1. University of Puerto Rico
Rio Piedras Campus
College of General Studies
English Department
English 3101 Prepared by Lydia Lopez 2005
Expanded by Brenda A. Camara &
Vanessa Irizarry, 2007
Elements of the Essay
An essay is a prose composition which presents a writer’s perspective on
a subject. Most essays attempt to discuss a topic, convince the reader of a
thesis, or simply communicate a personal experience or belief. An essay can be
fairly brief or quite long. It is a versatile and flexible literary form.
The Paragraph
The paragraph is the basic unit of the essay. Most developmental
paragraphs have a topic sentence, supporting sentences, and a concluding
sentence. A topic sentence states or strongly suggests the focus or topic of the
paragraph. Every sentence is closely related to the topic sentence, bringing a
sense of unity and clarity to the writing. Supporting sentences help develop
the topic sentence by presenting evidence in the form of facts and details,
examples and illustrations, comparison and contrast, reasons, cause and effect,
analysis, analogy, definition and classification. A well-written paragraph flows
smoothly and has coherence. It will have an inner structure (inner logic, natural
direction) or pattern of organization that will allow the reader to follow the writer’s
ideas with ease. The writer selects the most appropriate method of paragraph
development and pattern of organization depending on the purpose of his/her
paragraph.
Methods of Paragraph Development
facts and details: The central idea of a paragraph can be supported with
information. A fact is verifiable information. Factual details may be taken from
newspapers, magazines, journals, scientific research, books, or other essays.
Other details may be objective descriptions of people, concepts, objects or
events. They differ from opinions or subjective ideas of the writer.
examples and illustrations: An example is a specific instance of a general
concept or idea. Something mentioned to show what you mean, what something
is like or to prove a point. An illustration is a lengthy example, an anecdote or
short account of some happening. Paragraphs which use this method of
development usually contain a main idea followed by several examples or
illustrations to back up this idea. In most cases well-chosen examples can prove
a point far better than any other method. Examples and illustrations are also
frequently used with other methods of development.
comparison and contrast: In this method of development the writer measures
one subject against another subject that is often familiar. The writer states the

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main point of the comparison and presents the likenesses (similarities) between
subjects in a clear, organized way. Contrast uses details to measure the
differences between them.
reasons: When using reasons, the writer gives an explanation or justification of
an idea, cause, or motive. The reasons may be supported by details, examples
or some other method of development.
cause and effect: This method of paragraph development establishes a
connection between a result and the events that preceded it. The general
statement may be a cause which can be supported by specific effects or results,
or the general statement may be an effect which can be supported by specific
causes.
analysis: In this method of development, the writer tries to explain something by
breaking a subject into parts and examining them carefully in order to clarify the
whole. A method of writing that explains in a step-by-step way how to do
something or achieve a desired effect is called process analysis.
analogy: This method of development shows a similarity between two otherwise
dissimilar things. For example, music is analogous to the wind-strong and loud at
some times, gentle and soft at others. A false analogy, on the other hand,
distorts the points of similarity and results in an invalid conclusion.
definition: A definition is the explanation of a word, concept or idea so that the
reader knows, as clearly as possible, what the writer means by it or how he/she
is using it in a particular situation. It is often combined with classification.
classification: With this method, the writer divides a subject into categories or
places a term or concept in an appropriate class. When used with definition, the
writer provides details to show how the term or concept used is different from
others in the same category.
Patterns of Paragraph Organization
chronological order: Details are arranged in the order in which they happen. It
is effective for narrating personal experience, summarizing steps, and explaining
events.
spatial order: Provides unity by arranging details left to right, right to left, top to
bottom, edge to center, distant to near, and so on. The descriptive details are
arranged in physical space. This pattern of organization is useful for many types
of descriptions.
deductive order: With this pattern of organization, the writer first states a
general
idea and follows with specific reasons, examples, facts, details or other evidence
to support it.
inductive order: With this pattern of organization, the writer presents evidence
followed by a general statement or conclusion drawn from the specific
information provided. The topic sentence may be placed at the end.
process order: This pattern of organization is used where there is a step-by-step
approach to an activity. It is useful to explain how something is made or done.
climactic order: Ideas are arranged in order of importance. The order can be
ascending, from the least to the most important, or descending, from the most to
the least important.

