A series of slides to help new students get started in HE and writing essays etc

1. Study skills
The following slides should be used in conjunction with
the relevant hand-outs to help students develop their
skills in academia.
The package does not constitute a compete programme
rather a work in progress which will be periodically
amended and added to as and when necessary.
The information contained within has been compiled from various sources.
K Brown 2011
1

2. Study skills
Section 1: Academic writing.
K Brown 2011
2

3. Objectives
To introduce the idea of academic
writing.
 To demonstrate the importance of
clearly defined structure.
 To explain and demonstrate the
importance of paragraph and
sentence content and structure.

K Brown 2011
3

4. Introduction.

Academic writing is one of
cornerstones of university study.

In all disciplines (modules), students
(and their teachers) need writing to
express their ideas clearly.

“Good prose is like a windowpane”
(George Orwell)
K Brown 2011
the
4

5. 
You want your reader to „look through‟
the writing to the ideas beyond.

If things like structure, verb tenses, or
spelling and punctuation are not
correct your reader may be distracted
by these surface problems – just as
when we look through a mudsplattered window.
K Brown 2011
5

6. Unfortunately
mastering academic
writing is not as simple
as cleaning a window.
K Brown 2011
6

7. Three key areas
Writers seeking to improve their
academic writing skills should focus
their efforts on three key areas:
1.Strong
writing
2.Excellent grammar
3.A consistent stylistic
approach
K Brown 2011
7

8. Strong writing
Thinking precedes writing. Good writers
spend time distilling information from
their sources and reviewing major
points before creating their work.
Writing detailed outlines helps many
authors organize their thoughts. Strong
academic writing begins with solid
planning.
K Brown 2011
8

9. Excellent grammar
Learn the major and minor points of
grammar. Spend time practicing writing
and seek detailed feedback from
teachers, professors or writers you
respect.
K Brown 2011
9

10. Consistent stylistic approach
Choose one style and stick to it. Your
institution will normally have guidelines
informing you of its preferences with
regards to font, size, spacing etc.
K Brown 2011
10

11. Paragraphs

Paragraphs should group your ideas
together at a glance.

The force of a piece of writing will be
very much diluted if the reader is
unable to see where a paragraph
begins and ends.

A paragraph should deliver and move
on.
K Brown 2011
11

12. How will you demonstrate where
paragraphs begin & end?
To indent or not to indent?
 Space or no space?
 Often university specific guidelines will
inform us of the preferred format i.e.

2 point line spacing
Arial 12
justified
K Brown 2011
12

13. Paragraph division exercise
Which of the following clearly show
paragraph divisions?
K Brown 2011
13

14. 1.
Struebat iam fortuna in diversa parte terrarum initia causasque
imperio, quod varia sorte laetum rei publicae aut atrox, ipsis principibus
prosperum vel exitio fuit. Titus Vespasianus, e Iudaea incolumi adhuc
Galba missus a patre, causam profectionis officium erga principem et
maturam petendis honoribus iuventam ferebat, sed vulgus fingendi
avidum disperserat accitum in adoptionem.
Materia sermonibus senium et orbitas principis et intemperantia
civitatis, donec unus eligatur, multos destinandi. augebat famam ipsius
Titi ingenium quantaecumque fortunae capax, decor oris cum quadam
maiestate, prosperae Vespasiani res, praesaga responsa, et inclinatis
ad credendum animis loco ominum etiam fortuita. ubi Corinthi, Achaiae
urbe, certos nuntios accepit de interitu Galbae et aderant qui arma
Vitellii bellumque adfirmarent, anxius animo paucis amicorum adhibitis
cuncta utrimque perlustrat: si pergeret in urbem, nullam officii gratiam
in alterius honorem suscepti, ac se Vitellio sive Othoni obsidem fore:
sin rediret, offensam haud dubiam victoris, set incerta adhuc victoria et
concedente in partis patre filium excusatum. sin Vespasianus rem
publicam susciperet, obliviscendum offensarum de bello agitantibus.
(Source: Ash, 2007)
Does this clearly show paragraph divisions?
K Brown 2011
14

15. (Yes) Correct. Two paragraphs can be
seen. However the first is a little short
for accademic writing (two sentences).
(No) Incorrect. Whilst it is not perfect,
this example does clearly show two
paragraphs.
K Brown 2011
15

16. 2.
Struebat iam fortuna in diversa parte terrarum initia causasque
imperio, quod varia sorte laetum rei publicae aut atrox, ipsis principibus
prosperum vel exitio fuit. Titus Vespasianus, e Iudaea incolumi adhuc
Galba missus a patre, causam profectionis officium erga principem et
maturam petendis honoribus iuventam ferebat, sed vulgus fingendi
avidum disperserat accitum in adoptionem. Materia sermonibus senium
et orbitas principis et intemperantia civitatis, donec unus
eligatur, multos destinandi.
Augebat famam ipsius Titi ingenium quantaecumque fortunae
capax, decor oris cum quadam maiestate, prosperae Vespasiani
res, praesaga responsa, et inclinatis ad credendum animis loco
ominum etiam fortuita. ubi Corinthi, Achaiae urbe, certos nuntios
accepit de interitu Galbae et aderant qui arma Vitellii bellumque
adfirmarent, anxius animo paucis amicorum adhibitis cuncta utrimque
perlustrat: si pergeret in urbem, nullam officii gratiam in alterius
honorem suscepti, ac se Vitellio sive Othoni obsidem fore: sin
rediret, offensam haud dubiam victoris, set incerta adhuc victoria et
concedente in partis patre filium excusatum. sin Vespasianus rem
publicam susciperet, obliviscendum offensarum de bello agitantibus.
(Source: Ash, 2007)
Does this clearly show paragraph divisions?
K Brown 2011
16

17. (Yes) Incorrect. Whilst we can identify
the end of paragraph 1, it is not instantly
discernable.
(No) Correct. At first it seems like a long
stream of writing.
K Brown 2011
17

