The interactive web

The Internet
HAIRONG LI
Michigan State University

The Interactive Web
Toward a New Discipline

This paper reviews the most significant studies of the Web and interactive advertising
that have been published in the Journal of Advertising Research over the past 15
years. These studies have covered a wide range of issues and, along with many
articles in other advertising journals, they have contributed to the formation of a new
discipline of interactive advertising, which is transforming the advertising business
and education around the world. These studies are exemplary and may inspire new
breakthrough studies of interactive advertising in the years to come.

HISTORY
The World Wide Web (Web) emerged as an adver- marketing industry’s knowledge about interactive
tising medium in the early 1990s. It since has been advertising.
used not only as an advertising vehicle itself but as When we review the literature of the past 15
a platform for new forms of interactive advertis- years, we see that a new discipline of interac-
ing, such as display ads, sponsorship, search ads tive advertising has been created. This particu-
and, more recently, blogs and microblogs, social lar review, however, does not intend to cover the
ads, user-generated content, and widgets and entire body of literature on interactive advertising
apps. The Web—as well as digitally focused adver- from all advertising, communication, and market-
tising concepts—is transforming the advertising ing journals, as such reviews are already available
business and education in the United States and (Cho and Khang, 2006; Ford and Merchant, 2008;
around the world. Ha, 2008; Kim and McMillan, 2008). Rather, it sum-
The Journal of Advertising Research (JAR) was one marizes major articles from the Journal that are
of the first advertising journals to publish research highly influential, still largely current, or possibly
articles on the Web and interactive advertising. In inspirational for future studies of emerging issues
the first 10 years of Internet advertising, between of interactive advertising. Select articles from other
1994 and 2003, the JAR published 55 articles on journals are included only to offer a fuller picture
the subject, the most among advertising journals of the themes that have emerged from Journal of
(Cho and Khang, 2006). The Journal of Advertising Advertising Research articles.
Research has since published more than 50 articles Specifically, often-cited articles in the Journal
on the same subject. These papers have covered have converged on six themes over the years:
a wide range of issues on the Web and interac-
tive advertising and, alone with many articles in • The Web as an advertising medium
other advertising journals, they have advanced the • Display advertising

DOI: 10.2501/JAR-51-1-013-026 March 2011 Supplement JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH 13

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• Interactive media planning and reach/ The Web started as simple pages and has gradually
frequency estimates
• Electronic word of mouth become richly sophisticated, with new features,
• The Web integration with other media
• New concepts and models of advanced applications, and various functions.
advertising.

Important aspects and issues of each The contribution of this study was to not on the list. The study showed that the
theme have been explored in these arti- establish the multi-phased conversion degree and nature of interactivity had a
cles, which make an essential part of the concept and associated measures, which significant effect on the ranking of corpo-
literature of interactive advertising. Thus, revealed for the first time how the Web rate Web sites.
a review of these articles can shed light works in the marketing communications Web interactivity also was studied as
on the formation of this new discipline of mix. a perception of Web users (Coyle and
advertising and encourage more innova- Dreze and Zufryden, in their 1997 “Is Thorson, 2001; Heeter, 2000; McMillan

tive studies. Internet Advertising Ready For Prime and Hwang, 2002; Ha and James, 1998).
Time?” Journal paper, furthered this line In 2002, synchronicity was added to the
of research by going beyond conceptual definition of Web interactivity besides two
THE WEB AS ADVERTISING MEDIUM
models to examine the impact of Web-site existing dimensions of active control and
The Web started as simple pages and has
attributes on site effectiveness as meas- two-way communication (Liu and Shrum,
gradually become richly sophisticated,
ured by click streams. 2002). What followed was the develop-
with new features, advanced applications,
Using a field experimental design and ment of a scale of interactivity on the basis
and various functions. Journal of Advertis-
conjoint analysis of four variables (back- of this three-dimensional concept (Liu,
ing Research articles initially focused on the
ground style, image size, sound file dis- 2003). Through several phases of item-
role and characteristics of the Web as an
play, and celebrity endorsement) that pool generation, revision, purification,
advertising medium and soon expanded
defined a total of 96 site configurations, and validation in three tests, Liu estab-
to include user characteristics of the Web.
the study concluded that the choice of the lished the validity (and reliability) of a
With the proliferation of e-commerce,
best Web-site configuration would depend new scale of Web interactivity for 15 items.
studies also began profiling online shop-
on how well a Web-site owner traded off This scale has facilitated more studies of
pers and business users of the Web. New
one effectiveness dimension for the other Web characteristics.
concepts, methods, and findings were
(e.g., number of pages accessed versus
generated from these articles as build-
time spent). This study’s design, analysis Understanding Web Users
ing blocks of the interactive advertising
methods, and measures of site effective- Research on Web users started with
literature. ness were inspirational for the research of an analysis of user perceptions of Web
Web-design features. sites (Eighmey, 1997). “Profiling User
Characteristics of the Web The relationship between interactive Responses to Commercial Web Sites”
The first article on interactive advertising features and the popularity of Web sites introduced Journal readers to the theory
in the Journal of Advertising Research hap- was explored in the Journal’s “Interac- of uses and gratifications from conven-
pened to be titled “The World Wide Web tive Functions and Their Impacts on the tional media research to the study of Web
as An Advertising Medium.” In this pio- Appeal of Internet Presence Sites” (Ghose users. This pilot study and field experi-
neering study, the authors introduced a and Dou, 1998). The authors developed an ment identified and validated a scale of
model of the conversion process (Berthon, inventory of 23 interactive features in five items that measured how users perceived
Pitt, and Watson, 1996). They saw that categories (customer support, marketing the Web site. It consisted of six thematic
users of a Web site may convert from surf- research, personal-choice helper, advertis- areas: marketing perceptions, entertain-
ers to aware surfers and that each of the ing/promotion/publicity, and entertainment value, informational value, ease
conversion phases of hits, active visitors, ment) and compared 49 Web sites on the of use, credibility, and interactivity. The
purchasers, and repurchasers could be top five percent of a list of a popular direc- results indicated that the most important
measured with an efficiency formula. tory with another 52 Web sites that were features for Web users were

