Immanuel Kant was an 18th century German philosopher who developed the categorical imperative as a way to determine morality. The categorical imperative states that moral rules must be universal and that people should never be treated merely as a means to an end. Kant believed that human nature is fundamentally good and that we have a duty to act according to moral rules derived from pure reason alone. He argued that morality depends on intention rather than outcomes and that we have universal duties that apply regardless of inclination.

7. In Christianity this could be expressed as 'Treat others as you want them to treat you.' (Matthew 7:12)). In other words, would we be happy for others to act in the same way we do? 2. 'Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but at the same time as an end.' This means that humans are the most important factor in any ethical decision making. Human suffering is never justified as a means to any end. 3. 'So act as if you were through your maxims a law-making member of a kingdom of ends' We should always keep in mind the rights of others. No-one should ever become a pawn in our 'game of life'. Categorical Imperative Two types of contradictions: "Contradictions in Conception" – where everyone lies and is expected that everyone will lie so it is normal for you to lie. So lying is pointless as no will trust the agent. “ Contradictions in Will” – a self-reliant person (agent) who thinks everyone should mind their own business requesting help from others. 1. ‘Act as if the maxim of your action was to become through your Will a Universal law of nature’.

11. Moral Lying Back in Discussion #2 we covered is lying good. Most people answered that it depends on the circumstances and the condition of the lie. At one point, it was suggested that it may be perfectly acceptable for ‘powers that be’ can lie to us. I like to visit this outlook. 2. Applying Kant’s Imperative, why did the ‘Contradiction in Conception’ block this from being acceptable behavior even though Kant reasoned that it was intrinsically wrong to lie?