2. The valley of the river Nile which fertile earths reached 5-10
km on both parties of the river was the most ancient centre
of the Egyptian civilization. According to the archaeological
data, in VI millennium BC there were the pioneer
settlements which have turned subsequently to the cities-
states. The real border of the country passed there where
the fertile black earth came to an end and the red began.
From here there was also a country self-name — "Kemet"
that means «Black (earth)».
During the long period in a valley of Nile there were two
countries: Southern (Upper) Egypt (from last fifth threshold
to the first sleeve of delta of Nile) and Northern (Lower)
Egypt (actually delta of Nile).
They have been united in the end of IV millennium BC.

3. Scientific knowledge of ancient Egyptians grew first of
all from their practical experience.
During an epoch of the Early kingdom Egyptians learnt
to use natural floods of Nile for seasonal agricultural
works, developed system of the hieroglyphic letter and
mastered manufacture of a material for the letter — the
papyrus which was used by mankind throughout four
millennia. During this period characteristic features of
Egyptian culture were generated (religious
representations, a cult dead, the characteristic art style)
which basically remained throughout all history of
ancient Egypt, including Greek-Roman period.
During an epoch of the Ancient kingdom the
construction of pyramids began. The first of them — a
step pyramid of Pharaoh Dzhosera — was built in
Sakkara under the project of the dignitary of the
Pharaoh — the architect, medic and a wise man
Imhotep, who was subsequently idolised.
The glory and memory of Imhotep remained till the
times of intrusion of Persians and Greeks which
identified him with Asclepius.

4. During an epoch of the Middle Kingdom most ancient of the
Egyptian scientific compositions — mathematical and medical
papyruses have been written down.
Necessity to calculate the periods of lifting and recession of water
in Nile caused development of the Egyptian astronomy. The star
charts which have remained on ceilings of tombs of Pharaohs XIX-
XX of dynasties testify to it (XIV-XII centuries BC). Proceeding from
practical needs of agriculture, Egyptians divided for the first time
days at 24 o'clock (12 o'clock in the afternoon and 12 o'clock in
the morning) and created the most perfect calendar of time. On
the Egyptian calendar year consisted of 365 days (12 months for
30 days and 5 additional days in the end of the year). The Egyptian
calendar has been accepted in Roman empire (from 45 d.C.), kept
the value in medieval Europe and has been used by Kopernik in its
lunar and planetary tables.
The majority of the papyruses which have reached us of the
medical maintenance concerns an epoch of the New Kingdom also.

5. Now it is known more than ten papyri which are partially or completely
devoted to healing. All of them were written down during the periods of
Middle and New Kingdoms (II millennium BC). However it does not
exclude possibility of their existence during an epoch of the Ancient
kingdom: earlier copies of these papyruses could not remain up to now.
So, George Ebers (1837—1898) considered that the papyrus named after
him originally has been written between 3730 and 3710 BC, and
Egyptologists suppose that Edwin Smith's papyrus could be a copy of
earlier text made in the beginning of III millennium BC (supposedly by
Imhotep). Imhotep was not the only known medic the Ancient Kingdom.
So, the inscription in a tomb Nomarch Mechen — the dignitary of the
Pharaoh of IV dynasty of Snofru (XXVIII century to and. э.) – testifies that
he was renown «healer of people of his nom».
The Egyptian priest Manefon had written that the second Pharaoh of I
dynasty Atotis (XXVIII century BC) was skilful medic and made the text on
a papyrian roll about a structure of a body of the person.