18. 3.
Struebat iam fortuna in diversa parte terrarum initia causasque imperio, quod
varia sorte laetum rei publicae aut atrox, ipsis principibus prosperum vel exitio
fuit. Titus Vespasianus, e Iudaea incolumi adhuc Galba missus a patre, causam
profectionis officium erga principem et maturam petendis honoribus iuventam
ferebat, sed vulgus fingendi avidum disperserat accitum in adoptionem. Materia
sermonibus senium et orbitas principis et intemperantia civitatis, donec unus
eligatur, multos destinandi.
Augebat famam ipsius Titi ingenium quantaecumque fortunae capax, decor oris
cum quadam maiestate, prosperae Vespasiani res, praesaga responsa, et
inclinatis ad credendum animis loco ominum etiam fortuita. ubi Corinthi, Achaiae
urbe, certos nuntios accepit de interitu Galbae et aderant qui arma Vitellii
bellumque adfirmarent, anxius animo paucis amicorum adhibitis cuncta utrimque
perlustrat: si pergeret in urbem, nullam officii gratiam in alterius honorem
suscepti, ac se Vitellio sive Othoni obsidem fore: sin rediret, offensam haud
dubiam victoris, set incerta adhuc victoria et concedente in partis patre filium
excusatum. sin Vespasianus rem publicam susciperet, obliviscendum offensarum
de bello agitantibus.
(Source: Ash, 2007)
Does this clearly show paragraph divisions?
K Brown 2011
18

19. (Yes) Correct. Although a different
format from the first, this also shows
clear division between paragraphs
(No) Incorrect. It is perhaps the most
clearly divided of them all.
K Brown 2011
19

20. Paragraph content
Paragraphs group your ideas into clear
points. Since the idea of most academic
writing is to convince the reader of a
particular interpretation or hypothesis, it
is vitally important that your writing
guide the reader through a series of
logically ordered points (the argument).
By organizing your ideas into
paragraphs, you help the reader
understand where your argument is
going
K Brown 2011
20

21. Paragraph content exercise
Which of the following are examples of
well-structured paragraphs?
K Brown 2011
21

22. 1.
So we can see by the end of act one that Martha
not only wants a child, but a job. The audience
is left wondering: how will she get a child?
There are several possibilities, Robert being
one. But he is obviously not a reliable kind of
guy, and probably wouldn‟t be a good
father, which is somewhat worrying! Right after
the gambling scene, which molly doesn‟t
actually know about, she is talking to Miss
Marina about working as a cleaner.
However, Molly does not get a clue that Robert
is undependable when Sally comments: „My
three-year-old would do a better job of looking
after that horse!‟
(source: Laennec, 2009)
Is this a well structured paragraph?
K Brown 2011
22

23. (Yes) Incorrect. This paragraph is not
well focused. At best a first draft, in
need of editing. The point unclear &
what horse? The tone is also to informal
i.e. „kind of guy‟
(No) Correct. As it stands the reader is
left somewhat confused, the window is
covered in mud.
K Brown 2011
23

24. 2.
We s e e b y th e e n d o f Ac t 1 th a t M a r th a w a n ts tw o
th in g s : a c h i l d , a n d a j o b . O f th e s e tw o d e s i r e s,
Ma r tha ' s ye a r n in g fo r a c h ild is th e d e e p e s t. Sh e
te lls u s “ I w a n t a b a b y to h o l d mo r e th a n a n y th i n g
e ls e in th e w o r l d ” ( Ac t 1 , s c e n e 3 , l i n e 5 ) . T h e g r e a t
q u e s tion fa c i n g h e r [a n d b y e xte n s i o n th e a u d i e n c e ]
is : w h o w ill M a r th a tr y to h a ve a b a b y w i th ? T h e
b e g i n n i n g o f Ac t II fo c u s e s o n th e c h a r a cter o f
R o b e rt, w h o m M o l l y i s ve r y a ttr a cted to . We s e e ,
th r o ug h h is r e c k l e ss g a m b l i n g i n Ac t II, th a t R o b e r t
is p r o b a bly n o t g o i n g to b e a r e l i a b l e fa th e r. T h e
p r o b le m is th a t a l th o u g h w e th e a u d i e n c e h a ve s e e n
h i m g a mb l i n g h is w a g e s a w a y, Ma r th a h a s n o t: s h e
is o ffs ta ge d u r i n g th i s s c e n e . F o r th e r e s t o f th e
p la y, w e mu s t w a tc h a s h e r l o n g i n g fo r a c h i l d
o b s c ures h e r j u d g m e n t o f R o b e r ts tr u e c h a r a cter.
(source: Laennec, 2009)
Is this a well structured paragraph?
K Brown 2011
24

25. (Yes) Correct. Clearly focused, the
scene is set in the first sentence, whilst
the last sentence leads us on into
further discussion.
(No) Incorrect. This paragraph has a
clear focus and lacks the informal tone
of the first.
K Brown 2011
25

26. Sentences
K Brown 2011
26

27. Sentence structure
Hint: reading aloud often helps us craft
well-made sentences. Most people can
improve their writing by simply reading it
aloud.
K Brown 2011
27

28. Incomplete sentences
An incomplete sentence often suffers
from one of the following:
Lacks a subject (what or who).
 And/or a verb (the action).

In formal academic writing incomplete
sentences can appear sloppy.
K Brown 2011
28

29. Incomplete sentence
exercise.
Which of the following is a complete
sentence?
K Brown 2011
29

30. 
1. Which numerous followers of
the group have adopted since.
Yes OR No?

2. After a great deal of thought,
the manager decided to ask his
team.
Yes OR No?

3. And furthermore the studies
are flawed due to lack of robust
data.
Yes OR No?
K Brown 2011
30

31. Answers
1. The first sentence is incomplete, we
need to know what the „which‟ refers
back to. It could be fixed by simply
including the missing information e.g.
„Belson‟s safety manual contains many
good tips for working with lions, and
numerous followers of the group have
since adopted it.‟
K Brown 2011
31

32. Answers (cont)
2. This is a complete sentence.
3. This is also a complete sentence.
However a sentence should never
begin with „and‟ or „but‟.
„furthermore…‟ would have worked here
instead.
K Brown 2011
32

33. Long sentences
Much academic writing has very long
sentences.
 Students are often tempted to imitate
this style, thinking the more
complicated their writing, the better.
 When editing your work (not first draft)
try to avoid rambling sentences.

