A Phonetic Study of four Languages in Sierra Leone

1. CHAPTER ONE
1.0
BACKGROUND
AND
INTRODUCTION
The study of Sierra Leonean languages as first languages dates as far back as the nineteenth
century, when Christian missionaries attempted to use Sierra Leonean languages as a medium for
preaching the gospel. This attempt was in view of the fact that, the Holy Bible was primarily
written in the language(s) of the European missionaries. The aim of the missionaries was to
educate native Sierra Leoneans, so they could read and interpret the Bible in their various
languages
This attempt was made on various frontiers; first Sierra Leonean languages were introduced in
the education system, this, initially aroused negative sentiments among the natives who thought
their native languages must be learnt alongside English ’the white man’s language’ as this would
consequently also prepare them for state functions. White missionaries also paved the way into
the study of the native’s languages; many of them wrote books analyzing or rather attempting to
analyze Sierra Leonean languages. Amongst them Koelle (1854); usually considered to be the
first attempt at analyzing African languages, followed by works of C.F Schlenker, F.W.H
Migeod, A.T Sumner, A.A Wilson, H.Sawyerr and others all white Christian missionaries .This
sudden interest in native Sierra Leonean languages led to the establishment of the Provincial
Literature Bureau in 1946.
The present national languages of Sierra Leone; Krio, Limba, Mende and Themne which, by the
dictates of the present 6-3-3-4 or rather 6-3-4-4 education system should be taught throughout
the school system, teacher colleges and universities were implemented as ’national languages’ in
1978 within the framework of the national language policy proposed by the Dalby report. The

2. utilization of national languages in the education system thus started in 1978. The Dalby report
took into consideration the demographic and sociological importance of the four languages,
amongst other factors to arrive at its conclusive report.
At the time, the Krio language functioned as a National lingua franca spoken throughout the
country, the Themne language was the predominantly spoken first language and regional lingua
franca in most of northern Sierra Leone, The Mende language was the predominantly spoken
first language and the regional lingua franca in most of southern Sierra Leone, The Limba
language was third in demographic importance and of high sociological value in the north west
of the country. Presently, according to a 2008 report, Themne is spoken as a first language by
35% of the total Sierra Leonean population, Mende by 31%, Limba by 8% and Krio by around
4%, but understood by 90% of the population. In sum, the national languages of Sierra Leone
were, and still are a true reflection of the predominant linguistic situation in Sierra Leone.
This work is a contrastive analysis of phonemes in the four national languages of Sierra Leone
(Krio, Limba, Mende, and Themne). The focus of this research is to delve into the nature of
phonemes in the four languages and determine their divergences if any. A thorough examination
of their existing relationships will also be made. An illumination of these relationships and
consequently divergences would subscribe to linguistic knowledge, which will in turn help
policy makers on language education etc. This research is going to be carried out by the use of
libraries and archives.
1.1
PROBLEM STATEMENT
The inventory of phonemes used in a particular language is unique and would not be the same
inventory of phonemes used in another language, Sierra Leonean languages, thus the four
national languages are no exception. Under general conditions a native speaker of Mende will
use the alveolar lateral / l /, to replace the fluid or frictionless continuant / r / in speech, similarly
so, a native speaker of Themne will use the voiceless alveo-palatal fricative / sh / in place of the
voiceless alveolar fricative / s /.Limba also lacks the voiced alveo-palatal affricate /j / which is
approximated by the palatal semi-vowel / y /.Krio almost lacks the glottal fricative / h /, the interdental / th /, and the voiced alveo-palatal fricative / zh / are rarely used. It can thus be posited that

3. there are variations in the phonemes of the four languages. This research most importantly seeks
to prove and clarify these divergences, and further explore the nature of these divergences.
1.2
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This research is primarily going to exclusively explore the relationships between the phonemes
of the four national languages of Sierra Leone, so as to ascertain their contrasts. However, some
light is going to be shed on the parallels of these phonemes. This is going to be done through
scrutiny of the phonetic system of each of the four languages independently, and later an attempt
will be made at detecting divergences and to a small extent parallels.
1.3
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
This research is aimed at disclosing the existing divergences in the phonemes of the four national
languages of Sierra Leone in a view to reveal a holistic picture of the phonetic landscape of the
languages in question.
By the end of this research, the following would have been determined
 The nature of phonemes in the four national languages of Sierra Leone( Krio, Limba,
Mende and Themne)
 That contrasts do occur in the phonetic systems of these four national languages.
 The nature of these contrasts.
 To a small extent the parallels of the phonemes of the four languages in question.
 That the four national languages of Sierra Leone can be technically and linguistically
analysed according to their phonetic structure.
1.4 THE SIGNIFICANCE AND JUSTIFICATION OF THIS STUDY.