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Transitional Expressions and Linking Words
No matter what method is used for developing a paragraph, transitions
help connect ideas smoothly. Following is a list of useful transitional expressions
and linking words.
A. Words that can be used to show continuation of thought:
again in fact
now incidentally that is to say
then in this manner furthermore
indeed in the same manner
B. Words that can be used to add information:
again in addition further
and additionally furthermore
also besides likewise
and then too moreover
C. Words that can be used to show comparison and similarity:
in the same way similarity as
in a like manner likewise also
just like just as
D. Words that can be used to contrast things (show differences):
but however on the contrary
yet despite on the other hand
still nevertheless on the contrary
although notwithstanding in contrast
in spite of
E. Words that can be used to show passing of time:
lately presently temporarily
meanwhile recently then
soon since then thereafter
later after eventually
during at after a short/long time
as soon as before afterward
at last today immediately
F. Words that can be used to show result/cause & effect:
thus hence as a result
therefore accordingly on this account
as a consequence naturally because of this
consequently for this reason because
since so
G. Words that can be used to show sequence or numerical order:
first in the first place then
second in the second place finally
third next last

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H. Words that can be used to show location:
above beside off
across between onto
against beyond on top of
along by outside
among down over
around in back of throughout
away from in front of to the right
behind inside under
below into beneath
near
I. Words that can be used to emphasize a point:
again truly for this reason
to repeat in fact to emphasize
indeed surely without a doubt
J. Words that can be used to clarify:
in other words for instance
that is put another way
K. Words that can be used to show examples:
for example in fact specifically
for instance in other words that is
another instance in particular indeed
namely particularly incidentally
L. Words that can be used to summarize:
in summary in short all in all
to summarize in brief that is
in conclusion to sum up
to conclude finally
The Organization of the Essay
An essay deals with a subject which is developed by a number of
paragraphs. It is a prose composition, written to entertain, inform or persuade,
that may be fairly brief or quite extensive. The author’s style and tone will
determine if the essay is formal or informal. A formal essay establishes
distance between the writer and reader; it is fairly impersonal and objective. An
informal essay is personal and subjective; it makes the reader feel the author is
speaking directly to him/her. Notice the scholarly, formal tone in the following
paragraph:
That seventeenth-century thought was, in fact,
characterized by a waning faith in Aristotelian ideals is
evidenced by Galileo’s discoveries, which were made
possible by his skepticism toward Aristotle’s
teachings.

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Now notice the informal, resigned tone in the paragraph below:
I suppose it is an immutable truth that money means
power and vice-versa. Acceptance of this simple, sad
fact can make life, if not more fair, at least less
frustrating.
Tone is the attitude of the author to what is being discussed, expressed
through a style which can be ironic, bitter, sympathetic, humorous, serious,
objective, subjective, resigned, critical, impartial, speculative or conjectural (the
author does not give any answers, he/she merely speculates on possibilities),
rhetorical (the author asks questions to sustain a point).
The tone used by the author will arouse a feeling in the reader. The
general emotional feeling aroused in the reader is called mood and may be
described as angry, resentful, nostalgic, reflective, among others.
Although an essay is longer than a paragraph and contains more
information, the organizing principle between the paragraph and the essay is
almost identical. Both are organized around a main point or controlling idea. In a
paragraph this main point or controlling idea is expressed in a topic sentence and
supported by details. In an essay this main point or controlling idea is expressed
in a thesis. The thesis is the writer’s statement of what the essay will cover or
discuss. Transitional devices used to hold sentences together in paragraphs are
also used in essays to link, not sentences, but paragraphs. However, the essay,
being longer and more complex, will often contain paragraphs individually
developed by different strategies.
There are three fundamental types of paragraphs in an essay: the
introductory paragraph(s), the developmental paragraphs, the concluding
paragraph(s). The introductory paragraph or paragraphs introduce the subject
to be discussed and give the reader an indication of how this topic is going to be
developed. A good introduction should indicate whether the essay is going to
narrate, describe, explain, or persuade. It should be inviting and interesting
enough to make the reader want to continue reading. Generally speaking, it
should contain the thesis statement with its controlling idea. This, of course, is
only a general rule. In some essays, the thesis statement sometimes appears
later, sometimes even at the end. In some cases, too, the thesis is just implied.
(For college essays, however, it is a good idea to state the thesis clearly in the
introduction.)
The body of the essay will consist of several developmental paragraphs.
These paragraphs will contain the major points that the writer selected to prove
or develop the controlling idea. Each major point will serve as the controlling
topic of one of the developmental paragraphs, and the major point will be stated
in a topic sentence. The writer will select the method of paragraph development
most appropriate for the development of each topic sentence.
Whenever a writer who is discussing two ideas has finished developing
one idea and is ready to begin with the other, the writer often uses a sentence (or

