Building Bridges Between Home and School

Edited by:
Frederik Smit
Hans Moerel
Kees van der Wolf
Peter Sleegers

Building bridges
between home
and school

BUILDING BRIDGES BETWEEN HOME AND SCHOOL

ii Building bridges between home and school

Building bridges between home and school
Edited by:
dr. Frederik Smit
drs. Hans Moerel
prof. dr. Kees van der Wolf
prof. dr. Peter Sleegers

INSTITUTE FOR APPLIED SOCIAL SCIENCES
UNIVERSITY NIJMEGEN
SCO/KOHNSTAMM INSTITUTE

iv Building bridges between home and school

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Building bridges between home and school. / dr. F. Smit, drs. H. Moerel, prof. dr. K. van der Wolf &
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Preface

In an increasing number o f countries schools The participants came from many countries in
become convinced that good partnerships Europe including representatives from Poland,
between parents and com munities are necessary Croatia, Albania, Bulgaria and also Cyprus. From
in behalf of the optimization of pupils’ outside Europe the United States of America and
development opportunities, the enhancement of Canada were represented. Th e participants were
pupils’ educational careers and the improvement not only researchers but also represented
of teachers’ task performance. ministries of education, parent organisations and
schools.
ERNAPE (European Research Network About
Parents in Education) is an association of research Two researchers from the ITS, in collaboration
networks in the area of education, in particular with specialists on parent participation from the
about parents in education. In 1993 the University Nijmegen and the SCO-Kohnstamm
association was established w ith the aim to share Institute have brought together in this volume the
research results, stimulate research at all levels. recent scientific and social developme nts in
A first conference ‘Education is Partnership’ was relation to the collaboration between families,
held in Copenhagen, Denmark in 1996. school and comm unity.
On 18 and 19 November 1999, the second
roundtable conference ‘Building bridges between I hope that this volume will contribute to a
home and school’ was organised at the University stronger reciprocal relationship between schools
of Amsterdam, Netherlands . During this and their surroundings to meet the challenges for
conference the current state of affairs, models, the new millennium.
strategies, legislation, experiences and
experiments concerning home-school
partnerships were discussed.

ITS
Nijmegen/Amsterdam, November 1999

prof. dr. H.P.J.M. Dekkers
act. Director

vi Building bridges between home and school

Contents

Preface v

Introduction; building bridges between home and school 1
Frederik Smit, Hans Moerel, Kees van der Wolf, Peter Sleegers

Part 1 - Parents’ orientation on collaboration between home and school 3

Looking back, loo king ahead: reflection on lesson s over twenty-five years, don davies 5

Parents involvement in edu cation: models, strategies and contex ts, Shawn Moore, Sue Lasky 13

‘I’m not clever. I listen to her read that’s all I can do’: parents supporting their children’s learning,
Emma Beresford, Sue Botcherby and Olwen McNamara 19

Who gets involv ed and who does n’t, Stelios Georgiou 27

Overcoming barriers to family inv olvement in low-income area sc hools, Oliver Moles 31

Experiments with the role of paren ts in primary education in the Nethe rlands,
Frederik Smit, Hans Moerel, Peter Sleegers 37

Research on the relationship b etween migrant parents and p rimary schools, Annemiek Veen 43

Parental/community involvement and behaviour problems in Dutch secondary schools,
Kees van der Wolf, Ronald Lippens, Pauline Huizenga 47

Information project developm ent work - cooperation betw een home and scho ol,
Ingebjörg Johanessen 53

‘Parents at School’ programme as a perspective of partnership’s orientation increase in
Poland, Maria Mendel 59

viii Building bridges between home and school

Part 2 - Schools’ perspective on collaboration between fam ilies, school and comm unity 67

Home-school agreem ents: the business of partnership, Gary Heywood-Everett 69

A system for planning and implementing family/school/community partnerships, Donald Lueder 77

Connecting studen t achievement to teaching stand ards and family, school, community
partnerships, Jennifer Hartman, Ann Kinkor, Babara Wilson & Rhonda Payne 81

A prospective overview on school/family/comm unity partnerships in 25 prima ry schools
in Portugal, Adelina Villas-Boas 85

Pedagogical attunemen t: parents, teachers and the pedagog ical assignment of the school,
Cees Klaassen & Han Leeferink 89

Being power partners, Pirjo Nuutinen 95

Partnership in action: an evaluation of a school policy on parents working with their own
children in school, Leonidas Kyriakides 103

Teacher, tutor, parent: the eternal triangle?, Helen Phtiaka 111

Part 3 - Specific aspects of collaboration between home and school 121

Assessing entry characteristics in Kindergarten, Ton Mooij & Ed Sm eets 123

Home-school partnersh ip in primary mathematics: a sociolog ical analysis, Andrew Brown 131

Parents and mathematics education reform: a U.S. case-study, Martha Allexsaht-Snider 141

The school as an active partner in en vironmental work?, Elzbieta Bielecka 145

Parents school partnership programs to assist refugees and other vulnerable populations,
Daniel Safran 153

Patterns of academic support: som e findings from a home scho ol numeracy project with
Somali families living in Londo n, Lesley Jones 159

Drug consumptio n prevention: parents perspec tive, Raquel-Amaya M artínez González,
Marisa Pereira, Norberto Corr al, Begoña Dona ire, Ana Isabel Alvarez, Victoria Casielles 165

Introduction; building bridges between home and
school

This volume is a collection of 25 essays, grouped Adelina Villas-Boas gives a prospective overview
into three parts, on the theme of building bridges on school/family/community partnerships in 25
between home and school. primary schools in Portugal. Cees Klaassen en
The first part contains a parents’ orientation and Han Leeferink present the results of research in to
reflection on partnerships between home and pedagogical attunement between schools and
school (Don Davies), models, strategies and families. Pirjo Nuutinen reports what Finnish
contexts (Shawn Mo ore, Sue Lasky), parents teachers think about their power position.
supporting their children’s learning (Emma Leonidas Kyriakides presents findings of an
Beresford, Sue Botcherby, Olwen McNamara) evaluation of a primary schoo l in Cyprus to
and possible predictors of parental involvement develop a policy for parents w orking with their
(Stelios Georgiou). Oliver Moles describes own children in school. Helen Phtiaka gives an
overcoming barriers to family invo lvement in example of the triangle: teacher, tutor, parent in
low-income area schools. Frederik Smit, Hans Cyprus.
Moerel, Peter Sleegers give an overview of types
of experiments with the role of parents in primary The third part reports on a number of
education in the Netherlands. investigations related to specific aspects of
The research of Annemiek Veen consists on the collaboration between ho me and school. Ton
relationship between migran t parents and primary Mooij and Ed Sme ets studied assessing entry
schools. Kees van der Wolf, Ronald Lippens and characteristics in Kindergarten Andrew Brown
Pauline Huizenga explored questions about presents a sociological analysis of home-school
parental/community involvement and behaviour partnership in primary mathematics. Martha
problems in Dutch secondary schools. The study Allexsaht-Snider presents an analysis of school
of Ingebjörg Johanessen concerns successful and parents involved in mathematics education
interaction between home an d school. Maria reform in the U.S. Elzbieta Bielecka describes
Mendel describes a ‘parents at scho ol’ some environmental projects in Poland aimed at
programme. improving children’s perform ance at school.
Daniel Safran gives a description of parent school
The second part is devoted to the school partnership programs to assist refugees and other
perspective on collaboration between families, vulnerable populations. Lesley Jones discusses
school and comm unity. Home-school agreemen ts some findings from a home school nummeracy
is studied by Gary Hey wood-Everett. Donald project with Somali families living in London.
Lueder presents a strategic planning system. The Raquel-Amaya Martínez González, Marisa
group Jennifer Hartman, Ann Kinkor, Barbara Pereira, Norberto Corral, Begoña Donaire, Ana
Wilson and Rhonda Payne describes an Isabel Alvarez, Victoria Casielles describe the
innovative partnership pro gram in California. family role in drug consumption prevention.