6. The first representations about a structure of a human body Egyptians received from
practice of embalming which also testified their achievements in the field of chemistry
(scientists believe that the modern word "chemistry" occurred from the ancient name of
Egypt — "Kemet", or "Khemet").
Knowledge of ancient Egyptians in the field of a body structure were high enough for the
time. Already in the middle of II millennium BC ancient Egyptians described large
organs: brain, heart, vessels, kidneys, intestines, and etc. However they did not subject a
muscle to their special studying that was connected, most probably, with influence of
doctrines of religion.
Egyptians possess the first of reached to us the brain description. It is resulted in Smith's
papyrus in which brain movement in an open wound is compared to «boiling copper».
Ancient Egyptians noticed that brain damage causes a disease state of other parts of a
body (for example, a paralysis of extremities), and, thus, began scientific
representations about a brain.
They described a special role to heart and vessels in human life : «the beginning of
secrets of the doctor — knowledge of a course of heart from which there are vessels to
all members, for everyone doctor, any priest of goddess Sohmet, any exorcist, concerning
a head, a nape, hands, a palm, feet, — everywhere concerns hearts: from it vessels to
each member are directed...» — it is told in the papyrus of Ebers. Thus, ancient
Egyptians in the middle of II millennium BC owned art of definition of illnesses on a
pulsation of vessels, i.e. pulse which they observed in various points of a body.

7. Ancient Egyptians connected the reasons of illnesses as with the natural
phenomena (unhealthy food, intestinal parasites, weather changes), and
with supernatural representations (for example, installation of an evil
ghost of the diseased who has died in a body). Under the certificate of
Herodotus, they have been convinced that «all human illnesses occur
from food». That is why «they clear the stomach every month three days
on end, accepting purgatives, and keep health by emetic and enema » (the
enema invention attribute to Egyptians).
The most extensive information on internal illnesses and medicinal
doctoring in ancient Egypt is contained in the big medical papyrus of
Ebers (XVI century BC), which was found out in 1872 in Thebes and
named by name the scientist studying him. Stuck together of 108
sheets, it reaches of 20,5 m length and quite justifies the name «Book of
preparation of medicines for all parts of a body». The papyrus contains
about 900 recipes of medicines for treatment of digestive
organs, respiratory tracts, an ear, a throat and a nose, burns and
bleedings, eye illnesses, skin, parasitic and many other diseases.

8. Various plants (an onion, a poppy, dates, a lotus, a pomegranate, by an
aloe, grapes, the papyrus), mineral substances
(antimony, sulphur, iron, lead, soda, alabaster, clay, saltpeter) and parts of
a body of many animals were widely used in that recipes. Thus, the
medicine for exile of helminths («killing of worms») contained among
other components: stones of dates, sweet beer — 25 parts. The recipe
came to an end with words: «To weld, mix, drink — it leaves
immediately». The bull liver and honey were included in a recipe of a
medicine for blindness. Some recipes were extremely difficult and
included up to 37 components. Milk, honey, beer were a basis for
preparation of medicines. Many components are not identified till now
that considerably complicates their studying.
The majority of recipes in the papyrus of Ebers is accompanied by
references to magic spells and plots which as Egyptians
believed, frightened off evil ghosts. In the same purposes in structure of
medicines often included unpleasant substances on taste: parts of a tail
of the mouse, allocation from ears of a pig, excrement and urine of
animals etc. Reception of similar medicines was accompanied by
frightening plots and spells.

9. The separate section of the papyrus of Ebers is devoted to cosmetics.
Recipes of medicines for smoothing of wrinkles, removals of
birthmarks, discolorations of a skin, hair-dyeing and
eyebrows, strengthening of growth of hair and even for squint correction
were summed up in it. For protection of eyes against the scorching sun
and some infectious illnesses Egyptians (both women, and men) covered
eyelids with green paste containing salts of antimony and a powder of
malachite, thus the amygdaloid form was given to eyes. Egyptians wore
wigs which were put on over close-cut hair (that promoted the
pediculosis prevention). The wig consisted of set of tightly bound plaits
and replaced a headdress protecting from the scorching sun. The
prescription of these traditions gives the grounds to consider ancient
Egypt the cosmetics native land.
In ancient Egypt some have been extended heavy infectious (a smallpox, a
malaria, a plague) and parasitic diseases. Descriptions of historians
testify to it: variolous pustules on a face skin of Ramses II, the bacillae of
plague which have been found out at inspection of mummies, and other
indisputable proofs.