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a short paragraph) to establish a bridge between the two ideas. This type of
sentence or paragraph is called transitional. A transitional sentence or
paragraph serves to indicate a shift or change from one point or idea to another.
It may refer to what has been said and suggest what is coming. All essays do
not have transitional paragraphs.
The concluding paragraph usually reaffirms, directly or indirectly, the
main points discussed in the previous paragraphs. It may restate the thesis
phrasing it in different words. It may summarize or may offer the author’s
conclusion. It does not bring up a new topic.
In brief, the content and organization of an essay may be outlined as
follows:
I. Introduction
A. Thesis statement
II. Body
A. Support
1.
2.
B. Support
1.
2.
III. Conclusion
A. Restatement of thesis or a concluding statement
Unity and coherence are characteristics of well-written essays. An essay
is unified when each of its sentences and all of its paragraphs help support the
thesis statement. An essay has coherence when the sentences and the
paragraphs are logically arranged and flow smoothly. Linking sentences within a
paragraph helps the reader to follow the writer’s train of thought. In like manner,
the paragraphs of an essay must also be linked. Paragraphs may be linked by
repeating key words from the thesis statement and by repeating important words
and ideas. Transitional words and expressions help the reader by relating a new
idea to an idea which has previously been expressed. Likewise, the use of
transitional words and sentences helps the reader to see the relationship
between paragraphs.
Types of Essays
Any topic can be the subject of an essay. As it has been suggested, an
essay is, indeed, a very flexible literary form that enjoys the freedom that other
forms of literature do not have. There are, however, four types of essays:
narrative, descriptive, argumentative, and expository.
The narrative essay deals with the telling of a personal experience;
therefore, presenting time – whether in a single personal event, a series of
related events, or a historical occurrence – is one key element of narrative prose.
Commonly, the events are presented in chronological order. Nevertheless, the
writer is free to move around in time and organize the events from present to past
using the technique called a flashback. A flashback provides a break in the

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straight chronological order of narrating events. Its purpose is to introduce
material or information from the past. The writer must connect each event in the
time span to other events that come before or after and transition words of time
serve as bridges to connect the various moments in the narrative pattern. In the
narrative essay there must always be some purpose for the telling of events, a
purpose that goes beyond the story itself. The narration of events is just a
means to an end, a way to support a central idea or thesis.
The descriptive essay uses sensory images to present a vivid picture of
someone or something. Descriptive writing relies on sensory images that appeal
to the sense of sight, sound, smell, touch, and taste. Often these images are
made more effective by the use of figurative language. The author’s feelings
about the subject are clearly expressed in the controlling idea of the thesis
sentence. All details are carefully selected to convey the author’s feeling through
the creation of a dominant impression of its subject. To create that impression
the author may use descriptive language that is objective, straightforward,
precise, and factual. This kind of language is called denotative and it makes use
of neutral dictionary meanings. If the description is subjective, the writer may use
connotative language, that is, language which suggests or implies something
beyond the dictionary meaning. In brief, a word’s denotation is the specific
dictionary meaning of a word. Connotation, however, refers to the suggestive
quality of words, the feelings(s) or impression(s) that a word may awaken in the
reader. Descriptive writing must have an organizational pattern that supports the
dominant impression of the subject. Details in descriptive essays are usually
arranged spatially (from top to bottom, left to right, near to far, interior to exterior),
but they can also be arranged emphatically (more important to less important,
less striking to most striking). Details could also be organized according to the
sensory images they evoke.
The argumentative essay tries to convince the reader of some opinion or
persuade the reader to take action on an issue. Argumentation makes an appeal
to the reader’s intellect. When a writer is trying to persuade, the writer will also
make a strong appeal to the reader’s emotions. In this type of essay, the author
takes a stand by offering a judgment of value, an interpretation of events, or a
proposed course of action and then providing reasons for readers to agree with it.
The position of the writer is clearly stated. A good thesis statement is crucial to
the essay. This stated position is an idea that can be debated or disputed, and
towards which the writer must take a definite side. The reader must know what
the writer’s position is, and must see that the central idea is supported with
convincing reasons. To support each minor proposition, a writer must offer
evidence such as statistics, facts, historical events, news reports, interviews,
personal experience, and testimony from authorities. In addition to presenting
the argument logically and convincingly, the writer must also recognize and deal
with opposing arguments. Since there has to be more than one side to any
debatable issue, the writer must acknowledge the opposition. By effectively
refuting rival propositions the writer can make a more convincing argument. In
short, an argumentative essay is ultimately as strong as the logic that the writer
brings to it.