2 Building bridges between home and school

The contributions to this volume were presented and Education (ERNAPE) held in Amsterdam
at the European Research Network About Parents (the Netherlands) on November 18-19, 1999.

Frederik Smit
Hans Moerel
Kees van der Wolf
Peter Sleegers

Part 1

Parents’ orientation on collaboration
between home and school

Looking back, looking ahead: reflections on lessons
over twenty-five years
Don Davies

For the last 25 years my professional life has been US and several other countries and the
dominated by my work for the Institute for opportunity to work with and learn from dozens
Responsive Education, which I founded in 1973 of other researchers and advocates doing similar
to study and promo te family, community, school work. The International Roundtables, which
partnerships. I embarked on th is work after 5 Joyce Epstein and I initiated mo re than ten years
years as an official in the US education ago have been a particularly rich source of
department, and several years as official of the learning from scholars and practitioners in many
largest American teachers’ union, the National other countries.
Education Association. Before that I was engaged This Roundtable in Amsterdam offers me the
in teacher education in universities and in opportunity to reflect back on those 25 years of
teaching in high school. These years in education studies and projects in several countries and on
convinced me that really goo d education for all what I have been able to learn from o thers
children, rich and poor, was only going to be working in this field. Wha t I want to do in this
possible if families and commu nities became full brief paper is to identify and discuss a few of the
partners with schools in the enterp rise. lessons that seem especially important to me.
I have come to see that all parts of the child’s These are reflections and interpretations, based
world must share respons ibility for the child’s only partly on research and colored by own
learning and development. This concept of shared perspectives, values, and opinions. I will also
responsibility is seen by some as a radical idea, draw to a limited extent on papers presented at
and by others as unrealistic. The majority opinion earlier Roundtables. So, how do schools and
by academics and educators is that the jobs of families and communities make partnerships
schools and families and co mmunities are happen. I’ll offer a few brief thoughts and
basically separate and should be kept that way. recommendations.
And, yet for me, this concept of shared
responsibility, is at the heart of all the efforts I Look first to the teachers
have made over the years. Partnerships work best if teachers are given help,
I also became convinced that good partnerships support, and training. If increased involvement of
between schools, parents an d communities are families and community organizations and
possible in all kinds of schools and communities agencies with the schools is the aim, why worry
‘pre-school, elementary, urban, rural, rich and first about the teachers? The answer: Teachers
poor. I know this because we have good can make or break any effort to change the
examples all across the US and overseas. traditional separation of schools from the families
(Unhappily, partnerships are still the exception and communities they serve. I have seen this in
and not the rule, as can be seen in the recent 1997 many American schools and in IRE’s recent
OECD report on the status of parent involvement cross-national study in five countries.
in nine countries.) My wo rk over these 25 years Without teacher interest, support, and skill much
has involved dozens of studies and projects in the of that that is commonly known as parent


involvement won’t work. For most parents in the teachers for partnership has been addressed by
world, the teacher is the primary and sometimes several participants in the International
the only connection to the school and holds the Roundtables in Europe and the US, including
key to good com munication. Yet, often plans for Deanna Evans-Schilling, Joyce Epstein, Martha
partnerships are developed with little or no Allexsaht-Snider, and Dan Safran from the US,
teacher input and teachers are told ‘Here is our Helen Phtiaka, Cyprus, and Birte Ravn, Denmark.
new parent involvement project, funded by this or
that foundation or government. So, teacher, just Make it official
do it.’ Sometimes they do it, but o ften they don’t. Partnerships work best when they have the
The apparently natural and almost universal official sanction of written policies.
teacher concern about professional status and Like it or not, schools are bureaucratic and
expertise and traditional resistance to outsider conservative institutions. They mostly live by
influence is difficult to overcome. We saw rules and policies. So, if you want to have
teacher resistance and fear of losing professional teachers and administrators reach ou t to parents
status as a factor in many of the schools in a and to community institutions, there should be
recent cross-national study, across five very written policies which recomm end or mandate
different cultures and national traditions. We saw such activities and provide guidelines for how
in all of the countries that teachers were proud of such partnerships might be established and
their expertise and wanted to protect their own maintained.
turf (Davies and Johnson 1996).
What is needed? Teacher education institutions I have seen that it is helpful to have com patible
need to prepare future teachers to wo rk positively written policies in support of partnersh ips at all
with parents and community agencies and levels, national, state or province, local district,
institutions and to learn how families and the and individual school. It is also useful when
community can benefit the teacher and the supportive policies are negotiated into teacher
students. New teachers learn through instruction union contracts.
and experience that partnerships with parents and
community agencies d oes not diminish their Another way of achieving official sanction for
professional expertise or status but in fact can partnership practices is to win the support and
enhance these. positive endorsement of the head of the school.
Once he or she starts to teach the new teacher There are many case studies, including the action
needs to be given positive encouragement by research studies of the Institute for Responsive
other teachers and school adm inistrators to Education for the Center on F amilies, that support
engage in the desired partnersh ip activities, and to this belief (Palanki and Burch, 1995). My own
be protected if and when things go wrong. experience is dotted with many both positive and
Teachers on the job also need specific training, negative examples of the powerful influence of
information, and recognition when they are asked the school principal on efforts to initiate or
to undertake new kinds of partnership activities sustain school, family, community partnership
such as student homes, using parents as efforts.
volunteers in the classroom, or participating on a
decision-making committee with parent Having laws and written policies is not enough,
representatives. And, when a new policy or of course. These must be implemented and
project is to be launched, teachers must be enforced. For example, Smit and van Esch
involved in planning for it. The issue of preparing reported that not many of the goals of

Building bridges between home and school 7

participation in their country were being realized (Pizzaro 1992). But, my o wn experience in
(Smit and van Esch, 199 2). Izabel Solomon in schools suggests that many administrators and
Australia discovered that the official structures teachers still see parent involvement as a
created by national government have produced a marginal activity ‘nice,’ but not central to the
lot of rhetoric but little action. school’s instructional goals and many school
reform programs give only a little attention to
Focus on children’s learning parents and the commu nity.
Partnerships work best wh en improved children’s
learning is seen as the main goal by teachers, Provide for a diverse opportunities
parents, and community agencies. The Partnerships work best wh en they are
partnership idea is most acceptable to comprehensive. Joyce Epstein developed and
policymakers if they believe that such tested a five part typology for parent involvement
partnerships contribute to children ’s academic and then expanded it to include a sixth type of
success in school. This is usually true for partnership involving exchanges with the
teachers, community agen cies, and parents community. This typology was used in many of
themselves. There is a good evidence that the studies of the Center on Families,
connects various kind s of partnerships with Communities, Schools, and Children’s Learning
student learning, if those partnerships are well (Epstein 1992). My own experience and studies
designed and carefully implemented. suggest that a wide range of o pportunities, both in
the school and the hom e and the community is
Joyce Epstein has reported th at when schools needed to meet the diverse interests, needs, and
inform parents about children’s acad emic conditions of the variety of families in most
progress in schools, their expec tations for their communities. For many families, supporting their
child’s success goes up. Epstein’s work on children’s learning at home and in the community
homework has sh own that families are more is more attractive and feasible than attending
likely to be able to help their children with events or committee meetings in the school.
academic work at home if teachers give Nancy Chavkin reported that non-traditional
homework assignments that are interactive, activities outside the school attracted more
provide clear and specific information about the parents than activities organized in the school
content and methods being used in the classroom, (Chavkin 1992). Few schools actually undertake
and offer encouragement along with written a comprehensive approach. The efforts I see are
materials and guidelines. often piecemeal, a series of programs, events, or
small projects. I have seen good results from
Dozens of International Roundtable presentations using Epstein’s typology planning tool, which
over the years have focused on how parents and encourages those invo lved to consider all six
community agencies ca n promote children’s types of involvement, inclu ding: 1) The basic
learning. One example has been the work of Raul obligations for child-rearing, building positive
Pizzaro in Chile who has conducted and reported home conditions that su pport children’s
on several studies of the effects of home development; 2) Basic obligations of schools for
interventions on studen t achievement in communicating about school programs and
mathematics and Spanish and has concluded that children’s progress; 3) Family involvement at
families and schools can wo rk together to school as volunteers, aides, audiences for student
enhance students’ cogn itive achievement performances, participants in meetings and social
events; 4) Involvement in learning activities at


