adult
coconut palms.Provide shade to the nursery by raising Sesbania or Leucaena on
the sides of beds. The seednuts start germination 6 – 8 weeks after planting and
germination continues upto six months. Select seedlings that germinate before 5
months after planting. Remove those nuts which do not germinate 5 months after
sowing.
Regularly survey for pest and diseases.Select seedlings 9 to 12 months after
planting. Seedlings, which have germinated earlier, having good girth at collar and
early splitting of leaflets, should be selected for planting. Do not select the so
called Kakkamukku Pillai i.e., seednuts which have just germinated. Eliminate the
seedlings which are deformed or having stunted growth.Remove the seedlings
from the nursery by lifting with spade. Do not pull out the seedlings by pulling
leaves or stem.Select quality seedlings with a minimum of 6 leaves and girth of 10
cm at collar.
3. Pest and disease management
A. Pest management
Pests Management strategies
Rhinoceros beetle • Remove and burn all dead coconut trees in the
Oryctes rhinoceros garden (which are likely to serve as breeding
ground) to maintain good sanitation.
• Collect and destroy the various bio-stages of the
beetle from the manure pits (breeding ground of
27

28. the pest) whenever manure is lifted from the pits.
• Incorporate the entomopathogen i.e, fungus
(Metarrhizium anisopliae) in manure pits to check
the perpetuation of the pest.
• Soak castor cake at 1 kg in 5 l of water in small mud
pots and keep them in the coconut gardens to
attract and kill the adults.
• Treat the longitudinally split tender coconut stem
and green petiole of fronds with fresh toddy and
keep them in the garden to attract and trap the
beetles.
• Examine the crowns of tree at every harvest and
hook out and kill the adults.
• For seedlings, apply 3 naphthalene balls/palm
weighing 3.5 g each at the base of inter space in leaf
sheath in the 3 inner most leaves of the crown once
in 45 days.
• Set up light traps following the first rains in
summer and monsoon period to attract and kill the
adult beetles.
• Field release of Baculovirus inoculated adult
rhinoceros beetle @ 15/ha reduces the leaf and
crown damage caused by this beetle.
• Apply mixture of either neem seed powder + sand
(1:2) @150 g/palm or neem seed kernel powder +
sand (1:2) @150 g per palm in the base of the 3
inner most leaves in the crown
• Place Phorate 10 G 5 g in perforated sachets in two
inner most leaf axils for 2 times at 6 months
intervals.
• Set up Rhinolure pheromone trap @ 1/ 2 ha to trap
and kill the beetles.
Black headed caterpillar • The incidence of the pest is noticed from the month
Opisina arenosella of November to May and from August to November
after rainfall. The coconut trees of all ages are
attacked.
• Release the larval (Bethylid, Braconid and
28

29. Ichneumonid) and pupal (Eulophid) on (chalcid)
parasitoids and predators periodically from
January, to check the build up of the pest during
summer.
• Among the larval parasitoids, the bethylid Goniozus
nephantidis is the most effective in controlling the
pest. The optimum level of release is 1:8 of host-
parasitoid ratio. The parasitoid should be released
@3000/ha under the coconut trees when the pest is
in the 2nd or 3rd instar larval stage. Parasitoids
should not be released in the crown region since
they will be killed by predators like spiders and
reduviid bugs.
• Remove and burn all affected leaves/leaflets.
• Spray Malathion 50 EC 0.05% (1mi/lit) to cover the
undersurface of the leaves thoroughly in case of
severe epidemic outbreak of the pest in young
palms.
• Root feeding for the control of coconut Black
headed caterpillar: Select a fresh and live root, cut
sharply at an angle and insert the root in the
insecticidal solution containing Monocrotophos 36
WSC 10 ml + water 10 ml in a 7 x 10 cm polythene
bag. Secure the bag tightly to the root with a cotton
thread. Twenty four hours later, check whether
there is absorption. If there is no absorption select
another root. These methods should not be
resorted to as a routine practice and it is suggested
only for cases of severe epidemic outbreak of the
pest and when the survival of the tree is threatened.
Red palm weevil • Remove and burn all wilting or damaged palms in
Rhynchophorus ferrugineus coconut gardens to prevent further perpetuation of
the pest.
• Avoid injuries on stems of palms as the wounds
may serve as oviposition sites for the weevil. Fill all
holes in the stem with cement.
• Avoid the cutting of green leaves. If needed, they
should be cut about 120 cm away from the stem.
• Fill the crown and the axils of top most three leaves
29