14 JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH March 2011 Supplement

The Internet

• information placed in an enjoyable Stevenson, Bruner, and Kumar (2000) Jour- surf, communicate research, and shop.
,
context; nal contribution, “Webpage Background The scale was tested and validated with
• organizational ideas reasonable for stra- and Viewer Attitudes.” In this influential student and non-student samples. The
tegic purpose of the Web site; and study, an experiment used three levels of authors believed that the inventory was
• efficiently executed design for Web background complexity (black only; light useful for site designers to provide con-
users. blue with the words “play the lottery”; tent and layout specific to certain motives;
and light blue with blinking phases “buy for advertisers to appeal to users with
In a major study of the factors that now” and “play the lottery” and a sports different motivations; and for academic
affected the usage of the Web, usage was car racing across the screen at various scholars to better understand the reasons
measured in four ways: the number of intervals). users with different personalities use the
hours per day spent on the Web; the per- The findings suggested that a simpler Web.
centage of time spent for business pur- background positively affected the atti- User profiles were developed in Assael’s
poses; the percentage of time spent for tudes toward the site, the ad, and the 2005 survey (“A Demographic and Psych-
personal purposes; and the number of brand. A follow-up study examined the ographic Profile of Heavy Internet Users
purchases made on the Web (Korgaonkar impact of users’ experience with the Web and Users by Type of Internet Usage”) of
and Wolin, 1999). on their attitude and found that Web expe- more than 5,000 respondents, which cat-
The study explored the impacts of rience significantly affected users’ atti- egorized Internet users into six types (Web
demographics and seven motivations on tude toward the ad though the influence generalists, downloaders, self-improvers,
each usage measure among a sample of on other attitude measures was trivial entertainment seekers, traders, and social-
420 consumers. Various patterns of rela- (Bruner and Kumar, 2000). izers) on the basis of the frequency they
tionships were found between different Yet another investigated the impact of were engaged in each of 14 online activi-
measures of the Web usage, demograph- site involvement and perceived interac- ties (i.e., reading news, playing games,
ics, and motivations, indicating that con- tivity on users’ site attitude (McMillan, and trading stocks). Assael discovered
sumers used the Web for many more Hwang, and Lee, 2003). In that paper, a pattern that early adopters had more
reasons than the overemphasized reason “Effects of Structural and Perceptual Fac- specialized purposes, including trading
of information seeking, and that consum- tors on Attitudes toward the Website,” stocks, using chat rooms, playing video
ers saw the Web as a place in which they the authors studied 311 responses from games, and downloading. By comparison,
could interact and socialize with others of users who visited one of four sites that the later adopters tended to use the Web
similar interests. varied in number of design features (low generally for emailing, seeking product
This line of research continued with versus high) and creative strategies (infor- information, and making purchases.
new measures for the attitude toward the mational versus transformational). They
Web site. Chen and Wells, in their 1999 found that the uniqueness of features Profiling Online Shoppers
“Attitude Toward the Site” Journal paper, such as virtual tours—not the number of Along with the growth of electronic com-
developed a six-item scale from site judg- features—accounted for users’ attitude merce, the shopping behavior of Web
ments of 120 Internet users. This uni- toward hotel sites and that involvement users called for new research. Donthu
dimensional scale was tested further with with the site subject was a strong predic- and Garcia’s 1999 contribution, “The
users’ assessment of three aspects of a tor of the attitude regardless of creative Internet Shopper,” represented one of the
Web site: entertainment, informativeness, strategies. early studies in this domain. Based on a
and organization. The findings showed a The knowledge about Web users telephone survey of 2,000 households,
significant relationship between the site continued to expand with research of the authors found that, compared with
attitude and each of these three aspects. users’ motivations behind their Web use, non-Internet shoppers, Internet shoppers
The study also provided researchers with which was explored in the Rogers and were older and had higher income; were
a much-needed attitude toward the site Sheldon 2002 Journal of Advertising Research more convenience-oriented, innovative,
scale and facilitated many studies on Web study, “An Improved Way to Character- and impulsive; were less risk-averse; and
users. ize Internet Users.” The authors devel- had more positive attitudes toward direct
The impact of the Web page background oped a Web motivation inventory that marketing and advertising. These findings
on the user’s attitude was the focus of a consisted of 12 items in four categories: shed needed light on the characteristics of