home, monitoring and assisting children; 5) My own experience suggests strongly that
Involvement in governance, decision-making and partnerships work best wh en the relationship
advocacy in school-based organizations and in between schools and community organizations
the community; 6) Collaboration and exchanges and agencies is really an exchange, not just
between the school and the community (Epstein community groups or business doing things for
1992). Ultimately, a comprehensive approach can the schools. The schools and their staffs have
and should lead to a change in the culture of the much to offer to other agencies and other
school and its connections with families and the community residents, inclu ding access to their
communities. There are some examples of such physical facilities (such as computer labs, g yms);
culture change in several countries. One of the access to their expertise, teachers and
best examples is the Patrick O’Hearn School in administrators who offer their talents and skills to
Boston. The altered culture in this sch ool is the community; and students who serve the
noticed by even the most casual visitors to the community in service projec ts. The relationship
school and described in IRE’s report on its action between schools and their communities should be
research projects (Palanki and Bu rch 1995). reciprocal. This reciprocal relationship means
more than the community contributing to the
All families need help sometime child and to the school. It must also mean that the
Partnerships work best when the schools and school contributes to the economic and social
health and social service agencies join together to development of the com munity. A true
plan how best the need s of the children and their partnership involves an exchange of resources.
families can be served.
I see family literacy programs as another form of
There is no one best way that schools can link family support. Many participants in International
with community age ncies. But the point is that all Roundtables have described various approaches
families need support and help at one time or to intergenerational literacy including Trevor
another ‘some need more help than others and Carney, Jacqueline McGilp, and Derek Toomey
need it more often’ if schools want to h elp all from Australia; Lorrie Connors-Tadros, and Ruth
children succeed they need to be concerned about Handle and Ellen Goldsmith from the US; and
meeting the non-academic health and social Adelina Villas Boas from Portugal. Many of the
service needs of the children and the families. projects reported aim to raise parents’ awareness
There is much research evidence, bolstered by of the important role that they play in their ch ild’s
much common sense, that academic achievement language developm ent and help them learn try
is linked to health, emotional stability, nutrition, practical ways to help their children read better.
sleep of children and to the social and health
conditions of the home . It is obvious that schools A room of their own
cannot meet all the complex so cial and health Partnerships work best wh en there are visible
needs of the children and families they serve and signs and symbo ls of welcome in the school itself
must enlist to other community agencies and and when there are practical organizational means
institutions. There are many prom ising models in of planning and carrying out partnership
the US and other coun tries that point the way to activities. Family or parent centers fill this need
coordinated or shared services. Some of these for a symbol of welcome and for a location and
models and their results have b een reported in capacity for organizing partnership activities.
various of our International Roundtables. Such centers are a low-cost, easy-to-manage way
to make schools more h ospitable to parents, to


plan and carry out activities, and to serve as a middle-class and affluent children and children
handy locale for parent-to-parent and who are poor, black, Hispanic, and low-income
parent-to-teacher communication . white families. This report by the Education Trust
In the US and a few other cou ntries they are argues that raising standards of academic content
functioning for many dif ferent purposes: and performance for all children is both possible
operating food banks; providing libraries for and essential (Education Trust 1996).
parents with books, toys, computer hardware and Well executed partnerships can help schools
software; clothing exchanges; language classes; reach those parents they cons ider hardest to
and workshops and support groups for parents. reach. These are very often families that are poor,
Vivian Johnson, wh o was one of the researchers from minority groups, or considered outside of
for the Center on Families, Communities, the mainstream. I have seen many successful
Schools, and Children’s learning and a frequent efforts to ‘reach the hardest to reach,’ but I have
participant in International Roundtables, has also seen what Derek Toomey has been warning
studied parent/family centers and reported on us about for several years: that parent
their effectiveness (Johnson 19 93). involvement program s, if they reach and help
more affluent, middle-class families and their
Reaching the hard to reach children can actually widen and not narrow the
Partnerships work best wh en they are designed to gap between the have’s and the have nots.
benefit all children and families, across lines of Toomey writes: I believe that many parent
race, ethnicity, social class, and family income. I involvement programs in schools fail to include
see the gap between the hav es and the have-nots the hardest-to-reach families and that often these
is the most important political, social, and families are not able to give the suppo rt to their
educational problem that the w orld faces as it children’s education they w ould like to be able to
starts the new millennium. Edu cators in every give’ (Toomey, 1992).
place must make sure that progress toward higher This warning leads me as I look ahead to
standards of academic content and performance recommend that educators and organizations
for students is shared across lines of race and concerned about narrowing the economic and
social class. We must make sure that the social class gaps pay special attention to
wonderful new ben efits of technology don’t designing diverse and imaginative strategies
further widen the already large gaps between the aimed at those families who are often left beh ind.
poor and the affluent.
This means finding way s to help all students Partnership also means power-sharing
achieve, despite economic d isadvantage. It is Partnerships work best wh en democratic
important to ask parents to work hard not only for principles are applied.
the interests of better education for their own These principles which include involving families
children but also for better schools for all and other community residents in planning and
children. I must point out with co nsiderable making decisions about their schools and about
embarrassment that the US has the widest gap how partnerships should be set up and managed
between rich and poor families (and the gap has so that family members are seen as partners not
increased in recent years). The country offers ‘outsiders’ clients (for whom you do something).
fewer and less generous social programs for When educators b egin to see families as partners
families and children than other countries. and not just ‘clients,’ I find that they will discover
There is an important new study which ways to involve them in governance and
documents the achievement gap between decision-making proces ses. This means they will


include them in decision-making about budgets, issues and represent parent interests as well as
personnel, and curriculum. T hey will tap their school interests.
opinions through surveys, focus groups, Another very important form of power-sharing or
conferences, and telephon e hot lines. They will parent/community influen ce on schools is
keep them informed about problems and issues. through independent organizations such as
We know that active or passive resistance will be community develo pment associations and ch ild
found to such participation w hich leads to advocacy groups . These groups can give p arents
power-sharing, but those school leaders who take and others in the community a stronger voice on
the risks involved usually find that the benefits school matters. The importance of parent and
outweigh the costs. The benefits include better community organizations working on school
decisions, decisions that are more w idely issues goes beyond helping the school. There is a
supported, a stronger sense of parent and broader social benefit. I have been struck by the
community ownership of school programs, and work of Robert Putnam of Harvard University
increased political support from parents and the who has demonstrated that one important element
community. To make power sharing workable of a civil society and stronger comm unities is
and realistic requires a careful re-design of the networks of civic associations. In h is research in
decision-making structures u sually found in Italy over a decade Putnam has demonstrated
schools and larger districts in which schools are empirically the direct link between the existence
embedded. Many studies have shown that many of a network of civic associations an d economic
advisory or decision-mak ing committees that are productivity and the flourishing of democracy.
set up become only tokens or are dominated by By civic associations he means organizations
the educators. We know also that many structures such as parent groups, local choruses and
set up are dominated by the most sophisticated orchestras, sports clubs, neighborhood councils,
and well-educated members of a school's parent and community organizations working on school
community. issues (Putnam 1994 , 1997).
One way to increase meaningful family and Putnam points out that the quality of public life
community participation in d ecision-making is to and the performance of social institutions (e.g.
decentralize important decisions from the center schools and families) in America an d elsewhere
to the individual school. Another is to broaden are powerfully influenced by norms and networks
the kinds of opportun ities and structures. On this of civic engagement, which he and others call
point, I have been influenced by the work of social capital.
Philip Woods of the Open University in England Putnam’s work corrobo rates the political theory
who provided a framework for thinking about of ‘civic humanism,’ which means that a strong
parent roles and aspirations which includes: and free government depends on a virtuous and
transforming the way services are provided, public spirited citizenry and a civic com munity
making choices abou t which school to send th eir that supports the governm ent. To reach such a
children to; making sure the school is meeting the goal and sustain it a society must create education
needs the parents want it to; letting service for its citizens that emphasizes good citizenship.
providers know their views; seeking to influence While America has often been credited as being a
or take part in the school decision-making model for democracy and citizen activism,
process (Woods 1993). Strong parent associations Putnam notes that civic participation in our
or parent-teacher organizations can help provide country has declined markedly in the past four
some parents with a stronger voice in school decades. Reversing this decline is both an
affairs, if these groups address important school educational and political challenge.