30. with a mixture of fine sand and neem seed powder
or neem seed kernel powder (2:1) or Lindane 1.3 D
(1:1 by volume) once in three months to prevent
the attack of rhinoceros beetle damage in which the
red palm weevil lays eggs.
• Plug all holes and inject Pyrocone E or Carbaryl 1%
or 10 ml of Monocrotophos into the stem by drilling
a hole above the points of attack.
• Setting up of attractant traps (mud pots) containing
sugarcane molasses 2½ kg or toddy 2½ litres +
acetic acid 5 ml + yeast 5 g + longitudinally split
tender coconut stem/logs of green petiole of leaves
of 30 numbers in one acre to trap adult red palm
weevils in large numbers.
• Install pheromone trap @1/2 ha
• Root feeding: As under black headed caterpillar
Termites • Locate termite mounds in or near the coconut
Odontotermes obesus nursery or garden and destroy.
• Swabbing with neem oil 5% once on the base and
upto 2 m height of the trunk for effective control.
• Spray Copper sulphate 1% or cashew nut shell oil
80% or spray Chlorphyriphos @ 3ml/lit of water,
neem oil 5% or NSKE 20% to preserve plaited
coconut leaves from the termite attack.
Scale insect • Pluck mature nuts and spray Monocrotophos 36
Aspidiotus destructor WSC 1 ml/ha.
• Do not harvest nuts for 45 days after spraying.
Mealy bugs • Remove leaflets harbouring these insects and
Pseudococcus longispinus destroy them
• Spray any one of the following :
• Malathion 50 EC 2 ml/lit (or)
• Dimethoate 30 EC 1 ml/lit (or)
• Methyl demeton 25 EC 1 ml/lit (or)
• Phosphamidon 40 SL 1.25 ml/lit (or)
30

31. • Monocrotophos 36 WSC 1 ml/lit (or)
• Methomyl 25 EC 1 ml/lit (or)
• Neem oil 3% (or)
Leaf caterpillars • Collect and destroy the immature stages of the
Turnaca acuta insects by conducting study (or neem compaign)
Nut caterpillar wherever possible and spray carbary 50 WP 2
Nut coreid bug gm/lit
• Root feeding with monocrotophos 36 WSC @ 10 ml
+ 10 ml water at 45 days interval for 3 times for
control of leaf caterpillar.
• Set up light trape to trap and collect adult moths
• Spray Dichlorvas 76 WSC 2 ml / lit.
•
Slug caterpillar • Spray any one of the following:
Contheyla rotunda
• Dichorvos 76 WSC 2 ml/lit
• Bacillus thuringiensis 2 g/lit,
• Triazophos 40 EC 5 ml
• Methyl demeton 25 EC 4 ml/lit
• Root feeding with monocrotophos 15 ml + 15 ml of
water
Scolytid bark borer beetles • Stem injection through a stove wick soaked in 0.2%
Xyleborus parvulus fenthion or 0.2% dichlorvos and plugging the hole
and repeating the treatment using the same wick
and hole a month after.
Palm civet • Poison baiting with ripe banana fruit sandwiched
Vivera zibatha with 0.5 g carbofuran 3 G granules.
Rat • Tree banding with inverted iron cones or Prosophis
Rattus rattus wroughtoni thorns. Baiting with bromodialone 0.005% at 10
g/tree at crown region twice at an interval of 12
days.
31