K Brown 2011
33

34. Sentence length exercise.
Which of the following sentences could
use some pruning?
K Brown 2011
34

35. 1.
The theory of particle density, which
Nelson was the first to propose and
which was thoroughly proved by
Anderson in the 1930‟s, has since
been found to be seriously flawed.
„Does this sentence need pruning?‟
K Brown 2011
35

36. This sentence is not overly long for
academic purposes, and could stand
exactly as it is. However, the sentence
could also be divided, by either putting
brackets [parentheses] around „(which
Nelson…in the 1930‟s)‟ or by making
two sentences.
K Brown 2011
36

37. Try this one…
Nelson was the first to propose the theory of
particle density following on from work done by
other scientists previously, and Anderson took
this up and did more research on Nelsons
theory, which was subsequently accepted by
the scientific community but has now been
disproved on the grounds that it is seriously
flawed.
„does this sentence need pruning?‟
K Brown 2011
37

38. Yes, this sentence definitely needs
some pruning. The writer first needs to
look at which elements of the sentence
are necessary for understanding. For
example, do we need to know that the
theory was already accepted „by the
scientific community‟ or is that already
implicit? Secondly, the sentence needs
to be reshaped into something
resembling example 1, or even two
shorter sentences.
K Brown 2011
38

39. Stray bits (structure
continued)
K Brown 2011
39

40. Stray bits and structure
When editing a piece of work you
should look out for „dangling articles‟
and dangling modifiers‟
These are stray bits of sentences that
need to go in a different place in order
to make sense.
K Brown 2011
40

41. The „dangling modifier‟
An error in a sentence where a word
or phrase can be associated with a
word other than the one intended, or
none at all e.g.:
Turning the corner, a handsome school
building appeared.
The modifying clause turning the corner
is clearly supposed to describe the
behavior of the narrator, but
grammatically it appears to apply to
nothing in particular.

K Brown 2011
41

42. What‟s wrong here?
At the age of eight, my family finally
bought a dog.
First identify: What is the modifier in the sentence?
Answer: The modifier At the age of eight
"dangles" in mid-air, attaching to no named
person or thing.
K Brown 2011
42

43. And…
Watch out for the „comma splice‟.
This is when a writer uses a comma to link
two pieces of language that should instead
be separated by a full stop or an
explaining word.
K Brown 2011
43

44. Sentence structure exercise
Which of the following examples needs
changing?
K Brown 2011
44

45. This essay argues that theories of
learning are outmoded, they do not take
into account new technologies.
Answer: this sentence does need
changing, the comma has been
incorrectly used. The writer has placed
the comma where there should be an
explaining word e.g.:
„This essay argues that theories of
learning are outmoded because they
do not take into account new
technologies.‟
K Brown 2011
45

46. He examined the methodology of the
study which had been greatly debated.
The sentence needs to be changed because it does not make
clear what exactly had been debated, was it the methodology or
the study?
a.
If it was the methodology which was the subject of debate,
we could write:
„He examined the methodology of the study, which had been
greatly debated.‟
The reader should understand that the „which‟ therefore
refers to the methodology. However to be absolutely clear
we might also write:
„He examined the methodology of the study. This methodology
had been greatly debated.‟ (and we may need to go on to
explain why).
b.
If it was the study itself which had been debated, we could
write:
„He examined the methodology of the study. The study itself had
been greatly debated‟.
Or indeed we could shift the emphasis and explain a bit more,
e.g.:
K Brown 2011
46

47. Analysis this sentence…
When a mere first-year student, Edwards
adviser had nudged him in the direction of
theoretical physics.
Does this sentence need changing?
Yes, this sentence does need
changing, because the subject of the first part
of the sentence is not perfectly clear – we don‟t
know who „when a mere first-year student‟ is
referring to. [It is a dangling modifier.] We can
fix this by the subject in the right way:
„When Edward was a mere first-year
student, his adviser had nudged him in the
direction of theoretical physics.‟
K Brown 2011
47

48. Notes on Punctuation.
K Brown 2011
48

49. References & further reading
Ash, R. (2007). (ed.). Tacticus: Histories. Book II.
New York: Cambridge University Press.
 Crème, P. and Lea, M. R. (2003). Writing at
University: a guide for students. (2nd edn.).
Maidenhead: Open University Press.
 Laennec, C. (2009). Improving your writing.
Student learning service. University of Aberdeen

K Brown 2011
49

50. Outcomes
Having completed section 1; students
have been:
 Introduced the idea of academic
writing.
 Demonstrated the importance of
clearly defined structure.
 Explained and demonstrated the
importance of paragraph and
sentence content and structure.
K Brown 2011
50

51. Study skills
Section 2: Essays & Reports.
K Brown 2011
51

52. Objectives
To demonstrate the difference
between different forms of
assessment.
 To explain the meaning of terms used
in assessment questions.
 To introduce ways of approaching
assessment, and reading questions.

K Brown 2011
52

53. Forms of assessment
You will encounter a variety of different
kinds of assessment at university e.g:
 Essays
 Reports
 Case studies
 Oral presentations &
 Exams
K Brown 2011
53

54. These days the differences between
forms of assessment have merged,
essays often include elements of
reports etc.
Always ask your tutor exactly what they
are expecting.
K Brown 2011
54

55. The essay
A piece of writing which is written to a
set of writing conventions.
There may be some differences in these
conventions depending on subject area,
but the following advice will generally
apply.
K Brown 2011
55

56. Planning an essay (a
suggestion)
Analyse the question and the keywords. Note the
main topics that you are going to cover.
Divide any notes and ideas you already have into separate topics
– using a separate sheet for each topic relevant to your question.
These separate notes will form the separate main paragraphs of
your essay once you have added to them with further research.
Rearrange your notes. Look at what you have and group
related information, perhaps by colour coding with a felt
pen, and arrange them in a logical order.
Write an outline plan using the topics you have arranged. Write your
first plan before you have done any research and that will help you to
be more selective and constructive in taking notes. It will focus your
reading and you can adapt your plan as you go along.
Organise your information. With your colour coded pile of notes divide
them into paragraphs of different colours, underlining the main points.
Having grouped the information in this way you can start writing your first
draft. Each paragraph should have one main idea, with supporting
evidence and elaboration from the same colour group of notes. In other
words each paragraph should relate to one set of notes.
K Brown 2011
56

57. The structure and organisation of
an essay
Essays normally have four main parts:
1. Introduction
2. Main body
3. Conclusion, &
4. References (and bibliography).
K Brown 2011
57

58. The Abstract.
You may come across the requirement
for an „abstract‟ in some academic
work, this does not replace the
introduction, but to some extent is very
similar.
The purpose of the abstract is to
summarize the entire paper; the reader
will, by reading the abstract be informed
of the entire contents of the paper.
K Brown 2011
58