March 2011 Supplement JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH 15

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Internet shoppers and what they sought
when shopping and buying online. Classic Excerpt: The Internet
New concepts of channel perceptions
and shopping orientations were included
in the Li, Kuo, and Russell 1999 model of
The World Wide Web as
an Advertising Medium:
online buying behavior. The model was
tested with data from a survey of 999 U.S.
Internet users, and the results indicated
that education, convenience orientation, Toward an Understanding of
experience orientation, channel knowl-
edge, perceived distribution utility, and
perceived accessibility were robust pre-
Conversion Efficiency
dictors of online buying status (frequent Pierre Berthon, Leyland F. Pitt, and Richard T. Watson
online buyer, occasional online buyer, or
non-online buyer).
In a 2001 Journal paper, “The Global Author’s Note: This excerpt is from the first model can be used to develop research
article that JAR published about the Web in propositions concerning the maximiza-
Internet Shopper: Evidence From Shop-
1996. It remains relevant, even after 15 years.
ping Tasks In Twelve Countries,” Lynch, tion of Web site efficiency, and using
Kent, and Srinivasan explored the impacts data from real Web sites, to test these
“The World Wide Web is a new medium
of shoppers’ trust, affect, and perceived propositions. For the practitioner, the
which is characterized by ease of entry,
site quality on the purchase intentions model provides a sequence of produc-
relatively low set-up costs, globalness,
and loyalty to the site among a sample of tivity measures which can be calibrated
time independence, and interactivity.
online shoppers from 12 countries in three with relative ease.
As such it represents a remarkable new
regions of the world. They found that the opportunity for advertisers and market- “The challenge facing both parties,
impact of trust and affect was significant ers to communicate with new and exist- however, is to maximize the creativity
for both low- and high-involvement prod- ing markets in a very integrated way. that will justify advertising and market-
ucts in all three regions, but site quality ing investments in a Web presence.”
influenced only high-involvement prod- “Many advertisers will use it to achieve
ucts in some countries. hitherto undreamed of success; for Pierre Berthon, Leyland F. Pitt, Richard
others it will be an opportunity lost and T. Watson, “The World Wide Web as an
The Web and Business Users a damp squib. We hope that the process Advertising Medium: Toward an Under-
McDonald, in his “The Once and Future Web: model for assessing Web site efficiency standing of Conversion Efficiency.
Scenarios For Advertisers” (1997), exam- will achieve more of the former condi- Journal of Advertising Research 36, 1
ined the Web from a business perspective tion. From an academic perspective, the (1996): 43.
and anticipated five Web advertising sce-
narios: Web-site shakeout; content-pipeline
alliances; new advertising-content hybrids; sophisticated databases can help advertis- greater presence in the near future, but
ISPs provoking privacy backlash; and ads ers but can also cause privacy concerns. advertisers were uncertain about the
getting detached from media. Many of his Bush, Bush, and Harris, in their 1998 effectiveness of Internet advertising and
observations in the Journal were proven to “Advertiser Perceptions of the Internet were concerned with security and privacy
be accurate—and remain so years later— As A Marketing Communications Tool” issues. Thus, the study concluded, “The
including the notions that, facing payment Journal paper, investigated advertisers’ Internet appears to be a necessary part
resistance from consumers, content-rich perception of the Web as an advertising of a marketing communication strategy
sites must find more revenue sources; medium in surveys of business executives. even though its effectiveness appears to be
sponsoring a site which consumers value They found that advertisers had begun to undetermined.”
can help build positive association for the incorporate the Internet into their market- Bush and Bush, in 2002, compared
advertiser’s brand; and extraordinarily ing-communications mix and anticipated advertising agencies and advertisers on


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their perceptions of the Internet to answer The studies reviewed in this section show that the Web,
a basic question as to whether the chal-
lenges associated with marketing on the as an advertising medium, has unique features and
Internet posed a threat to the agency-
advertiser relationship. The survey results that users use the Web out of different motivations.
indicated that both groups were similar in
their views of important issues, so such a
threat did not exist. The authors inferred
that advertising agencies were fairly 1998 revenue report (IAB, 1999). Search browser to 50 percent for a men’s apparel
proactive in keeping up with marketing advertising first appeared in the IAB 2000 brand.
issues and activities related to the Internet. revenue report, accounting for only one Hollis later provided further evidence,
A study of business executives’ percep- percent of the Internet advertising rev- on the basis of a large number of pro-
tions of important features of business-to- enues. Search advertising had grown to prietary campaign studies, that just one
business sites found an interaction between 47 percent in 2009, with banner/display exposure to an online ad had an impact on
the purpose of site use and site features in ads accounting for only 22 percent (IAB, purchase consideration (2005). The author
that buyers and non-buyers weighted site 2010). Li and Leckenby (2007) reviewed argued,
features differently (Chakraborty, Lala, the effectiveness of seven forms of inter-
and Warren, 2003). That is, buyers pre- active advertising (banners, sponsorships, Online advertising can build the attitudi-
ferred purchase-related features such as interstitials, search ads, rich media, 3-D nal equity of a brand just like traditional
privacy/security and transaction-related visualization, and advergames). media. This brand building effect does not
interactivity, whereas non-buyers appreci- In the section below, the review focuses require the recipient of the advertising
ated personalization and product informa- on issues of display advertising. exposure to have an immediate need for
tion. Based on these findings, the authors the category, but, where such a need exists,
suggested the adoption of a behavioral The Branding Effects the online medium creates the potential
segmentation approach in business-to- The effectiveness of display ads (also for click-through, signaling a more direct
business (B2B) site design. called “banner ads”) can be assessed in interest in the advertised brand.
The studies reviewed in this section terms of either building brands or gen-
show that the Web, as an advertising erating clicks, depending on the goals of More recently, Fulgoni and Mörn, in a
medium, has unique features and that a campaign. Because of the interactive 2009 paper entitled, “Whither the Click?
users use the Web out of different motiva- nature of display ads, the click-through How Online Advertising Works,” ana-
tions. Thus, Web sites are more effective rate often is preferred as the de facto meas- lyzed a dataset of about 200 online adver-
when they can better meet the needs of ure of effectiveness in lieu of the greater tising studies and found, among the
different users. branding effect. 138 studies that monitored users’ online
As the Web continues to innovate with To provide a balanced view of display behavior following exposure to display
the steady growth of broadband access, ad effectiveness, Briggs and Hollis in 1997 ads, a substantial lift in site visitation and
user-generated content, location-based published “Advertising on the Web: Is trademark search inquiries and increases
services, and Internet-enabled mobile There Response Before Click-Through,” in both online and offline sales. This large-
devices, more studies will be needed to one of the earliest studies on this sub- scale analysis evidenced the common wis-
address the many newly emerging issues. ject. In a field experiment that involved dom that display ads do play an important
pre- and post-exposure surveys and 1,232 branding role regardless of click-through.
DISPLAY ADVERTISING visitors randomly exposed to a content
The forms of advertising on the Web have site with a control banner or one of the Determinants of Click-through Rates
been in constant change over the past 15 three test banners, the authors reported in Although the click-through rate (CTR) is a
years. There were only four types of inter- the pages of the Journal that without the popular effectiveness measure, only a few
active advertising (banner ads, sponsor- benefit of click-through, one simple ban- studies studying the methodology have
ships, interstitials, and “others”) in the ner exposure increased consumer loyalty been published in advertising journals. In
Interactive Advertising Bureau (IAB) scores ranging from 5 percent for a Web “Banner Advertisements Through A New