32. Special problem: Coconut eriophyid mite (Aceria guerreronis)
Package of recommendations for the management of the coconut eriophyid mite
Coconut eriophyid mite
Manurial and fertilizer recommendation (Soil application/tree/year)
Urea 1.3 kg
Super phosphate 2.0 kg
Muriate of potash* 3.5 kg
* Increased quantity is recommended to increase the plant resistance to the mite.
Neem cake application @ 5 kg
Organic manure (well rotten FYM) @ 50 kg
Micronutrients (Soil application / tree / year)
Borax 50 g
Gypsum 1.0 kg
Magnesium sulphate 500g
Grow sunnhemp as intercrop twice a year (Seed rate 30 kg/ha)
Spot application of ecofriendly Botanicals
Round Eco-friendly Botanical Quantity / tree
1. Azadirachtin 1% 5 ml in one lit. of water
2. Neem oil + Teepol 30 ml in one lit. of water
3. Azadirachtin 1% 5 ml in one lit. of water
Method of application
• The botanicals should be applied in the sequence indicated above at 45 days
interval using a one litre hand sprayer. Rocker or Pedal sprayer can be used
for spraying small trees.
• The spray should be applied at the crown region by a climber covering only
the top six bunches during non rainy season.
• The bunches must be covered well by the spray fluid and approximately one
litre of spray fluid may be required per tree
Precautions and safety measures
32

33. • Spraying should be avoided during windy season to prevent contamination.
• At the time of spraying, protective mask and clothing should be used.
• Wash face and hands cleanly with soap after spraying.
• B. Disease management
Name of the Disease Management
Basal stem rot • Cultural Method
Ganoderma lucidum
• Apply Pseudomonas fluorescens (Pf1) @ 200 g/palm +
Trichoderma viride @ 200 g/palm/year
• Apply 200g phosphobacteria and 200 g Azotobactor mixed
with 50 Kg of FYM/palm
• Green manure crops must be raised and ploughed in situ
• Neem cake 5 kg/tree must be applied along with fertilizers
o Chemical
• Aureofungin-sol 2 g + 1 g Copper sulphate in 100 ml water
or 2 ml of Tridemorph in 100 ml water applied as root
feeding. (The active absorbing root of pencil thickness must
be selected and a slanting cut is made. The solution to be
taken in a polythene bag or bottle and the cut end of the
root should be dipped in the solution).
• Forty litres of 1% Bordeaux mixture should be applied as
soil drench around the trunk in a radius of 1.5 metre.
Bud rot The infected tissues from the crown region should be removed and
Phytophthora palmivora dressed with Bordeaux paste or 1% Bordeaux mixture to be
sprayed to reach the crown region as pre-monsoon spray.
Stem bleeding disease The bark of the trunk should be removed in the bleeding area and
Thielaviopsis paradoxa Bordeaux paste should be applied.
Lethal leaf blight (LLB) Spray 1.0 per cent Bordeaux mixture or 0.25 per cent Copper
Lasiodiplodia oxychloride or 0.2 per cent Indofil M 45 (4 times at monthly
theobromae interval during February, March, April and May).
a. Preparation of 1% Bordeaux mixture
A quantity of 400 g of copper sulphate should be dissolved in 20 litres of water and
400 g of lime in another 20 litres of water separately. The copper sulphate solution
should be added to the lime solution constantly stirring the mixture. Earthen or
wooden vessels alone should be used and metallic containers should not be used. To
find out whether the mixture is in correct proportion, a polished knife should be
dipped in the mixture for one minute and taken out. If there is reddish brown deposit
33