59. High Performance Working Practices: The New Framework for
Nurturing Sustainability?
Abstract
A new organisational paradigm demands ethical commitment as well as
committed agents towards society, visible practices which are exemplary in
the citizenship domain. Within this domain, a culture of social and human
solidarity is highlighted, so as to demonstrate to the economic agents that
immaterial capital in society functions as the main artery of economy, even
if those that are more inclined towards materialistic mind-sets, do not
understand this natural order within society. It is in this context that we
intend to reflect upon the future ways that organisations foster creativity,
based on intangible resources to leverage their sustainability and financial
independence. Thus, the objective of this paper is to reflect upon the high
performance work organisations framework, which is influenced by
Learning Organisations as well as the development human and intellectual
capitals in order to structure organisational competitive advantage. Our
aim is to bring some light to this framework and demonstrate the
importance of its implementation in a society dominated by technological
advancements.
Keywords: High Performance Work Organisations, Performance, Human
Capital
K Brown 2011
59

60. 1. Introduction

Your approach to the question, your
understanding of the question and the
content you intend to cover. (generally
about one tenth of the essay in
length).
„Tell them what you are going to tell
them‟
K Brown 2011
60

61. Introduction (cont)
Provide context of ideas.
 Explain terms.
 Introduce previous studies, events etc.
 Pave the way for the rest of the
document.

K Brown 2011
61

62. 2. Main body

In paragraph form (sometimes with subheadings). Each paragraph should
contain a theme or topic, backed up by
supporting arguments and analysis.

You should include other writers ideas
and arguments, but you must
acknowledge the source. You need to
analyse the material and give your views
without using terms like „I believe, I think
or I agree‟ instead use e.g:
„after careful analysis it
appears…‟
K Brown 2011
62

63. Main body (cont)
This is your opportunity to demonstrate your
skills in selecting, organising, interoperating
and analyzing material relevant to the
question.
 It is important to maintain a logical and
coherent structure to your ideas.
 When presenting conflicting or controversial
ideas, you are required to deal adequately
with all relevant ideas, not just those that
seem worthy of support.
 Remember you are being judged on your
ability to weigh up viewpoints on the basis of
available evidence, to evaluate source
material and to spot flaws in arguments.

K Brown 2011
63

64. Main body (cont): argument.
The structure of the argument should:
 Be consistent.
 Link ideas together.
 Proceed, step-by-step, to a logical
conclusion.
„Tell them‟
K Brown 2011
64

65. A brief diversion: Argument
An argument consists of two main
components:
1. A claim
2. Reasons for that claim.
When writing an argument, identify the
main claim and state the reasons for that
claim. Map them out prior to starting:
CLAIM=
Reason 1 =
Reason 2 =
Etc.
K Brown 2011
65

66. Main body (cont): Paragraphs
Paragraph 1.
Covers the first thing your introduction said you
would address, and the first sentence introduces
the main idea of the paragraph.
Other sentences develop the topic of the
paragraph with evidence, quotations, details and
references. The end of the paragraph leads to the
next paragraph.

Paragraph 2.
The first sentence links the paragraph to the
previous paragraphs, then introduces the main
idea of this paragraph other sentences develop the
topic as before.

K Brown 2011
66

67. 3. Conclusion

A summary of the essay, showing the
conclusion of your analysis of the
evidence presented. (generally about
one tenth of the essay length).
“Tell them what you have told them”
K Brown 2011
67

68. Conclusion (cont)
All essays should lead to a well
founded conclusion, drawing together
the ideas examined in the preceding
text. If the title invites the writer to
express a personal opinion, this
can/should be presented most fully in
the conclusion.
 Often the best analysis raises more
questions than it answers.

K Brown 2011
68

69. K Brown 2011
69

70. 1.
TELL THEM WHAT YOU ARE GOING
TO TELL THEM.
2.
3.
TELL THEM.
TELL THEM WHAT YOU HAVE TOLD
THEM.
K Brown 2011
70

71. Reports
Business reports are formal documents.
A report should be concise, well
organised using headings, sub
headings, sections, and easy to follow.
Sections should be numbered:
 Main section 1,2,3 etc. &
 Sub-sections 1.1, 1.2 etc.
Note: Essays often use headings and sub-headings, this is
sometimes simply due to a preference of the tutor, always ask.
K Brown 2011
71

72. Report format (generic)
Title page – subject of the report, author, date.
 Terms of reference – who ordered the report, when and why, any conditions*.
 Contents page – all section numbers and titles, using exactly the same wording as
in the report.
 Abstract – Brief summary of the report – task summary of conclusions and
recommendations*.
 Introduction – background information.
 Main body – findings, description, facts, opinions, etc. this must be well structured
(see previous section).
 Conclusion – summary of results.
 Recommendations – often in the form of a list, with some explanation.
 Appendices – additional details, tables, graphs, detailed analysis. These must be
numbered and cross referenced in the text*.
 Glossary – explanation of any specialist terms*.
 Bibliography – reference to any sources, which were used for either background
reading, or directly quoted in the text*.
 References – should include author, date etc. in alphabetical order.

*Not always a requirement of an academic report.
K Brown 2011
72

73. Reflective writing
How does writing reflectively differ from
other forms of writing?
It is unusual to write a reflective piece in
the third person (always ask your tutor)
K Brown 2011
73

74. 
Whether you are asked to write a reflective account
or a reflective journal, the key is to ask yourself a
series of questions as appropriate to your
circumstances:
What was the task? What set of circumstances am I reviewing?

How did I approach the task? How did I prepare? How did I set about planning what I was going to do? What
resources did I put in place?

How did I feel about my approach? E.g. confident, uncertain, excited, terrified...

How did I start the task? Did I need to communicate with other people? Make arrangements to go
somewhere? Go into a new environment?

How did I feel about making a start? E.g. Raring to go, nervous but confident in my preparation, worried
because I hadn't planned sufficiently, disinterested, this isn't my thing...

What happened during the event? Outline the key steps

How did I feel about the behaviors' of other people involved? Were they more/less helpful than I needed
them to be? Receptive or disinterested?

How did I feel about the environment? Was the environment suitable for the event or did it hinder
progress/mean I had to make special arrangements?

How did I feel about the resources? Did I have what I needed either due to my planning or what was
provided?