So, my point here is that collaboration between some practice developed elsew here; rather what is
schools, families, and communities is one transposed is the basic idea, a model ‘one might
strategy that can be helpful in demo cratic even say a metaphor’ which is then applied to the
societies seeking to sustain and advance particular circumstances of the receiving society’
democratic principles. Schools can make an (Renfrew 1976).
important contribution by striving to give the
families they serve a variety of opportun ities to Final words
participate in setting policies about bud get, Educators must be optimists, and I am one, even
personnel, and programs, and in important though cynicism is alwa ys fashionable in
decisions about the scho ol. academia and world even ts sometimes make it
difficult for anyone to maintain his or her
Cross national exchanges do work optimism. My hop e is that my work and yo urs
I think our International Roundtables have about partnerships and schools, families, and
demonstrated over and over that studies and communities is of more than trivial imp ortance. A
examples in one coun try are useful to those in stronger, more positive reciprocal relationship
seeking to change po licies and practices in between schools and their communities can be
families, communities, and schools in the forged, and those relationship s will help
direction of partnership. This is what I call the educators and communities use the positive
‘more distant mirror’ phenomenon. Looking at potential of education for good and humane
one’s problems and alternative s olutions at a purposes. As I look ahe ad my optimist’s hope is
distance seems to give policy-makers, planners, that we can harness the poten tial of education to
administrators, and researchers different ways of develop new generations that can escape the
thinking about closer-to-home problems. legacies of violence, war, hatred of people who
Research and successful practice in one country have different color, ethnicity, race, or religion
offer support for those who w ant to act to that the twentieth century has left for the coming
improve education in another. Some hundred years. I think that educational systems
anthropologists who have studied the process of that put the partnership idea in practice can h elp
cultural change point out that ‘dif fusion does not to meet this challenge and the other challenges
typically involve the replication in o ne society of that the new century will bring.

References
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Roundtable. Atlanta.

Parent involvement in education: models, strategies
and contexts
Shawn Moore, Sue Lasky

In this paper, we explore the conceptual, culture between home and school, and
empirical and strategic literature related to parent institutional barriers are bound to arise. Involving
involvement in educatio n. Parent involvement in parents as partners requires an understanding of
schooling has traditionally taken many forms parents’ perceptions of schoo ling, their
including parents helping their children with aspirations for their children, their approach to
homework, parent-teacher interviews, parent parenting, their expectations of teachers, an d their
nights, special consultation on student problems, concept of their role and respons ibilities.
parent councils, and parent volunteer help in the We first examine child-parent interactions both
school and the classroom. Some evidence inside and outside the home through the
suggests that activities of this nature can have theoretical lens of stages in a child’s cognitive,
beneficial effects on student learning. From a emotional and social development, explore the
socio-cultural perspective, however, we will barriers that divide teachers and parents, paren ts
review other evidence indicating that traditional and schools, and parents and their children,
relationships between teachers and parents can identify the socio-cultural factors that influence
also perpetuate a power imbalance in favour of school-parent understanding, and propose
teachers. In recent years, teachers’ relationships strategic approaches that can enhance
with parents have become more uncertain and communication, community and partnerships
contentious. Parents are becom ing more between parents, teachers and schools. In our
questioning and critical about issues of consideration of the empirical literature, we paid
curriculum, the quality of instruction and special attention to exemplary stud ies and models
practices used to assess and evalu ate their which have received auth oritative recognition in
children. Home-school relationships are changing the field and cutting edge research that provides
for a multitude of reasons including greater new insights into parent-teacher interaction . We
diversity of the parent population , changes in argue that the structures of schooling must sh ift
family structures, increasing school ch oice, more from closed and protectionist to open and
parental involvement in the governance of inclusionary if parent-teacher partnerships are to
schools, new methods of assessment and flourish over time and benefit children.
reporting, and special education legislation. Second, we consider the implications of the
These developments have implications for parent conceptual and empirical literature for the
involvement and stud ent achievement. organization and substance of the EQAO
Formulating new strategies for inv olving parents (Education Quality and Accountability Office)
in their children’s learning is particularly grade 3 and grade 6 Home Questionnaires.
important during this time of profound social Surveys are important, commonly used tools for
change and educational reform in Ontario, gathering information abou t how parents are
nationally and internationally. Since parents are involved in their children’s learning and the kind
not a homogeneous group, conflicts concerning of modelling they provide in the learning process.
expectations between parents and teachers, The validity and reliability of such instru ments is


important if the data are to be trusted for making significant ways. Our review ex plores where
claims, predictions, and policy decisions. The parent involvement is conceptually and
Home Questionnaire operates concurrently in a structurally positioned within the educational
wider context of demographic and educational change process. In this regard, the experiences of
change. Socio-cultural meanings embedded in the educators and parents in other jurisdictions can be
questions may resonate with some parents, but highly relevant in the Ontario context. The
confound others. We analyzed the Home changes occurring in pu blic schooling in Ontario
Questionnaires in relation to literature on parent today are, in part, the result of pressures from
involvement and what is known to date about parents themselves. We need to keep this in mind
best practice. We argue that the Home as we explore the concepts, m odels and contexts
Questionnaire needs to reflect the socio-cultural of parent involvement in ed ucation.
experiences of parents as a diverse group and
that the ability to disaggregate these parent data Objectives
according to key demographic variables can - conduct a critical review of the conceptual and
deepen our understanding of the dynamics of methodological literature in order to assess
parents’ involvement (or lack thereof) in the parent involvement and its relation to school
home and in the sch ool. achievement, including the role of family and
Finally, our review takes place in a climate of school demography.
tumultuous change on the educational landscape - evaluate empirical findings concerning the
in Ontario as well as concurrent sweeping relationship between different forms of parent
educational changes in other Canadian provinces involvement and student motivation, learning
and countries. These changes reflect paradoxical and success.
forces of centralization and decentralization. In - elucidate how patterns of parent inv olvement in
Ontario, for example, the ministry has centralized education vary according to differences in
educational taxing and sch ool funding while social class, language, traditions, ethnocultural
decentralizing power to school councils. It has background, and family type (e.g., single
centralized and standardized curriculum and parent, blended family).
reporting while decentralizing responsibilities for - engage critically with the EQAO grade 3 and
implementing these new policies. The reform grade 6 parent surveys bas ed on the literature.
scenario has provoked spirited debate in the - conceptualize alternative models of parent
province on the future of public education involvement in education from a synthesis of
including the role of parents in schooling. Some theoretical frameworks, empirical findings, and
claim that current educational chang es in Ontario practical considerations.
are ‘progressive’ in response to changing - identify strategic implications of empirical
community demographics, the need for greater findings for enhancing communications
accountability to parents, and the requirements of between parents and teachers and promoting
a competitive global economy. Other observers, parent involvement in their children ’s learning.
however, are critical of current reforms as narrow
in scope, regressive in terms of teaching and Design and methodology
learning, and insensitive to the day-to-day We began with a global search of the literature on
realities of teachers’ professional lives. In any ‘parent involvement’ - including databases and
event, educators, parents and students are caught websites. We also searched the most current
up in a time of political crisis and uncertainty in editions of about 20 of the m ost relevant journals
education, which is affecting their relationships in of education for relevant articles that would not