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Lens” (2001), Dahlen examined the impact
An analysis of 209 display ads showed that
of brand familiarity and Internet user
experience on the effectiveness of banner
ads with higher CTRs were characterized by
ads in terms of the CTR. In a field experi-
ment similar to that of the Briggs and Hol-
a larger size and absence of promotional
lis 1997 study, the author found that ads
for familiar brands generated a higher
incentives; in contrast, ads featuring animation
CTR (0.05 percent) than ads for unfamil-
iar brands (0.03 percent) and that less-
and action phrases were ineffective.
experienced users were significantly more
inclined to click on ads than more-experi-
enced users. That is, the CTR decreased as characterized by a larger size and absence advertised. A study of individual and
Internet users became more experienced. of promotional incentives; in contrast, ads brand factors explored the effects of site
The influences of several design features featuring animation and action phrases reputation and content relevance on ban-
on the CTR are investigated in a Chandon, were ineffective. Interestingly, long mes- ners of both low- and high-involvement
Chtourou, and Fortin (2003) Journal analy- sages on banners were found to be asso- products (Shamdasani, Stanaland, and
sis of 1,258 placements for 75 clients of an ciated with higher CTRs (Robinson, Tan, 2001). The study found that the level
advertising agency during the course of 1 Wysocka, and Hand, 2007). of product involvement moderated the
year. The weighted CTR of the placement effect in that, for banners of high-involve-
averaged 0.9 percent, close to the market Executional and Situational Factors ment products, content relevance and site
average at the time of study. The result Design features such as ad size, copy reputation were important, whereas for
showed that call for action (“click here”), length, and use of incentives have been banners of low-involvement products,
animation, and ad size were correlated investigated in several studies. One paper only site reputation was important, with
positively with the CTR. examined the user’s cognitive response as content relevance having little impact on
Again, in the pages of the Journal, a Loh- a function of banner size and type in an the attitude toward the ad, the product,
tia, Donthu, and Hershberger 2003 arti- experiment and found that animated ads and purchase intention.
cle, “The Impact of Content and Design resulted in quick response time and bet- Display ads can be exposed to viewers
Elements on Banner Advertising Click- ter recall than non-animated ads and that in different ways. In 2001, a Cho, Lee, and
Through Rates,” examined the effect of large banner ads led to better comprehen- Tharp article, “Different Forced-Exposure
display-ad design features (color, emotion, sion and more clicks than small banner ads Levels to Banner Advertisements,” in the
and incentive) on the CTR. An analysis (Li and Bukovac, 1999). Another manipu- Journal of Advertising Research tested four
of 8,725 ads indicated that the medium lated the animation speeds (slow versus degrees of forced exposure to display ads,
level of color was better than the low or fast) and sequences (slow then fast ver- from forced exposure with no skip option
high level of color for both B2B and busi- sus fast then slow) in an experiment with to voluntary exposure. It was hypoth-
ness-to-consumer (B2C) ads; that the use arousal being measured in skin conduct- esized that there would be a positive
of emotion and animation increased the ance levels (Sundar and Kalyanaraman relationship between the degree of forced
CTR for B2C ads but decreased the CTR (2004). The authors found that fast anima- exposure and the levels of ad perception
for B2B ads; and that the use of incentives tion grabbed more attention and elicited and click-through but a negative relation-
decreased the CTR for both types of ads, greater physiological arousal—particu- ship with the attitude toward the banner,
more significantly for B2B ads. Although larly when contrasted with slow anima- the brand, and purchase intention.
the findings on the role of incentives tion—whereas slow animation enhanced The results indicated, however, that
seemed counterintuitive, it was important the overall appeal of a Web site, especially higher levels of forced exposure had
to raise the issue that design features func- when contrasted with fast animation. positive impacts on all five dependent
tioned differently for different types of dis- The effectiveness of display ads also can measures. The authors attributed the
play ads. be influenced by factors beyond the dis- unexpected results to “the large amount of
An analysis of 209 display ads play ads themselves, such as the sites car- attention paid to the banner ad presented
showed that ads with higher CTRs were rying the banners, site users, and brands in the forced presentation format.” (p. 53).