10. Most ancient of the texts which have reached us about a structure of a
human body and operative treatment (surgery) — Edvin Smith's surgical
papyrus dated on XVI century BC – has been made in ancient Egypt
In 1930 the American Egyptologist J.Н.Breasted for the first time
published this Hieratic text, its transliteration in hieroglyphs and
translation into English with extensive comments in the form of separate
volume.
The treatise text is located on a papyri tape in length of 4,68 m and in the
width about 33 cm. It consists of 17 columns in which 48 cases of
traumatic damages of bones of a skull, a brain, cervical
vertebras, clavicles, a forearm, a thorax and a spine column, and also
ways of their treatment are described at total absence of elements of
magic and mysticism.
Medical ethics of Egypt of that time demanded, that healer, examining the
patient, openly informed it on a prospective outcome of treatment in one
of three phrases: 1) «it is illness which I can cure»; 2) «it is illness which
I, maybe, can cure»; 3) «it is illness which I cannot cure».

11. When treatment was represented possible, the author of the
papyrus makes accurate recommendations to healer as he
should operate.
At the same time apparently hopeless cases of traumatic
damages which have only theoretical value for the doctor
were described in Smith's papyrus . Among them the most
ancient description of a paralysis of top and bottom
extremities with an alalia and hearing which the author of
the papyrus explains by brain damage: as a result of tragical
fall of the person from the big height the head entered into
shoulders, the backbone is broken in three places, vertebras
are pressed one into another.
At treatment of crises ancient Egyptians applied wooden
splints and hard bandaging of the defective extremity by the
linen fabric impregnated with pitch.

12. The great value was given to observance of traditionally
established hygienic requirements and the prevention of
illnesses intimately connected with them. Traditions and
customs ordered neatness in a life and moderation in food:
«Egyptians... Drink only from copper vessels which clean
daily... The Dress they carry linen, always fresh-washed, and
it makes for them a subject of the big care. Cut off
themselves for the sake of cleanliness, preferring to be tidy
rather than beautiful. Priests every other day cut hair on all
their body for not to have on itself neither the louse, nor any
another nasty insects during service to gods. Clothes of
priests are only linen, and footwear is from the papyrus...
They wash twice a day and two times at night» (Herodotus).
Not casually Greeks considered Egyptians as "inventors" of
medicine, and in particular precautionary medicine.

13. The civilization of India began to develop in III millennium BC within Hindustan
subcontinent. It was long before the Hindu-Iranian (Aryan) tribes migrated to the
country.
In the history of doctoring of ancient India three stages divided both in time, and in
space are accurately traced:
1) the period of Harrappan civilization (III-II millennium BC, a valley of the river Indus)
when in territory of the modern Pakistan the slaveholding cities-states first in the
history of ancient India were generated;
2) ведийский the period (the end of II - the middle of I millennium BC, a valley of the
river Ganges) when with arrival ариев the civilisation centre moved to east part of
subcontinent and drawing up of “sacred texts” (a Sanskrit — Vedas), transferred during,
the long period in oral tradition began;
3) the classical period (second half of I millennia BC — the beginning of I millennium AD,
Hindustan subcontinent) — time of the highest blossoming of traditional culture of
ancient India. It is characterized by high development of agriculture, crafts and trade,
lifting of original culture, the statement and Buddhism distribution — the first of three
world religions, successes in various fields of knowledge, the literature and art, wide
development trading and a cultural contact of India with the countries of the ancient
world that brought to it glory of “Country of wise men».