yet be on the ERIC database. Then, we organized practice’. Rather, we identify and discuss
studies according to major questions under alternative strategies in relation to empirical
investigation: parents’ views, models of parent findings, concepts and authoritative models.
involvement, school demographics, reporting, There are some excellent handbooks that suffice
and best practice. In so doing, we focussed on as strategic guides. However, research findings
what the concept of ‘parent involvement’ means suggest repeatedly that understanding particular
from the perspectives of parents, teachers and family cultures, particular school environments
researchers as well as different levels in the and particular teachers’ perceptions is essential
system - home, school, board and province. As to designing effective approaches to parent
we probed deeper into the literature, we identified involvement. In this regard, we found some case
barriers of culture, language, race, power, and studies where claims of successful partnerships
bureaucracy that tend to keep parents safely on are made. We also discovered some unsettling
the margins of schooling. In our analysis of accounts of parent-teacher conflict and alienation,
findings concerning parent involvement across a where partnerships have failed to materialize
multitude of school and home contexts, we because of distrust and political tensions -
identified key themes. Theory helps to explain sometimes bitter and prolong ed. As well,
variability in findings across contexts. For conflicting beliefs about rights, expertise, abilities
example, Waller’s assertion that parents and and cultural stereotypes cast teachers and parents
teachers are natural antagonists (parents being into ‘adversarial’ rather than collaborative
oriented to their child and teachers oriented to a relationships. Although, prescriptive guidelines
child as part of a group) gets to the heart of the cannot be expected take into account all these
dynamics of many parent-teacher struggles. complexities and variabilities, clearly written,
However, Waller’s notion does not fully account informative documentation for parents is an
for differences in how parents and teach ers important component in communicating with and
perceive one another throug h different socio- supporting parents invo lvement in their children’s
cultural lenses. Motivational, cultural and learning. In summary, the specific steps in our
organizational theories also come into play. We methodological appro ach were as follows:
intentionally selected exemplary studies, a few of A. Assessment of empirical research findings on
which provide rare, revealing glimpses into the parent involvement accord ing to:
social organization of parent-teacher interaction. - demographic and cultural variation in types
Ideally, parents and teachers can learn to of parents by class, race, culture, gender, and
understand and appreciate the world from the family type;
other’s perspective. However, our examination of - ecological variation in school size, structure,
parent-teacher relationships sugges ts that simply location (rural, urban, suburban), student
bringing parents into the teachers’ world may population, and setting (elementary/
actually increase tensions without effective secondary).
strategies professional development and parent B. Search databases (e.g., ERIC, including
education. Canadian Educational Index, Australian
We examined the process as well as the substance Education Index, British Education Index;
of parent involvement. Process refers to the ONTARIS) with focus on research on primary
constantly changing dynamics of parent-teacher care giver / parent / parent involvement.
relationships and parent-child relationships over C. Review books and refereed journal articles,
time. We have not attempted to create a definitive including publications and reports connected
dictionary of ‘parent involvement’ or ‘best with International Centre for Educational


Change extensive research studies and findings educators depending on their ethno-cultural point
concerning parent comm unication, relationship of view. In this regard, a very prominent them e in
and involvement. the literature is the need to ground concepts of
D. Analysis of grade 3 and grade 6 parent parent involvement in relation to particular
questionnaire instruments in terms of the individual and school demographics. The
conceptual and empirical literature on parent literature we reviewed also reflects both the
involvement. psychology and sociology of parent invo lvement.
E. Professional contacts with key researchers On a psychological level, the focus of study is on
and centres in the field for collaboration and the individual’s experiences, perceptions,
research advice (e.g., Joyce Epstein, Centre on feelings, expectations, memories and aspirations
School, Family and Community Partnerships, for the child’s education and their role in it.
John Hopkins University). Almost all parents regardless of background, for
example, want the best edu cation for their
Key questions children and try to be conscientious about helping
Our review of the literature was organized around them succeed. At the same time, parents often
a number of key questions outlined in our report feeling powerless, frustrated, and
original proposal to EQA O: marginalized from teachers and the schooling
1. What are the most effective forms of parental process. Parents’ expectations of their children,
involvement in relation to parents’ point of the teacher, the school and themselves are a
view as well as demographic and ecological reflection of their own ethnocultural background
factors? and their own experiences of schooling.
2. What are the authoritative models of parent Likewise, teachers’ expectations of pa rents are
relationship and how do they inform strategies shaped by their own ethnocultural experience, by
for parents’ involvement in their children ’s their concern and responsibilities for ‘other
learning? people’s children, and also by their professional
3. How do parent and school demographics acculturation.
modify the relations among other variables A socio-cultural perspective has b een the main
such as parent interest and motiva tion to focus in our analysis of the literature on parent
become involved in education? involvement. In this regard, the literature
4. What is the role in reporting to paren ts in indicates that the cultural understandings and
fostering assessment literacy and motivation realities of parents can conflict sharply with those
for parents’ involvement? of teachers. Absence of or breakd own in
5. What are best practices in terms of communication betw een parents and teachers is
communication and involvement of parents in documented in many case studies and surveys.
their children’s learning? Particularly, linguistic and bureaucratic barriers
6. How well do the dimensions of the parent can silence minority parents voices. The evidence
questionnaires for grade 3 and grade 6 reflect also suggests that training is lacking for both
concepts in the literature, tap into parents’ life parents and teachers on how to work together.
experience, enhance parents’ understandings Preservice and inservice have no t kept pace with
and motivate parents’ involvement? rapidly changing dem ands and new partnersh ip
roles in working with parents. On top of all of
Discussion and conclusion this, administrators and teachers in On tario are
Parent involvement is an amorphous concept that under intense reform pressure from government
can mean very different things to parents and and parents to open their do ors, change their


practices, structures, curriculum, and, in general, significant barriers to parent involvement, the
be more ‘accountable’ to the wider public. EQAO power for change rests mostly with schools and
is playing an important role in this process of teachers where institutional power lies. The
educational change. The evidence we reviewed exception to this assertion is parent political
suggests that schools are hav ing difficulty activism.
transforming themselves into ‘learning Deficit models view parents and students from a
organizations’, which are flexible and responsive clinical position of greater knowledge and
to the forces of demographic and political change. professionalism. Schools that reach out, open
Reform demands on teachers in Ontario over the their doors and implement practices of parental
last three years have been crushing and inclusion in part by adapting the school culture to
relentless. This has resulted in many of teachers more closely fit the surrounding community
retreating from parents to protect themselves, culture, on the other hand, are laying the
rather than joining forces with them. In contrast, organizational groundw ork for meaningful,
research on communication and best practice parent-teacher partnerships. Our review s uggests
points time and time again to the need for the that the deficit model is alive and well whe n it
structures of schooling to change to more open, comes to inclusion of mino rity, single-parent and
inclusive systems where partnerships between low socioeconomic status families. Proactive
teachers and parents are the norm, rather than approaches to parent invo lvement are difficult
the exception. and demanding for administrators and teachers.
We have compared parents’ views with those of The evidence suggests that partnerships will not
teachers and identified some of the most automatically produce harmonious relationships.
significant factors in their relationships in terms First, parents are a very diverse population
of children’s achievement. In this regard, the reflecting many assumptions, attitudes, beliefs,
conceptual literature suggests that parents see and images of schooling. Second, it would be
their child and teachers see a child as part of a naïve to expect educators and school boards to
group. The empirical literature tends to sup port simply hand over institution al-based power to
Waller’s thesis to a point, with parents often parents. Third, conflicts grow more intense as
asking for individualized, personal parents get more closely involved in the
communication. In add ition, there is ample classroom and in making decisions concerning
evidence of the cultural, linguistic and core functions, curriculum, staffing and school
institutional barriers that keep teachers and governance. Fourth, some parents want no part of
parents in their own separate worlds. At the same such core decision-making roles and consider
time, the empirical literature offers some them the prerogative of administrators and
persuasive evidence that partnership models can teachers. In a multiracial, multicultural and
create ‘bridges of understanding’ between the multiethnic society, such as Canada, these issues
home and the schoo l. Specifically, some critical are interlinked in complex way s that play out in
studies draw our attention to protective and each individual situation. Nevertheless, the
school-centred structures of schooling that literature suggests that partnerships offer a path to
pathologize parents and keep them at a distance work collaboratively which can foster parents and
from the core functions of teaching and learning. teachers understanding of the world through one
The ‘deficit’ model and the ‘partnership model another’s eyes. Teacher development programs
are conflicting orientations each with qu ite need to be designed and implemented that
different implications for parent involvem ent. develop in teachers the critical reflective skills to
While the demograp hics of family can create see their own biases, to develop communication