Did everything go to plan? Outline what worked and what didn‟t

How did I feel during the task? E.g. I grew in confidence, it was ok, nothing terrible happened but nothing
brilliant happened either, it went from bad to worse!

How did the task end? I achieved/did not achieve my aims

How did I feel when it was over? E.g. exhilarated, exhausted, relieved, disappointed...

Was it how I expected? Perhaps you discovered a gap between theory and practice?

What have I taken with me from this experience? E.g. I'm looking forward to the next time and I've got lots
of ideas about doing it differently, it was ok, I managed it but it's not something that fires me, I never want to do
that again, ever!
K Brown 2011
74

75. A dynamic model of reflection
Experience
Self - awareness
Skills analysis
Action steps
What situation?
What activity?
When?
Why?
Who was there?
What did I
think
feel
do
Is this
usual
surprising
How does this fit with
how I see
myself?
What did I do
behaviour
skills
expectations
What helped?
What did not help?
Would I have liked to
behave
differently?
What skills should I
develop?
How can I develop
them?
What resources are
available to me?
What steps will I take
to learn from or
build upon what
happened
75

76. Reflective writing (cont)
The style is usually informal, but should
still be organised in such a way as your
reader can follow your thoughts,
reasoning and conclusions.
K Brown 2011
76

77. Before you start writing…
K Brown 2011
77

78. Plan (a suggestion)
Analyse the question and the keywords. Note the
main topics that you are going to cover.
Divide any notes and ideas you already have into separate topics
– using a separate sheet for each topic relevant to your question.
These separate notes will form the separate main paragraphs of
your essay once you have added to them with further research.
Rearrange your notes. Look at what you have and group
related information, perhaps by colour coding with a felt
pen, and arrange them in a logical order.
Write an outline plan using the topics you have arranged. Write your
first plan before you have done any research and that will help you to
be more selective and constructive in taking notes. It will focus your
reading and you can adapt your plan as you go along.
Organise your information. With your colour coded pile of notes divide
them into paragraphs of different colours, underlining the main points.
Having grouped the information in this way you can start writing your first
draft. Each paragraph should have one main idea, with supporting
evidence and elaboration from the same colour group of notes. In other
words each paragraph should relate to one set of notes.
K Brown 2011
78

79. 1. Approaching the question
Read the question very
carefully, underlining „key words‟
Consider:
What
are the implications of the
title?
What ideas lie behind the
question?
What are you being invited to
explore?
K Brown 2011
79

80. Two components of a question to
look out for.
1.
The subject matter.
The terms, phrases, theories and/or debates you are being asked
to write about. (questions often address a key issue or debate
within a given area of study).
1.
Instructions that tell you what to do
with the subject matter
K Brown 2011
80

81. Commonly used terms
Analyse – consider all views, and
describe their inter-relationship.
 Compare – examine points in
question showing similarities or
differences
 Define – give a definition
 Discuss – describe different aspects
of the subject, and give a reasoned
conclusion.
 Evaluate – examine different sides of
the question and try to reach a

K Brown 2011
81

82. Important
Often questions will include more than
one of these terms.
 Or, indeed none, however by taking
the time to consider the question will
reveal what you are being asked to
do.
 Instructions may often be „implicit‟ that
is, hidden within the phrasing of the
title. You must read such questions
carefully to work out what to do.

K Brown 2011
82

83. Example
a.
Explain and access Locke’s reasons for rejecting the notion
of innate ideas.
The subject matter is Locke‟s reasons for rejecting the notion of innate ideas.
To answer this question you must know what the notion of innate ideas is and
be able to identify Locke‟s reasons for rejecting it. The instructions are to
explain Locke‟s reasons for rejecting the notion of innate ideas and assess
Locke‟s reasons for rejecting the notion of innate ideas.
a.
A leading actress (Harriet Walter) has recently written “we
tend to think of character’ as something psychologically
coherent or consistent. Shakespeare doesn't seem to think
of “characters’ like this. Do you agree?
The subject matter is that we usually expect dramatic characters to be
psychologically coherent and consistent and that Shakespeare thinks of them
differently. The instructions this time are not so explicit. You would probably
choose to explain or interpret what Harriet Walters meant when she wrote
what she did and then to justify whether or not you think she was right. You
may need to illustrate your case with examples. Brown 2011
K
83

84. Re-write a title/question as a
series of smaller questions.
it is often difficult to keep the meaning
of an essay title fixed in your mind.
 Meaning you can easily wander from
the point.
 Re-write the whole question into a
series of smaller questions or phrases.

K Brown 2011
84

85. Examples (returning to the previous questions)
What are the innate ideas?
 What were Locke‟s reasons for
rejecting the notion of innate ideas?
 What evidence is there to justify his
claim?
 What alternative viewpoints are there?
 Would we agree with Locke today?

K Brown 2011
85

86. What does “psychologically consistent
or coherent‟ mean?
 Do we tend to think of characters as
psychologically coherent or
consistent?
 Does Shakespeare tend to think of
characters as psychologically
coherent or consistent?
 If not, how does he seem to think of
them and how is this illustrated?
 If so, what evidence is there to
demonstrate this?

K Brown 2011
86

87. Consider this question…
Evaluate how the study of employment
relations in Britain reveals that many social and
economic outcomes in the wider society often
have deep roots in the workings, management
and the governance regime to which the
employment relationship is subject, in doing so
discussing the forms and nature of state
intervention in employment relations.
What are the key points of this question?
What ideas lie behind the title?
What are you being asked to do/explore?
K Brown 2011
87

88. Try breaking down one of your
assignment questions.
K Brown 2011
88

89. Important
AVOID the temptation to plunge straight
into the reading list.
 DEVOTE TIME to thinking what the
question is really asking of you.
 CONSIDER all aspects of the topic, and
decide what reading will be necessary in
order to answer the question, making use
of the reading list and OTHER relevant
material (Be careful not to over load).
 NB: the task of the writer is to respond to
the question asked, you will need to
demonstrate your ability to select material
relevant to the subject.