4. This study would revolve around, not only the individual linguistic study of the particular
language(s) as commonly done, but rather the nexus and interface of the four national languages
of Sierra Leone, thus revealing dynamic relationships, departures and to a small extent parallels.
This work follows the efforts of earlier writers on the topic and is ensured to serve as a reference
for succeeding writers. This work would also enhance appreciation and prestige for the four
national languages of Sierra Leone and help in ensuring the prevention of these languages from
extinction.
This study would be of significance to
 Teachers and Students of Sierra Leonean languages who might want to get a’ big picture’
of the four national languages taught in Sierra Leone.
 The Ministry of Education, and policy makers in the teaching and learning of indigenous
languages especially in adult education
 Any other individual who might want to appreciate the dynamic design of language(s) in
Sierra Leone.
1.5
HYPOTHESIS
The study is geared towards proving
 That significant relationships do exist in the phonemes of the four National Languages of
Sierra Leone.
 That significant contrasts do exist in the phonemes of the four national languages of
Sierra Leone.
 That the phonetic systems of the four national languages of Sierra Leone can be analysed
contrastively.
1.6
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

5. As a native speaker of one of the languages and possessing a near native command of another,
the researcher will use his linguistic knowledge together with the aid of libraries, archives and
the internet to reach the proposed aim of this study
The researcher will also collect specimen from native speakers of the four languages in question
by way of either questionnaires or mini tape recorders.
1.7
LIMITATIONS
Undertaking such an academic venture is no easy job and the researcher is aware of this fact and
prepared to face the ensuing hurdles. Finance is a major impediment to the researcher and
coupled with the unavailability of up-to-date materials and the high rate of subjectivity of most
native speakers might jeopardize the accuracy and the objectivity of this work. However, as
stated earlier, the researcher is on high alert, prepared to carry out this work with all seriousness,
sobriety, intellectualism and a sense of commitment and accomplishment.
1.8 NATIONAL LANGUAGE POLICY IN SIERRA LEONE
The national language policy was proposed by the Dalby report of 1978 and later explicitly
detailed in a United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (U.N.E.S.C.O)
restricted technical report of 1981.This report was in harmony with an invitation from the
government of Sierra Leone to advise the ministry of education on a policy concerning national
language development, and especially their use in education. This report was also in adherence to
the achievement of a number of objectives that had been agreed upon earlier by a substantial
number of member-states of the Organisation of African Unity (O.A.U) now the African Union
(A.U) including Sierra Leone. These objectives include

Recognition of the right of every citizen to have access to literacy and education through
his/her mother tongue

6. 
Promotion of mass literacy in the mother tongue of each linguistic community

Achievement of universal primary education through the medium of the mother tongue,
and the introduction of the study of African languages and cultures at all subsequent
levels of education

The use of African languages in the promotion of economic development, social justice,
and social decolonization, all in the advance towards African unity
The U.N.E.S.C.O report in a bid to achieve the above objectives outlined the following
recommendations

The adoption of Krio, Limba, Mende and Themnε as national languages

The definition of African languages in the Sierra Leonean context to mean any language
spoken predominantly by Sierra Leoneans within Sierra Leone.

The termination of improper terms for African languages inherited from the colonial
past, terms like vernacular, tribal, local, indigenous, patois etc

The establishment of the institute of Sierra Leonean languages

The review and subsequent standardisation of all African languages spoken in Sierra
Leone to suit contemporary circumstances and in harmony with the African reference
alphabet
established
at
a
U.N.E.S.C.O
sponsored
inter-African
meeting
on
orthographies(Niamey 1978, culled from Dalby 1981)

The sustained encouragement of literature in Sierra Leonean languages

The sustained encouragement of teachers in Sierra Leonean languages, and an
illumination of their roles in pioneering the drive towards the appreciation of Sierra
Leonean languages

The positive attitude of all citizens towards Sierra Leonean languages

The encouragement of Sierra Leonean languages by private companies and institutions

The revision and re-examination of teaching methods to do justice to all pupils

7. 
The termination of the so-called verbal aptitude tests in the National Primary School
Examination (N.P.S.E), and the immediate introduction of a system that is as Dalby
(1981) puts it “ less biased to English speaking pupils”