skills that will help teachers talk with an However, unless real rather than illusory power
increasingly more diverse parent population, is shared with parents, who are willing and able
which cultivate the value of involving parents and to accept the responsibilities that go with it, the
provide teachers with a wide array of strategies notion of parent-teacher partnership will be
for how to do this. ‘hollow words’ (Benson, 1999).
The literature on parent involvement suggests a Finally, there are significant gaps in the research
world of ‘multiple realities’. The challenge for on parent involvement. First, the role,
educators and parents is to find w ays to work responsibility and expectation s of students
collaboratively on the basis of each other’s reality themselves are mentioned in only a few studies.
in the best interest of the child’s developm ent, However, the place of students within
achievement and success. Partnership models - partnerships needs more conceptual definition
particularly as formulated by Epstein, Ogbu, and empirical emphasis. Practices such as three-
Comer, Cummins and Hargreaves - provide way conferences point to the value of students’
conceptual scaffolding upon which collaborative voices in their own learning ex perience, for their
relationships between parents and teachers can parents’ participation and parents’ ‘assessment
develop. While each p artnership model has its literacy’. Second, best practices of teachers’
strengths and weaknes ses, their common feature professional development, parent training and
is practices of two-way communication between inquiry in the context of the partnership process
home and schoo l. Partnerships need to be needs to be documented more thoroughly in the
adapted to fit particular co nditions of family Canadian schools, including models where the
demographics, student developmental needs, parents and teachers learn together (e.g., Paide ia
school structures, and community resources. seminars). Third, we have only scratched the
Innovations - such as paren t centres, homework surface in understanding the micro-dynamics of
‘hotlines’, home visits, parent coordinators, power and authority in interactions between
teachers as ‘ethnographers’, parent-teacher parents and teachers. Particularly, studies are
teaming, parent education and training, three-way needed that focus on the social organization of
conferences, and ‘schools in th e community’ - are partnerships in institutional settings - especially
particularly promising ways to foster two-way parent involvement in the school, the classroom
communication, emotional understanding, and in decision-making roles. The research we
cohesion between school practices and parent reviewed clearly indicates tensions between
support roles, and involv ement of community professional and persona l realities when parents
resources. The potential of technology for become closely involved in the day-to-day
improving reporting, networking, and parent activities of teachers’ work. These tensions have
involvement has yet to b e fully explored, and this to be confronted open ly and honestly, not
means giving access and resources to all parents. ignored.

‘I’m not clever. I listen to her read that’s all I can do’:
parents supporting their children’s learning
Emma Beresford, Sue Botcherby and Olwen McNamara

Introduction were in a slightly more mixed so cio-economic
The role of the parent as co-supporter in the community with betw een 30% and 60 % of pupils
educative process is vital if children are to from ethnic minority families. The project as a
achieve their potential. Structures are in place whole focused upo n families of children in years
nationally to make schoo ls more accountable to 1, 6, 7 and 10; chosen to be at the beginning or
the community and to ensure they inform parents end of the ‘key stages’ of education where school
of curriculum matters and, to a lesser degree, activity with regard to involving parents in
enlist their support in helping their children to supporting their children, and parental interest in
learn; but the gap between practice an d rhetoric is doing so, could reasonably be expected to be
wide, particularly in the secondary phase. The important. Interviews were cond ucted with
Link Project was a collaborative enterprise parents/carers of 65 children, sampled with regard
between the Manche ster Metropolitan University, to variables such as social class, ethnicity, ability
Manchester Inspection and Advisory Service etc. every attempt being made to ensure the
‘partnership with parents’ and 5 Manchester sample was representative of the school
schools (3 secondary and 2 primary). It was an population as a whole. In addition, interviews
action research and development project which: were conducted with pupils and school staff,
identified and evaluated communication including Senior Man agement Teams and Year
strategies between home and school; discovered Heads. The research process included the
what parents currently knew and believed about distribution of a questionnaire to 500 families
their children’s schooling and how they across the five schools. The questionnaire was
supported their learning; developed, implemented designed with a substan tive section common to
and disseminated curriculum/ training resources all schools and an addition al section specific to
to improve knowledge of the curriculum, access each individual schoo l focusing on their
to resources and understanding of strategies particular concerns. Over 250 resp onses were
which help parents sup port their children’s received and although efforts were made to offer
education. This paper briefly reviews the research support to parents who might experience
process and reports on the findings and difficulty with written English, we nevertheless
development work . felt, that responses were skewed to higher socio-
economic classes and ethnic minority families
Process were under represented.
The five schools involve d in the project were A significant feature of the project was the
chosen, from a cohort of vo lunteers, to cover a establishment of Parental Action Teams (PATs)
range of socio-economic and ethnic populations. of key stakeholders in the educative process:
Two of the schools were RC Voluntary Aided teachers, parents and governors. The PATs were
schools (1 primary, 1 secondary) in a solidly involved in the research design, data collection,
white, working class, socio-eco nomically mediation of findings, development work and
deprived area of the city. The other 3 schools finally the evaluation of those developments.


PATs met both locally, managing the project at they had experienced d ifficulty, sometimes
school level, and centrally in a consultative group considerable, in contacting schools or individual
which, in addition to its adviso ry remit with teachers: ‘I left many messages and they never
regard to the research and development processes, got back’. A couple of parents remarked upon
provided an arena for the sharing of good difficulties encountered when problems arose
practice. There was a continuing cycle whereby after school or in the holidays: ‘I find it
the research not only identified existing good frustrating that by the time the children get home
practice but also informed the development work, you can’t contact anybody at the school so you
which was in turn evaluated . are left frustrated ‘till the next day’. One parent
suggested a ‘voice mail’ facility would be useful.
Findings How schools dealt with incidents left a lasting
impression on parents: ‘My estimation went right
(i) Contact up. You know there is going to be problems at
Primary parents contacted schools on a regular school but if you kno w they are going to be dea lt
basis: 25% contacted schools once a month and with professionally and promptly it makes you
60% once a term. The ease with which parents feel confident. I was very impressed’.
were able to speak to teachers varied g reatly: in Questionnaire data regarding the building and
one primary school parents found 23% of sustaining of relationships in the secondary phase
teachers always and 71% usually available; in the was mixed. There were sign ificant differences
other school 68% of parents found staff always between schools, perhaps as a result of structural
available. Both primary scho ols had apparently factors, as to who parents felt they knew best. In
successfully established relationships with the one secondary scho ol 16% of parents claimed to
parents: overall 40% of parents felt they knew the know the headteacher best whereas in another
classteacher best, 30% the headteacher and 30% none did. Numbers claiming to know the
felt they knew both well. On ly 2% of parents in classteacher well varied from 16% in one school
one school and 7% in the other felt they knew no to 50% in another. Between 20% and 35% of
one well. The transition from primary to parents, however, still felt they knew no one well.
secondary school was felt to be quite ‘scary’ for The reasons for this lack of conn ection were
parents and children alike. First impression s were undoubtedly co mplex. On one level ma ny parents
important: one secondary school reorganised its had to rid themselves of much ‘emotional
introductory meeting into a format based upon baggage’ and overco me the various ways in
small informal groups and parents felt them to be which the school system, and in particular the
‘informative’ and ‘friendly’: ‘we all went it, was secondary school system, inadvertently alienated
like a family thing’. them. Ghosts from the historical past featured
Secondary parents reported surprisingly few large in parent memories: one mother recalled her
contacts with the school 60% only contacted once own experiences as a child at sch ool in the 60's,
a term and 30% never made contact. When they ‘I left school unable to read and write, cou ldn’t
did contact schools 15% of secondary wait to get out so I bring these experiences’. For
respondents found the teachers always available another it was those of her husband: ‘My husband
and 70% found them usually available. Evidence is very anti religion - the religion was very pushy
from the interview data with regard to this matter at his school.. being humiliated.. didn’t want the
was mixed. Whilst some parents felt ‘the school children to go through th at’. Many parents felt
is responsive they always seem to return your intimidated by the academic etho s of the school:
calls’ over one third of those interviewed said ‘the whole system and language around the