The Internet

In a similar study, the degree of forced Planning,” Leckenby and Hong examined the audience’s exposure frequency. Test-
exposure was defined as the degree of the estimation characteristics of existing ing results showed that the NBD model
cognitive interruption and manipulated reach/frequency models in the Web envi- performed satisfactorily in modeling
by the way a banner was presented to the ronment using data from a syndicated online exposure in terms of both fit and
user (while reading an article on the Web service. Their analysis of 560 Web media prediction.
page; while getting a Web page for the sec- schedules ranging from 2 to 15 vehicles
ond part of an article; and upon finishing and 4 to 30 insertions found that five of ELECTRONIC WORD OF MOUTH
reading an article; Edwards, Li, and Lee, the six existing models performed as well If we say display ads are a primary com-
2002). The experimental results showed on Internet data as they did for magazine ponent of the Web since its inception as
that ads that interrupted content pages or television data. The authors anticipated a commercial vehicle, electronic word
were perceived as more intrusive than that, with better audience measures, Web of mouth (WOM) is more of a Web 2.0
ads displayed between breaks in content vehicles could be mixed with traditional artifact. Several studies published in the
pages, which led to advertising-avoidance media outlets in media plans. Journal of Advertising Research have exam-
behavior; interrupting ads, however, were An analysis of Internet audience-meas- ined different aspects of this relatively
perceived to be less intrusive when they urement errors identified sources of such new form of user-generated content. In
were more informative or entertaining. errors in measuring the number of visi- 2007, Keller presented some interesting
The impact of the mode of Web use on tors, visits, page views, time spent, and statistics regarding WOM from a pro-
the recall of display ads was explored repeat visits. Based on these findings, the prietary tracking service in a paper enti-
by Danaher and Mullarkey in their 2003 authors of the report suggested the neces- tled, “Unleashing the Power of Word
Journal study, “Factors Affecting Online sity of identifying unique visitors rather of Mouth: Creating Brand Advocacy to
Advertising Recall: A Study of Students.” than relying on IP addresses (Dreze and Drive Growth.” In a typical week, the
In a goal-directed mode, participants were Zufryden, 1998). study reported, the average American
asked to evaluate the textual content of Instead of using existing models, Wood’s consumer participated in 121 WOM con-
the site; in a surfing mode, participants 1998 “Internet Ad Buys—What Reach and versations, in which specific brand names
were allowed to surf the entire site for a Frequency Do They Deliver?” demon- were mentioned 92 times. A comple-
certain period of time. A major finding of strated new models that were found to mentary report used data from multiple
the experiment was that users in the goal- produce extremely good estimates of reach sources about 35 brands in five categories
directed mode were much less likely to and frequency for Web sites. She argued over a 26-week period to examine whether
recall and recognize banner ads than users that the Internet had the ability to deliver advertising affected WOM both offline
who were surfing a site. The effect of ad reach in addition to frequency and that the and online and whether WOM exerted
position and ad type were examined in a nature of a site determined the patterns of any influence on the brands (Graham and
2010 experiment, and the results showed reach and frequency. That is, sites having Havlena, 2007). The results showed that
that lower-page placement attracted more repeated visitors were good for frequency advertising can stimulate consumers to
ad attention than upper-page placement whereas sites having many new yet infre- advocate products and that online WOM
and that medium rectangle ads generated quent visitors were good for reach. played a significant role in generating
better attention and more positive attitude In a 2006 edition of the Journal of Adver- offline brand advocacy in two (auto and
than leaderboard ads (Goodrich, 2010). tising Research, Huang and Lin’s “Mod- retail) of the five categories studied. That
eling the Audience’s Banner Ad Exposure is, by disseminating brand messages in
INTERACTIVE MEDIA PLANNING AND for Internet Advertising Planning” pro- media, advertisers could stimulate con-
REACH/FREQUENCY ESTIMATES posed a negative binomial distribution sumers to talk about, and say good things
To integrate Web advertising with tra- (NBD) exposure model for estimating and about, their brands.
ditional media advertising, the ways of predicting the reach and frequency of ban- Issues related to electronic WOM also
estimating the reach and frequency lev- ner ads. Rather than using the number of were studied at the individual level. In
els of Web advertising exposures must be insertions as a measure of exposures, the 2004, the Phelps et al. “Viral Marketing
established. authors counted visit sessions to specific or Electronic Word-of-Mouth Advertis-
In their seminal 1998 Journal study, sub-domains of Web sites and used sub- ing: Examining Consumer Responses
“Using Reach/Frequency For Web Media domain sessions as the unit to measure and Motivations to Pass Along Email”