K Brown 2011
89

90. Style
Academic writing is more careful and
considered than everyday writing.
K Brown 2011
90

91. Academic language tends to:
• Use formal English.
• Be precise and accurate – not
chatty!
• Be cautious rather than very
direct or bold (use terms such
as „appears to‟, „may‟, seems
to‟ etc.)
• Be careful and clear in
establishing links between
ideas, evidence and
judgements.
• Be concise, edit out
unnecessary words: [A book
called] study skills.
• Take care to distinguish
facts from opinions.
• Be objective rather than
emotional or rhetorical
(avoid terms such as „nice‟,
„natural‟, „wonderful‟.
• Avoid sweeping claims or
statements.
• Avoid personal pronouns
such as „I‟/‟we‟ and „you‟.
Instead use „it can be seen
that‟, „there are a number
of‟ etc.
K Brown 2011
91

92. Always [unless otherwise
instructed] write in the third
person
I think parliament should reconsider
its recent vote on maternity leave.
Parliament should reconsider its
recent vote on maternity leave.
K Brown 2011
92

93. Re-phrase the following statements into „third person‟
In my opinion trade unions in the UK
have no future.
I asked the interviewee a series of
questions in order to gain an insight into
their perceptions of engagement.
You should read Mullins, which will give
you a general insight into motivation
theories.
K Brown 2011
93

94. Finally:
Always proof read your work, prior
submission bearing in mind the
points covered. Use a checklist to
ensure your piece is ready to hand
in.
K Brown 2011
94

95. Sample checklist
Hand-out
K Brown 2011
95

96. Outcomes

To demonstrate the difference
between different forms of
assessment?

To explain the meaning of terms used
in assessment questions?

To introduce ways of approaching
assessment, and reading questions?
K Brown 2011
96

97. Study skills
Section 3: finding and using
information
K Brown 2011
97

98. Objectives
Introduce the importance of criticality.
 Illustrate approaches to finding
relevant material in order to inform an
academic argument.
 Explain the differences between
„reliable‟ and „unreliable‟ sources.

K Brown 2011
98

99. Where do I look?
K Brown 2011
99

100. Where to start
Reading list
 Own thoughts
 Internet
 MLE

K Brown 2011
100

101. The ability to search for relevant
information is clearly of great benefit to
your academic studies. It is also a
highly transferable skill that you will use
in the work situation.
K Brown 2011
101

102. Comments (from P/T 1
st
year management
students)
“Information search skills are important – I've been
investigating the sort of staff our customers feel give them
great service, and what the key drivers of customer
service are”
(Kate, customer service leader).
“I depend on good information gathering skills for carrying
out audits on deaths of children and mothers during
childbirth”
(Zena, Head of administration: NHS maternity
department).
“my research skills have improved [as a result of the
course]. An example of this in action is when I looked for
different models of training courses, seeing if they would
fit in our organisation”
Cited in: Gallagher (2010).
(Amanda, Learning resources
manager)
K Brown 2011
102

103. Where to look

Newspapers.
Text books.
Websites (proceed with caution)
Journals & research papers.
Trade and professional publications.
The MLE
„Google scholar‟?

Look at the sources other writers use.






K Brown 2011
103

104. Reliability of sources.
Who wrote it?
 When?
 Who published it?

As a general rule if you are unsure don‟t
use it.
K Brown 2011
104

105. A note on websites.
Avoid referencing Wikipedia.
 Avoid free essay sites, and blogs.
 Think, who wrote them?
 Pay attention to domain types:
 .com = commercial
 .org = organisation
 .gov = government
 .edu = education
 .net = network

The domain type can indicate a possible bias towards the information.
For example a .org site on „animal rights‟ is potentially slanted towards one
Side of the issue.
K Brown 2011
105

106. 1.
Use Google Scholar to give you a better
overview of what is available.
2.
Armed with the journal title, article,
volume, issue and page number go to the
MLE.
3.
Search for the specific journal.
K Brown 2011
106

107. Scanning the literature

At first it looks as if you will never be
able to find the information you will
need.

Very soon you find you have to much.

You will need to adopt a strategy that
takes account of the important
literature and ignores the irrelevant.
K Brown 2011
107

108. A phased approach
Preparation
phase
Textbook 1
Chapter
related to
topic
Theory
selection
phase
Main theory
1
Critique
phase
•
•
Main theory 2
Textbook 3
Chapter
related to
topic
The question
Textbook 2
Chapter
related to
topic
Main theory 3
•
•
Evaluation
phase
Critical
journal
article.
Empirical
journal
article.
Metaliterature
review
Metadata
review.
Measure
the material
and data
against
current
thinking etc.
Synthesis
phase
Main theory
synthesized
from the
critique and
evaluation
of 3-5 main
theories, 56 empirical
studies, 710 critical
journal
articles and
other
sources
Adapted from: Horn (2009). Researching and writing dissertations: a complete guide for business and management
students
K Brown 2011
108

109. Definitions

Empirical –

Meta - Metadata describes how and when
The word empirical denotes
information gained by means of observation or
experimentation. Empirical data is data produced
by an experiment or observation. Provable or
verifiable by experience or experiment.
and by whom a particular set of data was
collected, and how the data is formatted i.e.
ONS surveys which inform a discussion etc.
K Brown 2011
109

110. Learn to skim books.

Books are thorough and long, often
having taken years to write. Whereas
webpages may have taken a day.

Skim the table of contents for a relevant
chapter.

Read the introduction and/or the first few
pages of the chapter to see if the
information is really what you are looking
for.
K Brown 2011
110

111. Always remember…
Think critically.
K Brown 2011
111

112. How can I achieve a good – or a better –
assignment grade?
Critical reading and
writing approach
Using effective
information
search
techniques
Effective
application to the
assignment
Source: Gallagher (2010).
Criticality forms the bedrock of academic literature, and the creation
of new knowledge.
K Brown 2011
112

113. „Critical?‟
What does critical actually mean?
“…it entails a variety of factors that,
together, are the basis for an
approach…”
(Gallagher, 2010: 176)
K Brown 2011
113

114. 










Never take things at their face value – you always
question.
Ask: Who? What? Why? Where? When? How?
Seek other views for comparison;
Look for trends or patterns;
Consider not only what happens but what does not
happen;
Seek to measure or analyze those aspects that are
relevant;
Carefully interpret your findings;
Always give evidence to support key statements;
Construct lines of reasoning (arguments) based upon
evidence;
Consider the validity and accuracy of your research
methods;
Ask if you are asking the „right‟ questions in the first
K Brown 2011
114

115. How to critique an article or
theory.
1.
Read the whole book,
article or chapter etc.
Make sure to understand the piece
K Brown 2011
115

116. 2. Think carefully about what you
have read and ask yourself
questions about the material. You
should try to establish:
The main points that the author is
trying to make.
 How does the author back these
points up? In other words what
evidence is provided?