system is very difficult, they all alienate us’; came to delivering information from school. In
‘there were computers everywhere and it was the primary phase the picture was varied, 68% of
dead hi-tech and I was thinking AHHH!’ For parents in one school and 35% in another felt
some there were cultural barriers: one father felt their children brought home all the information
his son’s school was a ‘forcing house for the they were given. A num ber of the parents
middle classes … hidden curriculum … preparing interviewed felt strongly that important things
kids for company life’; one mother ‘speaking as a like SATs results and reports should either be
black working class woman’ felt ‘the PTA can posted home or more effective structures should
appear very elitist... particularly at secondary be in place to ensure the collection of reply slips.
school’. Some parents felt psych ologically Parents’ knowledge about the curriculum and
threatened: ‘you need a lot of con fidence to assessment processes was generally fairly vague
contact the school’; ‘enormity... annexes and across both primary and secondary phases.
classrooms… new ... scary… too big… don’t Questionnaire evidence indicated that between
know anybody... get lost… those feelings stay 37% and 62% of primary and secondary p arents
with you throughout the whole school’. Another felt they had about the right amount of
mother wanted to assert social boundaries information on both what their child was taught
between home and school: ‘it’s all like the and the exams they took and between 33% and
boundary/demarcation .. bringing your social life 60% felt they had too little. It thus appeared that
into school’. information dissemination practices and strategies
across schools varied tremend ously in their
(ii) Information - Curriculum quality and effectiveness. As a consequence
Overall 70 % of parents were satisfied with the overall about 20% o f secondary responden ts felt
quantity of the general information they received they knew ‘a lot’ about what their child was
about the school and their child, 25% felt they learning, in the primary phase the variation was
had too little although nobody felt they had too from 10% in one school to 50% in another. 23%
much. Questionnaire data indicated that, on the of secondary respondents felt they knew ‘little’ or
whole, they found the information ‘easy to ‘nothing’. In the primary schools the
understand’, ‘well presented’ and ‘useful’; but corresponding figures w ere 8% and 32% .
they were a little more unsure that it was ‘sent at Most parents appeared to k now what subjects
the right times’. Evidence from the interviews their children were studying but were unclear
was a little more mixed with regard to the q uality about the NC levels and grading of the SATs
and clarity of the written materials. Evidence tests: ‘I think the NC is jargonistic’; ‘I start
indicated that overall nearly half the parents reading it and I get bored I don’t un derstand half
believed they got all of the information sent home of it really’; ‘I heard about the key stages but I
via their child. In the secondary phase the don’t know what they are I don’t know how they
reliability of the child as ‘postman’ clearly are assessing them, I don’t know anything about
decreased with age: twice as many year 7 parents the levels and I would like to know’. A number of
felt they got all the information as year 10 parents expressed a desire to know more: ‘I’d like
parents, 10% of the latter felt they got ‘very it better to understand the NC be cause I think R is
little’. As one year 10 father complained: under some pressure from th e work at school.
‘sometimes it’s like getting blood out of a stone, From that point of view I’d like to understand a
unless you push and push him for the information little bit more. I think I’d also like to know how
you don’t get it’. Overall girls were felt to be parents could help children appropriately’. One
significantly more reliable than boys when it mother also acknowled ged the problems: ‘if


somebody said to me would you come on a day but only 30% thought they were ‘well organised’.
course about the national curriculum I would say One third of parents felt the evenings ‘too
no. So it depends what is being offered really’. rushed’. The picture was mu ch the same in
primary schools. A small nu mber of parents
(iii) Progress remarked upon the variable quality of the
Parents on the whole felt slightly better informed information received from staff at parents’
about their child’s progress than about the evenings. One parent recalled a very useful
curriculum. Questionnaire data indicated that interview with a teacher who pinpointed that her
between 42% and 56% of secondary p arents felt son had problems with his concentration and
they knew a lot about how well their child was suggested ‘in a nice professional way’ strategies
doing; between 14 % and 32% felt they k new only to improve his memory. Another parent stressed
a little or nothing. The picture was similar in the the value of receiving detailed and focused
primary phase where 30% of parents in both feedback from teachers.
schools felt they knew little about h ow well their The picture in both primary an d secondary data
child was doing. with regard to written reports was equally mixed.
Nearly 90% of respondents felt the language used
Parental knowledge of their child’s progress was was easy to understand; although again evidence
informed in a number of w ays. In the secondary from the interviews was a little more mixed in
phase all schools operated some form of journal this respect. Only 70% of secondary (and 80% of
or log book and m ost parents seemed very primary) parents felt that the marks and grades
positive about its potential as a 3-way mode of were equally transparent; leaving 30% unsure, or
communication; some were very positive: ‘thanks decidedly unclear: ‘a bit mind-boggling’ as one
to the journal I feel I have a personal relationship mother put it. Lack of understanding ran deep:
with all of D’s teachers’. Evidence from the there was still confusion about how to interpret
interviews suggested that w hilst some parents marks, ‘40% is that good?’; about the assessment
‘got the journal every night’ and felt it ‘operated system, ‘it went from 3.6 to 6.2 he w as very
quite successfully… gives the children a focus’ pleased but to be honest I hadn’t a clue’; and even
there was a drift in its use from year 7 to year 10. about percentages, ‘38% out of what? It might be
A number of parents felt the potential of the out of 40%’. Some appeared quite alienated by
journal was not always realised. O ne parent felt the whole business ‘wh en you open these rep orts
there was a tendency for teachers to w rite it’s like getting the gas or electric bill with all
‘negative comments, they d on’t seem to write these symbols and thin gs’. 20% of respond ents
positive things’. Parents were very encouraged by felt reports did not give enough detail and 30%
unsolicited positive comments: one mother, were unsure that they gave a clear pictu re of their
whose son was in a remedial centre, remembered child. Nearly half of the responden ts were unsure
that she had given her son ‘a big hug’ when she that reports were sent often enough. This latter
got a letter congratulating him on his English message was reinforced in the interviews: as one
work. Credit systems, wh ere in operation, were year 7 parent observed ‘November they are not
approved of by bo th parents and children, if it established. November to June is practically a
was applied consistently by teachers and across whole academic year if there is a problem time
all subjects. has been wasted’.
Parents’ evenings were described as ‘useful’ by Despite feeling reasonably well informed about
over 75% of secondary respondents, nearly 60% their child’s progress there were still however
described them as ‘welcomin g’ and ‘informative’, significant differences in parents’ expectations for