14. The basic sources are: ancient literary monuments
(religious-philosophical compositions — Vedas, I millenium
BC); «Instructions of Manu», II century BC; samhitas of the
medics Charaka («Čaraka-samhita») and Sushruta
(«Sušhruta-samhita»), the first centuries of our era), the
archeology and ethnography data, real monuments, the
national epos.
About ancient India known historians, philosophers and
travelers of an antiquity wrote: the Greek historians of
Herodotus, Strabo and Diodorus, participants of campaigns
of Alexander the Great, ambassador of Selevkids at court of
king Chandragupta — Megasfen, the Chinese historian Syma
Tsjan, pilgrim Fa Sjan and others.

15. Data on doctoring of Vedic period are rather limited. Instructions on medical knowledge remained in
"Rigveda“ and "Atharvaveda" which were written down only in the middle of I millennium BC (apprx.
500 BC).
Three illnesses are mentioned in "Rigveda" : the leprosy, a consumption, a bleeding, and is told once
about doctor in following words: «Our desires are various, the moving man thirsts fire wood, doctor -
illnesses, and a priest — sacrificial libations». Some sections of "Rigveda" contain texts about
ceremonies of magic doctoring — in Vedic period medical knowledge was intimately intertwined with
religious beliefs and magic representations.
The main medical deities of Vedic period were: twins of Ashvins — gods-keepers, Rudra — the lord of
medicinal grasses and the patron of hunters, and also the higher deities: Agni — god of fire and
reviving life, Indra — a symbol of a celestial thunder and the bearer of a rain and Surja — god of the
sun.
At the end of Vedic period the Indian society was definitively subdivided into four basic estates
(Varnas): brahmen (knowing sacred doctrines, i.e. a priest), ksatriya (allocated with power, i.e. the
military nobility and members of imperial sorts), vaisya (mainly farmers and cattlemen) and sudra
(poor men deprived of civil rights). Each of Varnas consisted of set of castes (Portug. casto — pure; on
a Sanskrit jati — group of people of one origin). Besides, out of Varnas and as though out of the law
there was a fifth, lowest estate — pariahs (untouchable), used on the most unpleasant and
humiliating works.
This social structure of ancient India based mainly on division of functions, was considered as the
initial, firm, established divine will of Brahma — greatest of ancient gods. Sudras and pariahs
practically had no rights. They were not authorized to listen and repeat Vedas. Representatives of
three higher Varnas were engaged in doctoring and studying of Vedas only.

16. Doctoring art (in Sanskrit - Ayurveda — the doctrine of long life) was
highly appreciated in ancient India. Buddhist legends and texts kept glory
about wonderful healers of Civaka (VI-V centuries BC), Charaka and
Sushruta (the first centuries of our era).
The basic directions of traditional Old Indian medicine of the classical
period are reflected in two outstanding monuments ancient ayrvedic
writings: "Charaka-samhita" (it is dated I-II centuries AD) and "Sushruta-
samhita" (is dated IV century AD).
Earlier "Charaka-samhita" is devoted to treatment of internal illnesses
and contains data of more than 600 medical products of a
vegetative, animal and mineral origin. On their application it is informed
in eight sections: treatment of wounds; treatment of illnesses of area of a
head; treatment of illnesses of all organism; treatment of mental
diseases; treatment of children's illnesses; antidotes; elixirs against
senile ageing; the means raising sexual activity.
"Sushruta-samhita" basically is devoted to operative treatment; in it is
described more than 300 operations, over 120 surgical tools and not less
than 650 medical recipes.

17. Knowledge of Indian medics about a structure of a body of
the person was the fullest in the ancient world. Despite
imperfection of a research technique which was based on a
maceration of a dead body in running water, ancient Indians
distinguished: 7 membranes, 500 muscles, 900 sheaves, 90
sinews, 300 bones (teeth and cartilages here enter) which
are subdivided into flat, round and long, 107 joints, 40 main
vessels and 700 their branchings (for blood, slime and
air), 24 nerves, 9 sense organs and 3 substances (a
prana, slime and bile). Some zones of a body (a
palm, soles, testicles, inguinal areas and etc.) were allocated
as "especially important" (Sanskrit — marman). Their
damage was considered life-threatening. Knowledge of the
Indian doctors in the field of a structure of a body of the
person were a major landmark in the history of anatomy
and played an essential role in formation of Indian surgery.