K Brown 2011
116

117. 3. Re-read the material:
Make sure you have understood the
authors ideas
K Brown 2011
117

118. 4. Try to summarise what you
have read:
You may wish to do this by way of
 Bullet pointed lists
 A spider diagram
 Mind-map etc.
K Brown 2011
118

119. 5. Think about different points
of view:
How do this authors ideas compare to
other writers on the subject?
 Do you agree or disagree with the author?
You should say why, whilst backing up
statements with academic opinions. You
will need to read around the subject area.

K Brown 2011
119

120. Identify the argument
Claim =
Reason 1 =
Reason 2 =
Reason 3 =
Once you have the argument mapped
out, assess the reasoning.
K Brown 2011
120

121. Ask yourself the following
questions:
1.
Is there an alternative explanation
that is possible? A different reason
for the claim, probing alternatives is
an excellent way to open up
weaknesses in an authors logic.
Example: „John was late because he obviously doesn‟t care about
the class‟
An alternative explanation for johns lateness could be that he got in
a car wreck, and therefore couldn't‟t make it to class on time, not
that he doesn‟t care.
K Brown 2011
121

122. 2. Is the evidence presented sufficient?
Evidence refers to the support given for
the claim. This support may be in the
form of facts, statistics, authoritative
quotations etc.
Example: "John was late because he
has Alzheimer's disease, and according
to the American Medical
Association, Alzheimer's patients
frequently forgot who and where they
are" (Jones 65). (The writer has given
evidence in the form of research for his
or her reasoning.)
K Brown 2011
122

123. 3. What assumptions do the reasons rest on? An
assumption is what one takes for granted to be true, but
which actually may not be true. All arguments rest on
some common assumptions. This common ground makes
it possible for two people to have a dialogue in the first
place, but these assumptions, because they are based on
groundless ideas, make for a "sweet spot" of attack in
argument.
Example: "John was late because his previous class is on
the far side of campus."
(The assumption is that it takes a long time to get from the
far side of campus to class. If John walked the same speed
as the one presenting the argument, the assumption would
be a shared one. However, it may be the case that John
actually walks much faster than assumed, and that he was
late for another reason.)
K Brown 2011
123

124. 4. Does the writer commit any logical
fallacies?
Fallacies are commonly committed
errors of reasoning. Being aware of
these fallacies will help you see them
more abundantly in the texts you read.
Although there are probably at least a
hundred different fallacies, the following
six are the most common:
K Brown 2011
124

125. Hasty generalisation;
 Faulty cause and effect;
 Fallacy of authority;
 Slippery slope;
 Non-sequitar, &
 Either/Or.

K Brown 2011
125

126. Hasty generalisation
Generalising from a sample that is too small.

Example: John was late to my physics class all
last semester. Therefore John is just an
unpunctual, late person. (Actually, last semester
John may have had difficulty getting to
physics, but no trouble getting to his other
classes.)

Example: I conclude from the several
pleasant, hard-working AUC students I met this
morning that all AUC students are
pleasant, hard-working students. (Actually, you
may have just met the only three nice students
on campus.)
K Brown 2011
126

127. Faulty cause and effect.

Attributing the wrong cause to the effect.

Example: John was late to class
because he went to the dentist yesterday
and had a root canal. (Actually, John
may be late for another reason.)

Example: The horses are acting strange
because there's a deep storm brewing.
(Actually, the horses may be acting
strange because they're hungry.)
K Brown 2011
127

128. Fallacy of authority
Accepting for truth what is claimed simply because
someone said so.
 Example: John was late to class because his the
school psychologist said John was having bouts of
depression and may not attend class. (Actually, what
the psychologist said may be wrong. Maybe John even
lied to her.)

Example: John Grisham, an expert in law, says law is a
tedious yet exciting practice. So it must be the case that
law is a tedious, exciting practice. (Actually, what
Grisham says may not be true. He hasn't supplied any
reasoning for his assertion, and he's a popular fiction
writer rather than a lawyer.)
K Brown 2011
128

129. Slippery slope

Exaggerating the consequences.

Example: If John is late to class, he'll miss the material and
do poorly on the test. When his father sees his bad grades,
John will be whipped and then he'll run away and join the
circus. (Actually, John may do fine on the test even though he
missed class.)

Example: Students who arrive late to class will receive low
grades, which will then prevent them from declaring their
majors. If students can't declare the majors they want, they'll
lead miserable lives fulfilling careers they hate until they
finally commit suicide. (Actually, even if students receive a
low grade, it doesn't mean they won't be able to bring up their
other grades in other classes and still declare the majors they
want.)
K Brown 2011
129

130. Non sequitar

The conclusion/claim doesn‟t follow from the reasons.

Example: I saw John talking to a pretty girl this
morning. Therefore, he is late to class because he's
probably eating lunch with her. (It doesn't follow that
talking to a pretty girl would lead to a truant luncheon.)

Example: Some cars drive recklessly along the roads
where pedestrians walk, endangering them.
Therefore, we should ban pedestrians from walking
down some roads. (It doesn't follow that you should
punish the pedestrians instead of the cars.)
K Brown 2011
130

131. Either/Or

Narrowing the options to just two extremes when in
actuality more options exist.

Example: I saw John talking to a pretty girl this
morning. Therefore, he is late to class because he's
probably eating lunch with her. (It doesn't follow that
talking to a pretty girl would lead to a truant luncheon.)

Example: Some cars drive recklessly along the roads
where pedestrians walk, endangering them.
Therefore, we should ban pedestrians from walking
down some roads. (It doesn't follow that you should
punish the pedestrians instead of the cars.)
K Brown 2011
131

132. Have a go…

Practice with fallacies.

Practice with reasoning.
K Brown 2011
132

133. Fallacies
Each of the passages, on the hand-out
contain fallacious reasoning, identify
which fallacy is committed
K Brown 2011
133

134. Fallacy answers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Hasty generalisation
Non-sequitar
Faulty cause and effect
Emotional appeal
Fallacy of authority
Slippery slope
Either/Or
K Brown 2011
134

135. Study skills
Building an argument (continued)

136. Introduction
If logic and reasoning are the tools, a
proper concise argument is the product.
This series of slides will attempt to
inform you of the basis of a proper
argument.