their children that did not correspond to actual that parents in year 10 helped children
examination results: in the second ary schools considerably less than those in year 7. In the
58%, 62% an d 26% of parents exp ected their primary phase virtually all parents claimed to
children to get degrees; in the primary sch ools ‘listen to reading’, and 70% ‘test spelling s’,
30% and 70%. The most likely explanation for ‘check work is done’ and ‘explain work’. The
these marked differences lay in the socio- amount of help which children received from
economic distribution of the schools’ intakes. family members was significantly age related. In
When collated across the sa mple as a whole there one primary school 30% of pupils had help each
was significant positive correlation between night and in the other 55% ; by comparison only
social class and expectations; 85% of professional 6% of secondary ch ildren had help each night. In
parents, 80% of managerial, 38% of skilled, and year 7 nearly half the children got help once or
29% of semi-skilled expected their children to get twice a week; 40% rarely got help. By year 10
degrees. one third of children got help once or twice a
The vast majority of secondary parents, in all week and over 60% rarely got help.
schools did however feel that they could make a There were a number of reasons for this apparent
difference: 54% a lot, 36% some, and only 10% ‘fall off’ in parental support and, in particular, it
felt they could make little or no difference. The was not necessarily for lack of willingness on the
impact primary parents felt they could have was part of parents: in year 7 only 4% of parents
significantly greater: 80% in one school and 65% claimed their children did not allow th em to help
in another felt they could make a lot of with homework, by year 10 25% of parents felt
difference, only 5% felt they could make little or discouraged. In the primary phase, by
no difference. Parents also felt they could make comparison, virtually all parents claimed to be
significantly more difference to how well their allowed to help their children with h omework. It
daughters did at school than their sons. also appeared that girls were significantly m ore
receptive to help than boys. Parental expertise, or
(iv) Homework rather lack of it, was a second theme which
The amount of homework children did each night emerged: ‘we’ve been studying at college but
at secondary school varied considerably : 3-17 % sometimes even we do n’t know how to d o it’.
spent 2 hours or more, about 50% overall spent Parents felt inadequate particularly in the senior
one hour, 30% half an hour, and, 5%, their years at secondary school: ‘in year 7 he brought
parents claimed, did none. M ost year 7 parents homework and we understood what he was
felt the amount of homewo rk given to their doing’. Maths seemed to be a recurrent problem:
children was about right but over 40% of year 10 ‘I probably struggle a bit with maths because
parents felt their children did not get enou gh. In mine was taught in inches and pounds and these
the primary phase overall 30% spent one hour, are in millimeters and grams’. Homework clubs
60% spent half an hour, and 20% of children in were posited as one solution: ‘I would love to see
one school and 2% in the other did no homework. a homework club because then there would be
When asked to describe the strategies that they someone for helping’. In ad dition to the support
used to help their children most primary and provided by parents, grandparents and siblings
secondary respondents replied that they ‘show were often mobilized to help: ‘if she has any
interest’ and ‘give praise’. In the secondary phase problems she asks her older sister; my brother
over 50% of parents ‘check work is done’, helps if she has any difficult homework’. A
‘explain work’ and ‘sugg est improvements’. demarcation in terms of subject expertise was
There was strong evidence here again to suggest also often apparent: ‘I can’t do maths my husband


can’; ‘if its maths or equations it’s his Dad… development. There were some undeniably clear
spelling or English I help. Germ an is a no’. A messages for schools in the research findings.
third theme which emerged from the data to Interviews and questionn aire data combined to
explain the apparent fall off in parental support illuminate the ‘what’ and the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of
was that of independence: there was a growing school/parent/child dyna mic as they related to
recognition that ‘when children get older you’ve parents supporting their children’s education.
got to give them a bit of trust let them stand on Additionally, data (not reported here) from the
their own feet’. Although there did seem to be a individual school section in the questionnaire
certain amount of covert surveillance going on, informed schools abou t issues of specific
‘she is uncomfortable about us looking in her importance to them. Parents identified both areas
books so we tend to do it when she is at school or in which they were very su pportive of their
in bed’. school’s existing policy and practice and also
Finally lack of information regarding homework ones in which they felt there was room for
emerged as a significant issue. Between 6% and improvement. Such data was able to, and did,
36% of secondary parents responding to the inform focused and practical dev elopment work
questionnaire claimed never to get enough which, where possible, was evaluated for impact
information about hom ework and overall only and effectiveness. The PAT’s, utilizing expertise
10% were always satisfied with the information in disseminating finding and fostering
received. Overall 45% of seco ndary parents developments, were the main engine for change,
claimed never to get enoug h advice about how to in liaison with University and L EA advisers.
help their child and over 50% never got enough The experience of being inv olved in the whole
information about the resources that may be process with its attendant discussions,
available to do so. In the primary phase the information sharing and clo ser links with parents
picture was equally dismal: 13% of parents in one acted as a catalyst in the school communities
school and 28% in the other claimed never to get stimulating awareness, interest and radical sh ifts
enough information about homework, about how in thinking that informed practice and policy.
to help (20% and 38%) or about resources (30% Two key interventions, which inspired
and 56%). Interview data confirmed this picture: substantive developments, were the interim and
‘I wish the school would send leaflets it would final research reports presented to individual
help me to help them... kids perceive things schools. The findings repo rted were such that in
different... there is a communication problem ’. all cases there were clear opportunities for
Also: ‘If they cannot be provided with books improvement based on sound qualitative and
because it’s too expensive... fair enough but you quantitative information from interviews and
can say exactly what books we can buy’. The questionnaires. School managers reported how
journal was viewed very positively as a method helpful these were in both stimulating and
of communicating on the issue of homework; directing change.
although the need for mo re systematic checks to One of the major findings ind icated that parents
be made by all parties involved in its use, had too little information about the curriculum
particularly in year 10, was identified. and how to help their child. In response, one
school changed the format of its Year 10 Parents’
Developments Evening by engaging the staff practically in
Key to the project and of central imp ortance to producing curriculum information handouts on
the participating schools was that as an action each subject. These were simply designed,
research project it embraced research and written in parent friendly language and contained


practical advice about helping. The Parents’ and a shift in their thinking toward s parents, ‘I
Evening became a veh icle for sharing this didn’t realize they could make su ch a difference.’
information in dialogue with parents. Both staff The primary schools also trialled ho mework
and parents enjoyed and valued this new projects involving parents. At one school a 6
resource. Later evaluations indicated that the week project - HELP (Helpers Encourage
majority of parents had used it sub sequently. Literacy Progress)- which began with a parents
Another school employed a similar model for meeting and involved parents in working on fun
year 7 students to establish early and vital spelling activities with their year 1 children
curriculum links with parents. This initiative was resulted in some remarkable improvements in the
extremely successful with an ensuing school childrens’ spellings. The other primary school
commitment to provide something similar for trialled another new authority led project - HIP (
every year group. Homework Invo lving Parents) - with year 5
The need for early contact with parents and how children and parents on the topic - the Ancient
this is managed emerged in the findings of the Egyptians - and were again very impressed by the
project. One school radically changed its Year 7 involvement of parents.
induction procedure. Paren ts were invited in Schools engaged in several other developments,
small, manageable groups to meet with key either fine tuning and improving existing systems
personnel, to sign hom e school agreements and to or introducing new on es where gaps were
share information and ideas. These meetings took perceived. One school majorly improved the
place over several evenings, utilizing outreach student log book/planner and is introducing
staff for parents with English as a Second interim reports of progress to parents. Another
Language, hard to reach parents, etc. The produced special year booklets at the beginning
feedback was extremely positive from everyone of each year giving basic information requested
involved with the quality of interaction/dialogue by parents. One school organised a monthly drop-
commented upon as really valuable within the in for parents to share ideas and gain the parental
context of a large school. perspective. Primary schools also improved their
Another major finding indicated that a substantial half-termly curriculum information to parents.
number of parents felt they had little information The project and research findings have informed
about how to help with homework. An innovative developments at a number of levels. At the school
6 week interactive homework project entitled level the project schools are all responding to the
PATCH (Parents And Th eir Children’s clear finding that parents at secondary and
Homework) emerged within the Advisory Service primary level are concerned abou t their child’s
involving one of the project schools and six other progress and want to help and that schools
High Schools. The project is a six week project needed to employ a variety of strategies in order
related to the English curriculum and is designed to facilitate this happening. This work is ongoing
to inform and engage pa rents in the homework and growing with sch ools continuing with
process. Parents, children and teach ers were developments after the project has finished. The
uniformly enthusiastic and positive about the research findings also have implications for wider
potential of the project. Other outcomes emerged educational practice and policy.
which were not planned for, for example, greater At the local level the project and evaluations have
closeness and understan ding between the child informed and in some cases inspired the
and parent. One parent remarked, ‘I didn’t know development of resources such as HIP, HELP and
my child was so interesting.’ Teachers widely PATCH which are being published. The findings
reported delight at the outcomes of the project have impacted on In-Service Training with school

Building Bridges Between Home and School

Building Bridges Between Home and School

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