The adoption of Mandinka as a regional lingua franca for the Mano River States (Sierra
Leone, Guinea, Liberia and recently Cote d’ivoire) and consideration for its use
throughout West Africa

The adoption of Mende and Themne (being the most widely spoken first languages ) as
official languages alongside English

The role of the print and electronic media in championing the national language
campaign

The role of the Fourah Bay College (F.B.C) as the premier of education in Sierra Leone
in researching and promoting studies in Sierra Leonean languages
The national language policy has exhibited more disadvantages than advantages, for one fact it
led to the rapid expansion of national language education, however, this expansion should be
credited to local and international non-governmental organizations (N.G.Os) like C.U.S.O
People’s Educational Association (P.E.A) and other similar bodies. Most parts of the policy were
never executed. J. Sengova in his work The National Languages of Sierra Leone; A decade of
policy implementation (1987) observes that “the recommendations and proposals of the Dalby
report concerning the implementation of a national language policy for Sierra Leone have seen
practical implementation as well as some degree of experimentation in formal and non-formal
education. In short, the bare bones of this experimental framework are illuminated by practice”
1.9 KRIO; AN INTRODUCTION OF THE LANGUAGE AND THE PEOPLE
The Krio language is an English-based Creole that developed directly or indirectly from The
Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade of the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries. This trade eviscerated the cultural,
social and linguistic structure of Africa and disseminated its people between two distinctly

8. linguistic and socio-cultural continents i.e. Europe (primarily England) and the Americas. This
unfortunate synthesis lead to a linguistic barrier between the slaves (Negros from Africa) and
their slave masters, Such a linguistic situation led to the emergence of Krio, initially, a
rudimentary form of language characterised by the juxtaposition of workable lexical items in the
language of the slave masters (superstrate) with a combination of structural forms in the African
languages of the slaves (substrates), thus forming a pidgin.
Krio, as all other pidgins served both as a nexus and a rendezvous, bridging the linguistic, and to
some extent the social and cultural gap between the slaves and their slave masters.
In 1772, a protracted legal battle between a slave James Somerset and his slave master ignited a
lot of humanitarian reactions which finally led to the declaration of the abolition of slavery in
1807 in England and in 1808 in the Americas. The population of London the capital of England
then swelled with what became known as the ‘black poor’ (slaves who had automatically
received freedom by virtue of the declaration of the abolition of slavery).The black poor were
unemployed, homeless, starved and generally frustrated that the freedom that had been accorded
them had in fact taken them a mile deeper into ‘hell’. Gradually they became a menace, Spitzer
1974 describes them as ‘a black African lumpen-proletariat surviving mainly by begging’. In
time, they started agitating for their return to ‘sweet Africa’ and were helped in this venture by
renowned anthropologists like Thomas Clarkson, Granville Sharpe, William Thornton, William
Wilberforce and others who secured a spot in present day Freetown for their repatriation and
resettlement.
Finally in 1787, about 400 black poor arrived in Freetown, this was followed by other groups of
freed slaves; the nova scotians in 1792 and the maroons in 1800. Spitzer maintains that Freetown
had become a point of liberation for freed slaves. The fourth and largest group; the recaptives
(slaves who had been captured en-route to Europe and the Americas) started settling in Freetown
in 1800.
With such a wide linguistic spectrum in Freetown, the initial pidgin brought by the ‘black poor’
was then expanded and this gradually evolved into present day krio. The recaptives were
particularly important in the development of the language. According to Spitzer “unlike the
‘black poor’, maroons, and nova scotians, who had been detribalised and partially Europeanised,