34. of copper, additional quantity of lime should be added till there is no deposit in the
knife.
b. Preparation of Bordeaux paste
Take 200 g of Copper sulphate and dissolve it in one litre of water and 200 g of lime in
one litre of water separately. Both are mixed simultaneously in a third vessel and the
resultant mixture can be used as a paste.
4. Harvest and post harvest technology
Harvest 11-12 months old fully matured nuts at an interval of 30-45 days depending
on the yield level of the garden. For household use keep the nuts in vertical direction.
Dry copra either by sun drying or by using copra dryers. Store the copra at 5-6 %
moisture content. Store the copra in polythene tar coated gunny bags.
SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN COCONUT
1. Rejuvenation of existing garden
The low yield in vast majority of gardens is due to thick population, lack of manuring
and irrigation. These gardens could be improved if the following measures are taken.
• Thinning of thickly populated gardens: In the farmer’s holdings where thick
planting is adopted, many trees give an yield of less than 20 nuts/palm/year.
By cutting and removal of these trees, the yield could be increased. Besides,
there is saving in the cost of cultivation and increase in net profit. After
removal of low yielding trees, the populations should be maintained at 175
palms/ha.
• Ensuring adequate manuring and irrigation: The yield can be increased in
the existing gardens when manuring + irrigation + cultural practice is adopted
as per recommendation.
2. Pencil point disorder (Micronutrient deficiency)
Because of micronutrient deficiency, the stem will taper towards its tip with lesser
number of leaves. The leaf size will be greatly reduced and the leaves will be pale and
yellow in colour. Along with the recommended fertilizer dose, 225 g each of Borax,
Zinc sulphate, Manganese sulphate, Ferrous sulphate, Copper sulphate and 10 g of
Ammonium molybdate may be dissolved in 10 litres of water and poured in the basin
of 1.8 m radius. This disorder can be corrected if noticed early. Severely affected
palms may be removed and replanted with new seedlings.
34

35. 3. Button shedding
Button shedding
Shedding of buttons and premature nuts may be due to any one of the following
reasons:
i. Excess acidity or alkalinity
ii. Lack of drainage
iii. Severe drought
iv. Genetic causes
v. Lack of nutrients
vi. Lack of pollination
vii. Hormone deficiency
viii. Pests
ix. Diseases
The following remedial measures are suggested.
a. Rectification of soil pH
Excess acidity or alkalinity of soil may cause button shedding. If the soil pH is less
than 5.5, it is an indication of excess acidity. This could be rectified by adding lime.
Increase in alkalinity is indicated by soil pH higher than 8.0. This situation could be
rectified by adding gypsum.
b. Providing adequate drainage facilities
Lack of drainage lead to suffocation of roots of coconut trees for want of aeration.
Shedding of buttons is noticed under such condition. Drainage channels have to be
dug along the contours to drain the excess water during rainy season.
c. Management of young coconut gardens under waterlogged conditions
• A trench between two rows of young coconut palms should be dug during
onset of the monsoon rains. The size of the trench is 3 m width, 30 – 45 cm
35

36. depth to entire length of field. The soil excavated from the trench should be
placed along the rows of palms to make a raised bed.
• Form mound around the young palms to a radius of 1.2 m width with height of
30 –45 cm.
d. Genetic causes
In some trees button shedding may persist even after ensuring adequate manuring,
irrigation and crop pest and disease management. This is an indication of inherent
defect of the mother palm from which the seed material was obtained. This
underlines the need for proper choice of superior mother palm for harvesting seed
coconut to ensure uniformly good yielding trees.
e. Lack of nutrition
Button shedding occurs due to inadequate or lack of manuring. The recommended
dose of manurial schedules and proper time of application are important to minimise
the button shedding. Apply extra 2 kg of muriate of potash with 200 g of Borax/palm
over and above the usual dosage of fertilizer to correct the barren nuts in coconut for
period of 3 years.
f. Lack of pollination
Button shedding also occurs due to lack of pollination. Setting up of beehives @ 15
units/ha may increase the cross pollination in the garden. Further the additional
income obtained through honey, increases the net profit per unit area.
g. Hormone deficiency
The fertilised female flowers i.e., buttons shed in some cases. By spraying 2, 4- D at 30
ppm or NAA 20 ppm (2,4-D 30 mg or NAA 20 mg per litre of water) on the
inflorescence one month after opening of the spathe, the setting percentage could be
increased.
h. Pests
Button shedding may happen due to the attack of bug. Spraying of systemic
insecticides like Methyldematon 0.025% (1ml/lit) or Dimethoate 0.03% (1ml/lit)
may reduce the occurrence.
i. Diseases
Button shedding also occurs due to disease incidence such as basal stem rot. Adoption
of control measures suggested for the disease reduces not only spread of the disease
but also prevents shedding of buttons.
Coconut mother palm selection and nursery management
The need for collecting seed materials from high yielding coconut palms is highly
essential in a perennial crop like coconut.
The following points may be remembered.
36