18. Organism ability to live was considered through interaction of three substances: air, fire
and water (which carriers in an organism the prana, bile and slime were considered).
Health was understood as result of the balance parity of three substances, the correct
fulfillment of vital departures of a body, a normal state of sense organs and clearness of
mind, and illness — as infringement of these proper correlations and the negative
influence on the person of five elements (influence of seasons, a climate, indigestible
food, unhealthy water and etc.). Sushruta divided all illnesses on natural, connected with
the nature, and supernatural, sent by gods (for example, a leprosy, venereal and other
infectious illnesses to understand which reasons at that time it was still impossible).
Diagnostics of illnesses was based on the detailed poll of the patient and research of
warmth of a body, skin color and language, selections, noise in lungs, voices and it is etc. It
is interesting that neither Sushruta, nor Charaka inform nothing on pulse research. At the
same time Sushruta describes not known even to ancient Greeks sugar diabetes which it
defined to taste of urine.
In the treatise of Sushruta three stages of the inflammation are described: in the first
period — insignificant pains; in the second — shooting pains, a swelling, feeling of a
prelum, local heat, a redness and function infringement; in the third — reduction of a
swelling and pus formation. For treatment of an inflammation of Sushruta offered local
medical products and surgical methods.
Treatment tactics in ancient India as well as in other countries of the ancient world, it was
defined first of all by a curability or incurability of disease. At the favorable forecast doctor
considered features of illness, a season, age, temperament, forces and mind of the patient.
Treatment went on an equilibration of the broken parity of liquids (substances) that was
reached, first, a diet, secondly — medicinal therapy (emetic, laxative, sudorific and
etc.), and thirdly — surgical methods of treatment in what ancient Indians reached high
perfection.

19. Known words of Sushruta testify many-sided nature of skills and knowledge of Indian
healer : «Medic who is familiar with curative properties roots and grasses — the
person; familiar with properties of a knife and fire – a demon; knowing force of prayers
— the prophet; familiar with properties of mercury — god!»
The best simples were delivered from the Himalayas. In preparation of
medicines, poisons and antidotes (from snake stings) were engaged only doctors:
«There are no healing for bitten if he did not address the Indian doctor, — Indians cured
those who has been bitten» - wrote Herodotus.
curative properties of the Indian plants were glorified widely outside of ancient India;
by sea and overland trading ways they were delivered to Parfia, the countries of the
Mediterranean and Central Asia, pools of the Caspian and Black seas, Southern
Siberia, China. The basic subjects of export were spikenard, musk, a sandal-wood
tree, cinnamon, aloe and other plants and aromas. In the Middle Ages experience of the
Indian medicine has been borrowed by the Tibetan doctors to what the known treatise
of the Hindo-Tibetan medicine of "Chzhud-shi" (VIII—IX AD).
Obstetric aid in ancient India was considered as independent area of doctoring. In the
treatise of Sushruty councils explicitly are stated pregnant women about observance of
cleanliness and the correct way of life, deviations from a normal current of
sorts, ugliness of a foetus, Cesarean section (applied after death of the woman for rescue
of the baby).

20. Art of operative treatment (surgery) in ancient India was the
highest in the ancient world. Sushruta considered surgery «as the
first and best of all medical sciences, precious product of the sky
(according to a legend twins Ashvins were the first surgeons) a
glory reliable source». Without having the knowledge about
antiseptics and an aseptic, Indian doctors, following customs of
the country maintained state of cleanliness during operations.
Surgical tools were produced by skilled smiths from a steel which
could easily cut hair. They were stored in special wooden boxes.
Surgeons of ancient India made amputations of extremities, a
laparotomy, a lithotomy, a herniotomy, plastic operations. They
«were able to restore noses, ears and lips lost or crippled in fight
or on a court sentence. The Indian surgery advanced in this area
European up to XVIII century when surgeons of the East Indian
company did not consider for humiliating to study from Indians a
rhinoplasty art», wrote A.Bashem.