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proposed a four-step model of product- • Cross-media promotion of the Web Comparison of the Web with Traditional
related e-mail-sharing behavior, which • Comparison of the Web with the estab- Media
consisted of “receipt of pass-along email”; lished media In a 1997 issue of the Journal of Advertis-
“decision point (open the message or • Synergies between the Web and other ing Research, the Philport and Arbittier
not)”; “reading the pass-along email”; media. “Advertising: Brand Communications
and “decision point (forward the message Styles In Established Media and the Inter-
to others or not).” Through three studies, Cross-media Promotion of the Web net” paper analyzed brand communica-
the authors concluded that only a small Research of cross-media promotion in tion styles in the established media and
group of users read and forwarded a large the Journal of Advertising Research started the Web by examining 2,042 unique ads for
number of pass-along e-mails, which they with examination of the URLs in tradi- 60 brands in four media categories (televi-
called “viral mavens.” tional advertising (Maddox, Mehta, and sion, consumer magazine, newspaper, and
These mavens certainly were important Daubek, 1997). With focus groups and the Internet). The analysis suggested that
for viral marketers. E-mail characteris- a sample of 410 interviews, the authors high Internet activity was driven heav-
tics that stimulated forwarding behavior found that URLs in advertising were ily by innovative brands and that the Web
included humor, fear, sadness, or inspira- noticed by both Internet users and non- addresses were used primarily for building
tion. One study sampled 309 consumers Internet users and that the mere existence customer relations. The authors concluded,
and identified eight motivations for seek- of a URL in an ad enhanced the adver-
ing the opinions of others online: to reduce tiser’s image as more customer-oriented, With respect to the Internet, we may have
their risk, because others do it, to secure responsive, informative, high-tech, the first advertising channel that is not
lower prices, to get information easily, by sophisticated, and more likely to stay in only a medium in and of itself but also a
accident (unplanned), because it is “cool,” business longer. valuable extension of traditional channels.
because they are stimulated by off-line These findings certainly encouraged With the increased appearance of Web
inputs such as television, and to get pre- the placement of URLs in the established addresses in the established media, the con-
purchase information (Goldsmith and media. Another report analyzed 464 sumer can elect to continue a brand rela-
Horowitz, 2006). television commercials from four net- tionship initiated in an ad in one medium
What consumers say about products, works and found that 21 percent of the (e.g., magazines) and extend it into a deeper
what they share, and even what they 335 unique commercials featured a Web relationship on the Internet.
search for online have made current a address, but only 11 percent showed a
“listening-led” approach to advertising toll-free or local phone number, indicat- In a 1998 Journal paper entitled “New
and marketing. The Journal of Advertis- ing the increase in cross-media promotion Media Interactive Advertising Vs. Tradi-
ing Research has published several arti- of the Web (Edwards and La Ferle, 2000). tional Advertising,” Bezjian-Avery, Calder,
cles (Jayanti, 2010; Rappaport, 2010a, A content analysis of 413 print ads from and Iacobucci conducted an experiment to
2010b; Wiesenfeld, Bush, and Sikdar six consumer magazines documented 254 examine the effectiveness of interactive
2010) on this subject. For example, one ads that featured URLs for 196 different advertising with traditional advertising.
study empirically demonstrated the links Web sites (Kanso and Nelson, 2004). The Using a hierarchical traversal design for
between share of conversational voice authors of the last study (“Internet and interactive advertising and a linear flow
and share of market, and share trends Magazine Advertising: Integrated Part- for traditional advertising, and controlling
and sales predictions, and extended the nerships Or Not?”) also examined the con- advertising type (visual versus verbal)
call for garnering from the next wave of tent of these featured sites and found they and type of consumer (visual versus ver-
listening-driven innovations (Rappaport, were not well integrated with the print bal oriented), the study found that interac-
2010c). ads in terms of more information and bet- tive advertising was not superior in terms
ter visuals about the products advertised of purchase intention across all conditions.
WEB INTEGRATION WITH TRADITIONAL in these print ads. As a result, better inte- That is, traditional advertising performed
MEDIA gration of Web and traditional media was better for visual consumers whereas inter-
On the relationship of the Web with other necessary. active advertising performed better for
media, studies have addressed three major verbal consumers. The study raised the
issues: issue of matching between consumers’


The Internet

rational consumers for fulfilling their
Classic Excerpt: The Internet information needs. Yet another study
compared ads in a print brochure and in

Advertising on the Web: Is There a Web page in an experiment with 85 par-
ticipants (Gallagher, Foster, and Parsons,

Response Before Click-through?
2001). Although the attitude toward edi-
torial content in the Web page was more
Rex Briggs and Nigel Hollis critical, there was no difference in attitude
toward the ads in both conditions. The
authors’ explanation was that a person’s
Author’s Note: This excerpt is from the first builds the advertised brand. Banner response to an ad was based on its mes-
article the Journal of Advertising Research ads remind people of a brand’s exist- sage and presentation, not on the medium
published on display advertising in 1997. It in which it appeared. A 2001 examination
ence, stimulate latent or dormant brand
argues for the branding effects of display ads of students’ attitudes and perceptions of
associations, and can cause people
beyond the click-through rate and provides a
to change their attitudes toward the different media discovered that, at the
balanced perspective on the role of display
brand, thus increasing their likelihood to time of the study, the rank order of media
advertising.
purchase. as the top source of information was tel-
“The Web offers unique and undeniable evision, magazine/newspaper, catalog/
advantages over other media in terms “The unique marketing power of the direct, radio, and the Web (Brackett and
of targeting and direct marketing. One online environment and the established Carr, 2001). Five to 10 years later, however,
such advantage is the ability of advertis- communication benefits of traditional the students’ perception was significantly
ing banners to serve as gateways to an advertising combine to make the Web a different: the Web would top television as
advertiser’s own Web site. powerful new advertising medium with their first source of information.
real potential for brand building.” A campaign that involved both offline
“But our results suggest that the ad
Rex Briggs Nigel Hollis, “Advertising (television, radio, and print) and online
banner is a legitimate advertising vehicle
on the Web: Is there Response Before (display ads and search engine market-
in its own right. This experiment shows
Click-through?”, Journal of Advertising ing) media for an international social net-
that banner ads on the HotWired Net-
Research 37, 2 (1997): 33. work introduced a complex analysis of the
work have a significant impact on their
relative impact of each of the channels on
viewers, an impact that demonstrably
user behavior on several measures such as
registration, activation, sales, and repeat
sales (Pfeiffer and Zinnbauer, 2010). One
cognitive styles and advertising types for and effective for precipitating action for of the findings indicated that, although
better outcomes. both short- and long-term promotional television attracted more users to the site
Another study investigated business objectives; the Web was less effective, how- who filled the registration pipeline, con-
executives’ perceptions of 10 attributes ever, for stimulating emotion, for incorpo- version was much weaker. In contrast,
of the Web with other media (television, rating attention-getting devices, and for search-engine marketing (SEM) sent more
press, magazine, radio, outdoor, direct changing and maintaining attitudes. prospective users to the platform, which
mail, telemarketing, and point of pur- The influence of product types on the led to twice the amount of cash-affecting
chase; Leong, Huang, and Stanners, 1998). choice of media was the focus of a 2001 memberships. As a result, SEM proved
The attributes included the ability to use study that included the Internet and tel- approximately three times the conversion
attention-getting device; cost to teach tar- evision, radio, magazine, and newspa- success from a registration to a paying
get market; communication of corporate per (Yoon and Kim, 2001). The findings membership than television ads.
image; and ability to involve the audience. from 105 responses in Seoul, South Korea, Finally, the issue of potential media
The results suggested that, in comparison, implied that the Internet was a medium displacement by the Internet was raised
the Web was a rational medium—more better suited for high-involvement prod- in the pages of the Journal by Tsao
cost-effective, excellent for information, ucts that appealed to engaging and and Sibleys 2004 “Displacement and
’