37. Arecanut(ArecacatechuL.)
Palmae
Varieties
Mangala, Sumangala, Subamangala, Mohitnagar, Srimangala and Samruthi
(Andaman) are mainly cultivated.
Soil and climate
Arecanut is capable of growing in a variety of soils. It thrives best in well drained
soils. Adequate protection from exposure to South-Western sun is essential to
avoid sun-scorch. Quick growing shade trees have to be planted on the southern
and western sides well in advance of planting seedlings. It is sensitive to moisture
deficit and should be grown where adequate water facilities are available.
Season
June – December is found to be the optimum.
Seeds and sowing
For raising seedlings seed nuts from pre-marked and pre-potent mother palms of
outstanding performance are selected and sown at a spacing of 5 - 6 cm apart in
sand beds under partial shade with their stalk end pointing upwards. After the
sprouts have produced two to three leaves, they are transplanted to a polythene
bag 30 x 10 cm filled with forest soil and are allowed to grow for 12 to 18 months
under partial shade. The seedlings can also be transplanted in secondary nursery
beds with a spacing of 30 cm on either side. Periodical watering should be given.
Planting
Dwarf and compact seedlings with more number of leaves should be selected.
Seedlings of 1 - 2 years age are planted in pits of about 90 cm x 90 cm x 90 cm at a
spacing of 2.75 m either way and covered with soil to the collar level and pressed
around. Provide shade during summer months. Growing Banana or other crops in
advance may also provide shade.
Irrigation
Irrigation should be given as and when necessary.
Manuring
Apply to each bearing palm (5 years and above) 10 - 15 kg of FYM or green leaf.
100 g N, 40 g P and 150 g K. To palms less than five years old, half of the above
dose is recommended. Manures are applied during January - February after the
North - East monsoon in a basin of 0.75-1.00 m radius around the tree to a depth
of 20 - 30 cm.
Time of application N P K
37

38. (kg/ha)
Trees less than 5 years 50 20 25
Trees more than 5 years old 100 40 50
Aftercultivation
Weeding is done twice or thrice a year by spade digging. Wherever the land is
sloppy, terracing has to be done to prevent soil erosion. Vanilla can be grown as
intercrop under optimum conditions.
Intercropping Vanilla in Arecanut
Plant protection
pests
Mites
Mites can be controlled by spraying Dicofol 18.5 EC at 2.5 ml/lit.
Spindle bug
The spindle bugs may be controlled by a drenching spray with Lindane 1.3 D
@ 2.5 g/lit of water.
Inflorescence caterpillars
Inflorescence caterpillars can be controlled by spraying Lindane 20 EC 2 ml/lit
or WP @ 2.5 g/litre of water.
dIseases
Bud rot or Mahali disease
Infected tissues of the bud should be scooped off and treated with 10 %
Bordeaux paste. Destruction and removal of seed palms and also bunches
affected by Mahali and drenching crowns of surrounding healthy palms with 1
% Bordeaux mixture would help in minimizing the incidence of the disease.
Foot rot or Anabe
Affected palms have to be isolated by digging trenches all round. The severely
affected palms should be cut and destroyed. The stumps should be pulled out
by digging and the drainage improved. Root feeding with 125 ml of 1.5 % (15
ml/litre of water) Tridemorph at 3 months interval.
38

39. Stem breaking
Wrap up of the green portion of the stem which is exposed to the South-West
sun to protect against sun-scorch.
Harvest
The bearing starts after 5 years of planting. Nuts are harvested when they are
three quarters ripe. The number of harvests will vary from three to five in one
year depending upon the season and place of cultivation.
Yield
An average of about 1250 kg/ha can be obtained.
Cashewnut (Anacardium occidentale L.)
Anacardiaceae
Varieties
VRI 1, VRI 2, VRI 3, VRI 4, vengurla 4, Vengurla 7 and BPP – 8 (H2/16) are the
popular varieties
Soil and climate
It grows up well in all soils. Red sandy loam is best suited. Plains as well as hill
slopes upto 600 - 700 feet elevation are suitable.
Season
June – December is optimum for cultivation.
Propagation
Mainly propagated by soft wood grafting, air layering and epicotyl grafting
39