21. At the times of Ashoka (268-231 BC) — the most outstanding
governor of ancient India – at Buddhist temples built almshouses
and premises for patients, which in India appeared for some
centuries earlier, than in Europe. Ashoka encouraged also
cultivation of simples, a construction of wells, gardening of roads.
A bit later, in Guptas empire (IV—VI centuries AD) — the Golden
Age of the Indian history — in the country began construct special
houses for cripples, widows, orphans.
The medicine of ancient India has been intimately bound with
religious-philosophical doctrines, among which the special place
is occupied with yoga. It united in herself religious philosophy, the
morally-ethical doctrine and system of exercises-poses (asana).
The Great attention in yoga is given to cleanliness of a body and an
original way of life. The yoga doctrine consists of two levels:
hatha-yoga (physical yoga) and the rajah-yoga (mastering by
spirit). In the modern India scientific research institutes continue
the studying of this ancient empirical system.

22. The basic theoretical positions of ancient Chinese medicine passed test by time and in
the basic lines remain within three millennia.
Knowledge of a structure of a human body started to collect in China in an extreme
antiquity, long before an interdiction for opening of bodies died (about II century BC)
which is connected with the statement of Confucianism as official religion. This is
testified by the remained anatomic tables of later period (VI-VII centuries).
Representations about illnesses and their treatment in ancient China had a
physiophilosophical basis. Health was understood as result of balance there began the
yin and yang and five elements Wu Xing, and illness — as infringement of their correct
interaction. Various parities of these infringements united in some syndromes which
were subdivided on two groups: a surplus syndrome — yang and a lack syndrome — yin.
The variety of diseases spoke in width of interaction of an organism with world around
and the nature, features of the organism (in the treatise «Nej a jing» are described five
temperaments; it coincides chronologically with the period of formation of similar
representations in ancient Greece), the long stay in one of emotional conditions
(anger, pleasure, grief, reflexion, affliction, fear and fear) and other natural reasons.
Diagnostics art in ancient China was based on following methods of inspection of the
patient: survey of a skin, an eye, mucous and language; definition of the general
condition and mood of the patient; auscultation of the sounds arising in a body of the
person, definition of its smells; the detailed poll of the patient; pulse research; pressure
upon active sites. According to the legend, these methods have been entered legendary
врачевателем, living in XI century BC and known Vjan Tsjue under a pseudonym (Small
magpie); its original name — Tsin Juezhen. Historical chronicles of the Hansky dynasty
narrate about wonderful healings which were carried out by Bjan Tsjue and its
pupils, skillfully applying acupuncture and cauterization, massage and local medical
products.

23. One of the greatest achievements of philosophical thought of ancient
China is representation about the blood circular motion, stated already in
the most ancient medical treatise of China — «Nej jing»: «Vessels are
communicated among themselves in a circle. In it there is no beginning
and there is no end... Blood in vessels circulates continuously... And heart
manages over blood». «Without pulse blood distribution in the big and
small vessels is impossible... Pulse causes circulation of blood and
«pneuma»... You will look forward, you will look back — all goes from
pulse. Pulse is the internal essence of hundred parts of a body, the most
thin expression of internal spirit...»
Medics of ancient China came to these conclusions by empirical way (in
Europe scientifically well-founded theory of blood circulation has been
formulated in 1628 by William Harvey).
Surveying the patient, they studied pulse not less than in nine points and
distinguished to 28 kinds of pulse; from them ten were considered as the
cores:
superficial, deep, rare, frequent, thin, excessive, free, viscous, strained, gr
adual.