137. What is an argument?
Presenting effective arguments is at the
heart of good essay writing – in almost every
essay you should aim to make an overall
point in response to some issue or debate.
 That doesn‟t mean you have to argue for
something you don‟t believe in.
 Strive for accuracy and make
claims, however small, that you can justify as
a result of your research/paper.


138. Reading the opposing
argument
Read the literature and start thinking critically about
what you are reading:
 Do you agree?
 Why?
 Do you disagree?
 Why?
 When you are reading [an argument] look for points
which you think you can refute.
 Most importantly try to figure out his/her central point
(what the piece is trying to convey).
 This is extremely important in constructing an argument
as this helps you refute the core of the piece rather than
limiting your self to refuting certain points of it.


139. Thinking
It starts with the question:
 „Are you able to argue against the central point or
refute certain points of the argument?‟
 Asking do you want to/able to go against the
papers argument, or do you completely
agree/concede with the paper?
 If the answer is no - but you still want/need to
write an argument, you can write several
supporting points that other papers have
missed, or you state your own thesis on the
subject at hand [reinforcing this with relevant
academic material].
 If the answer is yes – then move to the next step
in the thinking process.

140. Evidence/support




This is critical in an argument. If you
don‟t have it, your argument has no
basis [it is merely an opinion].
Good evidence if often objective in
nature. Objective means that statements
can be verified and tested to see its
merits.
For example – we know that gravity
exists because if we drop an object it will
fall.
Often a good argument will consist of
several pieces of evidence.

141. Organise your thoughts
Once you have your opinion, and your
evidence its time to organise your
thoughts.
 It can be useful to put these ideas into
a table which categorises your
thoughts and research


142. For
Topic
How alike?
How different?
In what regard?
Against

143. A good argument not only considers the points to
refute, but also points that may be made to refute your own
argument (counter arguments)

144. Consider the following
Identify your core concern – what is
the essence of your argument – its major
points?
 Investigate other thinkers and
researchers in the area. What possible
answers might you arrive at?
 Sequence your work – whatever suits
you (bullet points, spider
diagram, pictures etc.)
 Summarise your arguments briefly –
possible using no more than a single
line. You may be able to use this as a
thesis statement later.


145. The central parts of an
argument
1.
2.
Premise – a proposition which gives
reasons, grounds, or evidence for
accepting some other proposition,
called the conclusion.
Conclusion – a proposition, which is
purported to be established on the
basis of other propositions

146. Question

If a tree falls in a forest, but no body is
around to hear it does it make a
sound?
Proposition 1 – No it makes
not sound.
Proposition 2 – Yes it will
make a sound.
Reasons, Grounds and
Evidence?

147. Another model
Claim
The tree makes no sound
Reason
Reason
Reason
Facts,facts,
facts,facts,f
acts,facts,f
acts,facts,f
acts,facts,f
acts,facts,f
acts,facts,f
acts
Facts,facts,
facts,facts,f
acts,facts,f
acts,facts,f
acts,facts,f
acts,facts,f
acts,facts,f
acts
Facts,facts,
facts,facts,f
acts,facts,f
acts,facts,f
acts,facts,f
acts,facts,f
acts,facts,f
acts
Counter argument
Counter argument
Counter argument

148. Structure
The following points are a useful guide
to writing up your argument in a clear
and structured way:

149. First

State your argument clearly and early
on in your work. What are you setting
out to prove? This will tell your reader
where you are heading with your
argument and will immediately grab
their interest. This is a thesis
statement.

150. Then

Set out the structure of your
work, demonstrating concisely how
your work will be structured.

151. Next

Give the background to your work and
set out any relevant definitions – do
NOT assume that your reader will be
familiar with them (remember the aim
is to demonstrate your knowledge and
research skills).

152. Finally

Fully detail any theoretical
underpinnings and why you have used
them (e.g. writing from a
feminist/utilitarian/sociological
perspective) this will depend on the purpose of
the paper and the subject matter.

153. Example
This essay discusses issues of discrimination
relating to adults with disabilities in Wales, and
will draw upon the legislative and cultural, to
examine this topic. Although there are many
and varied manifestations of disability, this
assignment will primarily focus on persons with
physical impairments. Reference will be made
to the multifarious nature of discrimination and
the meaning of power, discrimination and
oppression, from the perspective of service
users, will also be comprehensively addressed.
The essay begins with a comprehensive
definition of discrimination and describes how
the term need not always, according to
Thompson, (2006) be negative.

154. Remember! Back up your argument throughout
your essay with relevant data, examples and
academic work in order to provide a
balanced, well rounded and informed discussion
that looks at your topic from varied angles.

155. For your conclusion, return to your original argument
and place it firmly into its final context, stating your
conclusions boldly.

156. Example
In conclusion then, it is clear that in Wales, the Welsh Assembly
Government is fully engaged with issues relating to equality and
diversity. It actively seeks to encourage organisations to promote
anti discriminatory practice in accordance with its Code of Practice
(2002) through the provision of appropriate and sensitive services
that are needs-led, rather than resource driven. The legislation
formulated to counter discrimination helps to ensure that those in
our society who are disadvantaged, whether that be through
physical or mental disability, are provided with opportunities to
achieve their goals and ambitions. We have also seen that whilst
power is a complex issue it can be seen as a creative as well as a
controlling force and can serve to maintain equity between
professionals and those with disabilities.
Clearly then, difference is something to be valued positively and
the unique nature of individuals and groups with physical
disabilities should always be accepted and respected. (Social Care
Institute of Excellence, 2006)
(Extracts adapted from an essay by anonymous student, 2008)

157. Developing your arguments
How to present an argument in an essay

158. 1. Stating your point of view early in the essay and presenting a
clear rationale to support it. Your point of view should be a
consistent one throughout the essay.
2. Offering reliable evidence or examples to support your
argument. Reliable evidence is evidence that you have read in
reputable and authoritative texts, articles, newspapers, Internet
sites etc.
3. Showing where this evidence has come from: by citing your
sources and listing all your sources in the reference or
bibliography section at the end of the essay.
4. Showing that you are aware of, and have considered
arguments that are counter to your own. You will need to
summarise counter arguments in a clear, accurate and undistorted
way in your essay
5. Being able to show why you have decided that the arguments
that you have chosen to advance are more convincing for you
than others.

159. More to follow….
K Brown 2011
159