The Internet

Unlike previous stages … wherein isolated studies media mix given the different modes of
media distribution. A major finding of the
could still inform on practical issues, advertising study was that the patterns of frequen-
cies vary for online, print, and television.
in 2011 requires research that can discover Therefore, for brands that target the lowest
television quintiles, it would be effective
the dynamic, synergistic, and networked ways to use online ads to specifically target low
television quintiles to reach the lightest tel-
various forms of interactive advertising work. evision viewers.
Using proprietary data from a cable tel-
evision network, another study examined
Re nforcement Effects of the Internet and
i tions formed brand attitudes through the whether the increased use of new media
Other Media as Sources of Advertising peripheral route. was cannibalizing traditional media (Enoch
Information.” Their study surveyed a In another text of synergy, a 2006 piece of and Johnson, 2010). The authors found
sample of 2,032 households. The results research compared an advertisement with that—contrary to the popular view—
showed that, although Internet advertis- a product-publicity article, both online in there was no cross-media cannibalization
ing provided many unique features, it had four different conditions (two features of between television and digital media. They
not displaced most media as a source of a tennis racquet and either a same or dif- also noticed that the size of the media uni-
advertising information. For consumers, ferent feature in the ad and article; Wang, verse should be growing as digital devices
Internet advertising was complementary, 2006). The experiment found that when made media use possible throughout the
based on their favorable attitudes or fre- the product feature was different in the ad day and in out-of-home locations. The
quent use of other media advertising. and the article, higher believability was authors termed this phenomenon as “new
achieved among the participants toward markets of time” (p. 135).
Synergistic Effects of the Web and Other the ad and that such an effect was absent
Media when the same feature was introduced in NEW CONCEPTS AND MODELS OF
Web advertising has long been integrated the ad and the article. The explanation was ADVERTISING
with the established media in many that the varied features strengthened par- Although most studies in the Journal of
advertising campaigns. Little research on ticipants’ perceived message believability Advertising Research have focused on dif-
the subject was available, however, until toward the ad because participants might ferent aspects of the Web and associated
Chang and Thorson’s “Television and be motivated to process the varied messages interactive advertising, several stud-
Web Advertising Synergies” study in 2004. in the ad but might be less likely to do so ies have advanced concepts and mod-
The authors conducted an experiment of when seeing the same message in the ad. els regarding the nature, processes, and
eight conditions (four media conditions by A field experiment employed a combi- mechanisms of interactive advertising.
two product types) designed to isolate the nation of an online panel and Web-inter- These concepts and models are essential
existence of different synergy effects and cept sampling techniques to provide a in building our knowledge of how inter-
to compare the information-processing representative sample for exposure to a active advertising works. In one of the
model of synergy with that of repetition. cross-platform package good campaign first conceptualizations of marketing on
The findings suggested that television/ involving television, print, and online the Internet, authors Hoffman and Novak
Web synergy led to significantly higher advertising (Havlena, Cardarelli, and (1996) stated that the many-to-many com-
attention, higher perceived message cred- Montigny, 2007). The assumption of the munication model turned traditional prin-
ibility, and a greater number of total and “Quantifying the Isolated and Synergis- ciples of mass-media advertising based on
positive thoughts than repetition. The tic Effects of Exposure Frequency for TV, the one-to-many model inside out, mak-
study also revealed that people under syn- Print, and Internet Advertising” paper ing obsolete marketing and advertising
ergistic conditions formed brand attitudes was that an examination of exposure fre- approaches that assumed a passive, captive
through the central processing route, quency could generate insight into media consumer. They proposed a model of net-
whereas people under repetitive condi- synergies at the individual consumer level work navigation in hyper edia compu-
m
and could suggest improvements to the ter-mediated environments, and many of