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An expository essay informs, explains or analyzes a topic. In this kind of
essay, the thesis or controlling idea is frequently referred to as a generalization (a
statement that mostly applies to a group of things, ideas, or people). This
generalization can be a value judgment, an opinion, or a factual statement.
Specific details help prove or support the generalization or thesis. Factual
details, examples, and illustrations are often used as support. The ideas in an
expository essay are organized in a logical manner. Order of importance and
order of familiarity are two of the most frequently used forms of logical
arrangement for expository essays. Although the paragraphs in expository
essays can be developed in many different ways, some of the most common
methods of paragraph development are: classification, comparison and contrast,
analogy, examples and illustrations, process analysis, cause and effect, and
definition.
Imagery and Figurative Language
A writer selects words carefully in order to convey the message or to
create the desired impact on the reader. Imagery and figurative language add
richness to writing and help to stimulate the reader’s imagination. Images are
classified according to the sense that is awakened by the word or phrase.
1. Visual - sight
“…old women with jet-black faces and braided hair… from Salvation by
Langston Hughes.
2. Auditory- hearing
“The preacher preached a wonderful rhythmical sermon, all moans and
shouts and lonely cries and dire pictures of hell…”
from Salvation by Langston Hughes.
3. Gustatory- taste
“Is love the sweetness of flowers?” from The Key to Language by Helen
Keller.
4. Olfactory- smell
“…attracted by the fragrance of the honeysuckle with which it was
covered.” from The Key to Language by Helen Keller.
5. Tactile - touch
“Miss Sullivan slowly spelled into my hand the word ‘d-o-l-l.’ I was at once
interested in this finger play and tried to imitate it.” from The Key to
Language by Helen Keller.
6. Kinesthetic- movement
“Women leaped in the air” from Salvation by Langston Hughes.
7. Thermal- hotness or coldness
“As the cool stream gushed over her hand” from The Key to Language by
Helen Keller.

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A figure of speech is language that expresses something in such a way as
to give sparkle and vitality to the meaning. That is to say, the idea is not stated
literally. A figure of speech speaks of one thing in terms of another with which it
shares a similarity.
1. Simile – A similarity between two elements is directly indicated by the
words like, as, or seems.
“Pupils are more like oysters than sausages” from What True Education
Should Do by Sydney J. Harris.
2. Metaphor - The comparison is less obvious. Instead of saying that one
thing is like another, it implies or states that one thing is another.
“A formidable, solidly built woman with a salt-and-pepper hair…” from The
Teacher Who Changed My Life by Nicholas Gage.
3. Personification- Human characteristics are given to inanimate things,
abstractions or animals.
“…my knowledge limped, my intelligence limped” from Overcoming an
Invisible Handicap by Thomas J. Cottle.
4. Hyperbole or overstatement – An exaggeration.
“So I read all the time I was not in class” from Becoming Educated by
Barbara Jordan.
5. Paradox - A statement that at first reading seems contradictory or
illogical but actually contains an element of truth.
“I spend so much time studying that I don’t have a chance to learn
anything.” from What True Education Should Do by Sydney J. Harris.
Other Literary Devices
1. Allusion - A reference to persons, places, or events known to
us from, history, popular culture or from previous literature.
“But genuine education, as Socrates knew more than two thousand years
ago, is not inserting the stuffings of information into a person, nut rather
eliciting knowledge from him…” from What True Education Should Do by
Sydney Harris.
2. Irony - The use of language to suggest something different from
what is stated.
“He had grown up in a country run by politicians who sent the pilots to fly
bombers to kill the babies to make the world safe for children to grow up
in.” by Usurla K. Le Guin
3. Symbol - A symbol stands for or represents something else.
An eye flowing with tears could represent sorrow, and a man with the head
of a lion might be bravery from Symbols of Human Kind by Don Lago.
4. Analogy - A comparison of two things alike in certain respects. A
method of exposition by which one unfamiliar object or idea is explained
by comparing several of its characteristics with those of other objects or
ideas which are more familiar.
“I’d no more scribble all over the first edition of Paradise Lost than I’d give
my baby a set of crayons and an original Rembrandt!” from How to Mark a
Book by Mortimer Adler.

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References:
Writing Talk: Paragraphs and Short Essays with Readings
Anthony C. Winkler, Jo Ray McCuen-Metherell
Prentice Hall (2006)
Writing Talk: Sentences and Paragraphs with Readings
Anthony C. Winkler, Jo Ray McCuen-Metherell
Prentice Hall (2006)
The Write Start
Lawrence Checkett, Gayle Feng-Checkett
Longman (2001)
The Thoughtful Reader
Mary C. Fjeldstad
Thomson (2005)
The Reader’s Corner
Carol Kanar
Houghton Mifflin (2005)
The Essay and Short Story Reader
Harcourt Brace ( 2002)
Viewpoints
W. Royce Adams
Houghton Mifflin (2004)
Reading & Thinking about Essays and Short Stories
Clara Costa
Thomson (2007)