24. The ancient method of pulse diagnostics was constantly improved
by many generations of Chinese medics and in due course turned
to the harmonious doctrine about pulse which was diagnostics top
in ancient China. In the fullest it is formulated in work of the well-
known Chinese doctor of III century Van Shuhe — «Mo jing» («The
Treatise about pulse», 280).
Outside of ancient China the doctrine about pulse extended rather
late. Ancient Indian treatises of Charaka (I-II centuries) and
Sushruta (IV century) did not mention pulse. This fact reveals
rather late establishment of the mutual contacts between China
and India (trading — from II century BC, Buddhism distribution to
China — from I century AD). The method of pulse diagnostics got
at the Middle Ages to territory of Central Asia: the theoretical
substantiation of research of pulse in «Canon» of outstanding
doctor of medieval East Avicenna (980-1037) was in many
respects similar to positions of ancient Chinese medicine.

25. Prominent feature of traditional Chinese medicine is acupuncture. Empirical roots of
this method are in an extreme antiquity when it has been noticed that pricks, cuts or
wounds in certain points of a body lead to healing of some illnesses. For
example, compression of a central pole of an upper lip allows to deduce the patient from
a faint condition, and introduction of needles at the basis of the first and second fingers
from the back party of a hand cures of a sleeplessness. So, on the basis of the long
supervision philosophers of ancient China came to a conclusion about existence of "vital
points» which irritation promotes regulation of vital processes. They believed that
through the apertures done in «vital points», the broken balance the Yin-Yang is
restored, therefore illness disappears. Historical chronicles inform on separate cases of
successful application of acupuncture by doctors Bjang Tsjue (XI century BC), Foo Ven (I-
II centuries BC), Hua Tuo (II century AD) and others.
The first detailed statement of the theory and practice of this method is resulted in the
treatise «Nej jing», especially in its second part «Lin Shu», where «vital points», channels
along which they are located, collaterals, needles and methods of their introduction, the
indication and contra-indication for acupuncture and cauterisation application are
described.
In III century AD doctor Huanfu Mi (215-282) regularly generalized achievements in
acupuncture of previous 4-5 centuries and made extensive compilative work «Classical
canon on acupuncture and cauterisation» (265) which remained the main source of
knowledge in this area up to XI century and was known outside of China, since V century.

26. The first needles for an acupuncture were stone. They had the most thin aperture (like a syringe
needle) on which as believed Yang flows. Subsequently needles began to produce not only from silicon
or a jasper, but also from a bone, a bamboo, and later and from metals: bronze, silver, gold, platinum
and stainless steel. With development of this method specialization of needles I their division into
kinds was outlined.
In the treatise «Nej jing» is described nine versions of needles: a needle with a tip for superficial
puncture, the rounded off needle for massage, a stupid needle for a percussion and pressure, a sharp
trihedral needle for a venous puncture, saber-shaped needle for pus removal, a sharp round needle
for fast introduction, a threadlike needle (used most often), the long needle for piercing of thick
muscles, the big needle for treatment of joints.
A rich variety of needles speaks about width of a method of acupuncture in the ancient time: it was
used for treatment and the prevention of illnesses, for anesthesia during operations, and also in a
combination to massage and a cauterization method, i.e. thermal influence on «vital points» by means
of the lighted cigarettes filled with dry leaves of simples.
Most often for these purposes the plant moxa (wormwood, Artemisia vulgaris) was used. It was
considered that efficiency of a moxa increases in the course of time storages. So, for treatment by
cauterization of illness which arose seven years ago, it was recommended моксa, collected three years
ago.
In ancient China there were some methods of cauterization. Direct cauterization was spent at direct
affinity of a burning cigarette from a body. At a method of indirect cauterization the cigarette was on
some distance from an influence point, and between a cigarette and a body medicinal substances
could be located. Cauterization by warm needles combined both acupuncture, and cauterization: the
cigarette twisted round a needle and was lighted, when the needle was in fabrics; thus the combined
effect (action of a needle and a decaying simple) was reached.