40. Requirement of plants
About 200 plants/ha can be planted.
Preparation of field
Pits of 45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm size are dug and filled up with a mixture of soil + 10
kg FYM + one kg neem cake and 100 g Lindane 1.3 %.
Spacing
A spacing of 7 m either way is adopted
Manuring (per tree)
Manures and I year II year III year IV year V year
fertilizers old old old old onwards
FYM or compost
10 20 20 30 50
(kg)
N (g) 70 140 210 280 500
P (g) 40 80 120 160 200
K (g) 60 120 180 240 300
Fertilizer application may be done during November - December in the East Coast
areas. Wherever possible the fertilizer can be applied in 2 equal split doses during
June-July and October-November periods.
Intercropping
Plough the interspaces after the receipt of rain and raise either groundnut or
pulses or minor millets till the trees reach bearing age.
Training and pruning
Develop the trunk to a height of 1 m by removing low lying branches. The dried
twigs and branches should be removed every year.
40

41. Rejuvenation of old cashew orchard by top
working
Old and senile cashew orchards with poor yielder are cut down leaving a stump of
1 – 3 m height from the ground level. The emerging new sprouts are used as
rootstock for epicotyl grafting. Suitable scions are collected and grafted on to the
new sprouts.
plant protectIon
Pests
Stemborer
1.Collection and destruction of affected shoots
2. Swabbing the bark of exposed roots and shoots with Carbaryl 50 WP 2 g/lit.
Twice a year before the onset of South West Monsoon (March – April) and
after cessation of monsoon (November) painting of coal tar + kerosene
mixture (1:2) or swabbing with a suspension of Carbaryl 50 WP (4 g/lit) can
be done up to one metre length in the exposed trunk region after shaving the
bark.
3. Root feeding with Monocrotophos 36 WSC 10 ml + 10 ml of water kept in a
polythene bag on one side of the tree and keep the same amount on the other
side of the tree (Total 20 ml/tree) divided into two equal halves will give
protection when there is moderate incidence.
4. Swab the trunk with Lindane 20 EC 1 ml/lit or Carbaryl 50 WP 500 g in 20
lit of water.
Tea mosquito bug
Tea mosquito bug can be controlled by spraying Endosulfan 35 EC @ 2 ml/lit.
The first spray can be done at the time of emergence of new flushes, the
second at floral formation and the third at fruit-set.
41

42. Shoot caterpillars
Shoot caterpillar can be controlled by spraying Endosulfan 35 EC @ 2 ml/lit.
Root borer
Root borer can be controlled by pouring Monocrotophos 10 ml/tree in the
bore holes (Insecticide 5 ml + 5 ml water).
Leaf miner
1. Collect and destroy the damaged plant parts
2. Spray NSKE 5% two rounds, first at new flush formation, second at flower
formation
Diseases
Die back or Pink disease
Prune the affected shoots just below the affected portion and apply Bordeaux
paste. Spray 1 % Bordeaux mixture or any copper fungicide like Blitox or
Fytolan 0.25 % twice i.e. in May - June and again in October as a prophylactic
measure.
Anthracnose
1. Remove the affected portions of plant/branches
2. Spray 1 % of Bordeaux mixture + Ferrous sulphate at the time of flush
initiation
Harvest
The peak picking months are March and May. Good nuts are grey green,
smooth and well filled. After picking, the nuts are separated from the apple
and dried in the sun for two to three days to bring down the moisture content
to 10 to 12 %. Properly dried nuts are packed in alkathene bags. This will keep
for 6 months.
Yield
About 3 - 4 kg/tree/year can be obtained.
42