The Internet

the concepts and relationships in the model be goal-directed or just playful. Next was advertising in the Journal of Advertising
have guided future studies of the Web and the layer of information processes involv- Research for the past 15 years. The review
interactive advertising. ing attention, memory, and attitude. In was written in the hope that exemplary
In the advertising area, Ducoffe’s the middle of the model came advertiser- studies in the past can inspire new qual-
“Advertising Value and Advertising on controlled factors, including ad types, ad ity studies of interactive advertising. As in
the Web” (1996) proposed a model of atti- formats, and ad features. And finally, the the profession of advertising itself, inno-
tude toward Web advertising based on his model ended with a set of user responses vative studies are often those that enter
earlier research of advertising value. The consisting of attention to ads, clicks on ads, uncharted territories, anticipate the future,
model posited that Web advertising value and purchases made online. The layers explore new segments of users, adopt new
was positively affected by informativeness and elements of the model were detailed and sophisticated methods and, finally,
and entertainment and negatively affected in the article, which provided a useful con- generate new insights as to how interac-
by irritation and that advertising value, in ceptual map of interactive advertising. tive advertising works and how it can
turn, affected attitude toward Web adver- New models were further developed achieve better outcomes.
tising. Data from a survey of 318 respond- to illustrate how advertising works in the The field of interactive advertising no
ents who reported to be familiar with Web 2.0 age. In 2007, Rappaport’s “Les- doubt will continue to change, and new
the Web confirmed the structural model. sons From Online Practice: New Advertis- studies are necessary to advance our
Informativeness, entertainment, and irri- ing Models” observed a paradigm shift in understanding in deeper ways. Social-
tation as drivers of advertising value have advertising from the interruption model to networking media have become the lat-
been widely adopted in subsequent stud- models centered on relevance because of est environments in which cutting-edge
ies of interactive advertising. new technologies and associated changes advertising and marketing activities take
Advances of interactive advertising in consumer behavior. The on-demand place.
have called for refined effectiveness con- model sees that consumers are content Unlike previous stages of interac-
cepts and measures. In response, in 1997 in aggregators, filterers, schedulers, expos- tive advertising, wherein isolated stud-
the pages of the Journal, Harvey expanded ers, and disposers; the media and adver- ies could still inform on practical issues,
the Advertising Research Foundation’s tisers are providers of necessary platforms advertising in 2011 requires research that
1961 model of the six-level advertising pro- and tools for consumers to generate their can discover the dynamic, synergistic,
cess in a paper he called “The Expanded own content and customize product and networked ways various forms of
ARF Model: Bridge to the Accountable information to their interests, needs, and interactive advertising work in the mar-
Advertising Future.” Increasingly used tastes. Rappaport’s engagement model ket. As we have seen, the Web has been
measures such as recall, click-through, emphasized the high relevance of brands fully integrated with, if not yet displaced
and lead generation and profits, loyal cus- to consumers and the development of an by, other media; consumers are socially
tomers, and return on investment enabled emotional connection between consumers connected closely as never before; and
the expansion of this popular model. Inte- and brands—a dynamic that is highly vis- the union of advertising with editorial
grating ideas of industry experts, Harvey ible in many successful campaigns. media and entertainment is taking place
presented a new model to include two Finally, the advertising-as-service model in many forms. These trends no doubt
renamed levels of the previous model and takes for granted the role of advertising in will continue.
four new levels, increasing the new model providing consumers with information To address these changes and move our
to 10 levels. The model, he added, could be and abilities that can smooth transac- profession forward, future studies need
customized for measuring both traditional tions or enhance brand engagement. It is to take advantage of newer approaches
and interactive advertising effectiveness. evident that each of the models stresses such as neuroscience and biometric
In 2000, Rodgers and Thorson devel- certain aspects of advertising and, in com- techniques, behavioral economics, net-
oped a structural model that portrayed bination, these models are of the essence work analysis, and mining of massive
how users perceive and process online for advertising in today’s marketplace. data among others. The author hopes to
ads. The model started with the user see more groundbreaking studies in the
motives of Internet use, including shop- SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Journal of Advertising Research and other
ping, research, communication, and social- This paper is viewed best as a sketch of sig- advertising journals in the years to come.
izing; these motives, they allowed, might nificant studies on the Web and interactive


The Internet

Acknowledgment Hierarchy-of-Effects.” Journal of Advertising Dahlen, Micael. “Banner Advertisements
Research 40, 1/2 (2000): 35–42. Through A New Lens.” Journal of Advertising
The author thanks Sung-Mi Lee for her assist-
Research 41, 4 (2001): 23–30.
ance on this project.
Bush, Alan J., Victoria Bush, and Sharon Har-
ris. “Advertiser Perceptions of the Internet As Danaher, Peter J., and Guy W. Mullarkey.
Hairong Li is a professor of advertising at Michigan “Factors Affecting Online Advertising Recall:
A Marketing Communications Tool.” Journal of
State University. His research covers theoretical A Study of Students.” Journal of Advertising
Advertising Research 38, 2 (1998): 17–27.
and managerial issues of advertising, media, and Research 43, 3 (2003): 252–267.
branding. He has received research grants from
Bush, Alan J., and Victoria D. Bush. “Potential
Google, WPP, Microsoft, AAA, the MSU Foundation,
Challenges the Internet Brings to the Agency- Deighton, John. “The Future of Interactive Mar-
and other sources in recent years. He is editor of
Advertiser Relationship.” Journal of Advertising keting.” Harvard Business Review 74, 6 (1996):
the Journal of Interactive Advertising and an editorial
Research 40, 4 (2000): 7–16. 151–152.
board member of six academic journals in the United

States, Europe, and Asia and one branding magazine
Donthu, Naveen, and Adriana Garcia. “The
Chakraborty, Goutam, Vishal Lala, and David
in China. Email: hairong@msu.edu
Internet Shopper.” Journal of Advertising Research
Warren. “What Do Customers Consider Impor-
39, 3 (1999): 52–58.
tant In B2B Websites?” Journal of Advertising
Research 43, 1 (2003): 50–61.
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