43. Cocoa(TheobromacacaoL.)
Sterculiaceae
Varieties
Criollo, Forestero and Trinitario are most popular.
Forestero Trinitario
Soil and climate
Potash rich alluvial soils friable in nature with high humus and moisture
retentivity with a pH of 6.6 - 7.0 are suitable. Cocoa is normally cultivated at
altitudes up to 1200 m with an annual rainfall of 150 cm and a relative humidity
of 80 % and annual mean temperature of 24°C to 25°C. Cocoa can be grown as
intercrop in coconut and areca nut gardens.
Season
June - July and September - October
Seeds and sowing
Cocoa is normally propagated by seed. Before sowing the seeds the pulp adhering
to the seeds has to be removed. Cocoa seeds are individually sown in polybags
soon after extraction. The bags are filled with surface soil and sub-soil mixed with
compost, leaf mould and fertilizers. Nursery plants are ready for transplanting at
6 months of age when they attain a height of 60 cm.
Planting
Seedlings are transplanted with a ball of earth in 45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm pits at a
spacing of 3 x 3 m either way. Periodical mulching with leaves and watering
should be done. Temporary shade has to be provided.
Irrigation
Irrigation should be given as and when necessary. During summer months
irrigation should be given once in three days.
Manuring
Trees of 3 years of age and above are manured with 100 g N, 40 g P and 140 g K
per tree in two split doses during April - May and August - September. Trees
younger than three years may be applied with half of this dose.
43

44. Aftercultivation
Weeding is done as and when necessary. The unproductive shoots, dead, diseased
N P K
Time of application
(kg/ha)
1 – 3 years old trees 50 20 70
Trees more than 3 years old 100 96 140
twigs should be removed periodically. Banana is better as a primary shade plant
in the early years of plantation. For permanent shades Jack, Silver Oak, etc. are
planted.
1. Plant protection
Pests
Mealy bug
Mealy bug can be controlled by spraying Phosphamidon 85 EC 1 ml/lit or
Dimethoate 2 ml/lit at fortnightly intervals. Release Coccinellid predator
Cryptolaemus montrouzieri @ 10 tree.
2. Aphids
Aphids can be controlled by spraying Dimethoate 35 EC 1 ml/lit at monthly
intervals.
3. Grey weevil
Grey weevil can be controlled by spraying Phosphamidon 85 EC 1ml/lit.
4. Hairy caterpillar
Hairy caterpillar can be controlled by dusting Lindane 1.3 D or spray Lindane
20 EC @ 2ml/lit.
5. Diseases
Black pod disease
Spray 1 % Bordeaux mixture or 0.2 % Mancozeb or Copper oxychloride at 20
days interval.
Black pod disease
6. Dieback disease
The disease can be controlled by spraying 1 % Bordeaux mixture.
7. Charcoal disease
Charcoal disease can be controlled by spraying with 1 % Bordeaux mixture.
44

45. 8. Pink disease
Prune the affected branches and swab the cut ends regularly with 1 %
Bordeaux mixture.
9. Harvest
Bearing starts from 4th year but economic yield starts from 6th year onwards.
The season of harvest is November - December and May - June.
10. Yield
The yield ranges from 500 - 1000 kg of dry beans/ha
Betelvine(Piperbetel)
Piperaceae
Varieties
Karpurakodi, Kallarkodi, Revesi, Karpuri, SGM 1, Vellaikodi, Pachaikodi,
Sirugamani 1, Anthiyur kodi, Kanyur kodi and Bangla type are under cultivation
SGM 1 SGM (BV) 2
Soil and climate
Well drained fertile clay loams are suitable. It does not tolerate saline and alkaline
conditions. Betelvine require a cool humid with considerable humidity and
regular supply of moisture in the soil is essential.
Seeds and sowing
The vines are propagated by terminal stem cutting or setts about 30 - 45 cm long.
Setts obtained from the top portions of the vines are easy to root and hence best
for planting. On an average 1, 00,000 setts are required for planting one hectare.
Setts with vigorous apical buds and nodal adventitious roots are selected and
planted at the base of the live supports, which are to be planted 4 to 5 months
earlier.
Vines/hectare
Row spacing
Single vine Double vine
20 cm 50,000 1,00,000
30 cm (1 ft) 30,000 60,000
45 cm (11/2
22,500 45,000
ft)
45