9. the recaptives had very little contact with Europeans or European culture and spoke an array of
west African languages including Yoruba, Hausa, twi, efik and Wolof”. These languages,
together with the languages of surrounding peoples (Mende, Themnε, Fula, Susu, Mandingo etc)
and the initial pidgin then amalgamated, evolved and developed into what we know as krio
today.
Today, Krio is spoken in one capacity or another by over 85% of the population of Sierra
Leone .It is usually acquired simultaneously with other languages in the country, this is because
krio has somehow acquired a status as a lingua franca that linguistically and even socially unites
peoples of different ethnic groups in Sierra Leone. However, there is a small group of about
65,000 native speakers who distinctly identify themselves as krios. They regard themselves as
the direct descendants of the freed slaves that settled in Freetown in the 1780s, 90s, and 1800s.
They live predominantly in the environs of Freetown including waterloo, Gloucester, Leicester,
York, Kent, and Regent. They are mainly farmers and fishermen. There is also another small
group known as akus or frobes who regard themselves to be the descendants of the recaptives
especially the Yoruba, they live predominantly in the Fourah bay and Fula town communities in
central Freetown.
The source book for four Sierra Leonean languages (1999) identifies four dialects of krio viz
i.
Village krio
ii.
Freetown (frit ŋ) krio
iii.
Fourah bay (frobe) krio
iv.
Provincial (uplayn) krio
The village krio is understood to be the purest Krio, it is spoken predominantly in the peripherals
of Freetown by people who regard themselves as the descendants of the freed slaves. Freetown
krio is generally krio spoken predominantly in Freetown, it varies slightly from the village krio.
The aku or frobe krio is spoken predominantly by a distinct group of speakers who identify
themselves as akus or frobes and claim or rather are the descendants of the recaptives. This
variety of krio is tinted by a lot of Islamic words, reflecting the predominant religion of the
frobes. The provincial krio accounts for the high level of speakers of the language as it is spoken

10. by people of different ethnic backgrounds who use krio as common language. This variety is
usually heavily tinted with words from the immediate language, this is based on region, thus in
the southern region it may be tinted by Mende, and by Themne in the northern region. However,
the dialects of Krio enjoy a high level of mutual intelligibility.
1.10 LIMBA; AN INTRODUCTION OF THE LANGUAGE AND THE PEOPLE
The Limba language generally has suffered from a lack of interest from linguistic writers, the
British anthropologist Ruth Finnegan in her book A survey of the Limba people of northern
Sierra Leone observes that “ in general the limbas have been looked down on by other tribes...
and have been considered backward or stupid”. Correspondently, little interest has been taken in
them by European writers and researchers. As a result very little is known of the origin and
history of the limbas and thus their language. However, Finnegan 1965:144 maintains that the
limbas consider themselves as the original inhabitants of the country, and that they did not
migrate into Sierra Leone, but had originally settled in the Wara Wara Mountains of Koinadugu
district in the north-east of Sierra Leone. This claim is substantiated by the fact that the limbas
themselves can only take genealogy up to four or five generations. In contrast, M cculloch
1950:51 suggests they migrated into Sierra Leone from the mountainous Futa Jallon region in
present day republic of Guinea
This migration into Sierra Leone is believed to have been ignited by the combative and militant
nature of their northern neighbours in Futa Jallon; the Susu, Yalunka, Fula and Mandingo.
Generally, as a peaceful and predominantly patient people, the limbas avoided confrontation by
moving southwards into the Wara Wara Mountains. Even in this seemingly ‘safe haven’ they had
to contend with constant attacks from neighbours (The Susu, Yalunka, Fula and Mandingo in the
north and the Loko and Themnε from the south) who wanted to exploit the peaceful nature of the
limbas. In response to the attacks and to ensure their survival, the limbas went on the offensive
and conquered lands around the Wara Wara Mountains, lands which till date are inhabited
predominantly by the limbas.
Today, Limba is spoken as a first language predominantly in the Bombali, Tonkolili, Kambia and
Koinadugu districts and all over the country by over one million people who occupy an area of

11. roughly 18,000 square miles, accounting for over 35% of the population of Sierra Leone (1983
census), making them the third largest ethnic group in the country. The Limbas are mostly
subsistent farmers growing rice, groundnut, cassava, potatoes, millet and maize. They are also
known for their love of palm wine (mampa) which is very popular amongst them. Limba
settlements are divided into kinship groups, each having a village of its own surrounded by its
farmland. Limba consists of twelve varieties encapsulated in four regional dialects viz

The th nk
variety spoken mainly in the th
nk
k
chiefdom in the Kambia district,
Sanda Magbolonto chiefdom in the Port Loko district and most parts of Sεla chiefdom in
the Bombali district.

The Wara Wara variety spoken mainly in the Bafodia and Yakala chiefdoms in the
Koinadugu district.

The Biriwa variety is spoken mainly in the Biriwa and Kasonko chiefdoms in the
Bombali and Koinadugu districts respectively.

The Safr k
Limba spoken in the Safr k
chiefdom in the Bombali district and parts
of the Tonkolili district.
The dialectal variations in the Limba language is partly due to fact that the Limbas are
surrounded predominantly by at least six ethnic groups each with a district language viz the
Susus, the Yalunkas, the Fulas, the Korankos, the Lokos and the Themnes. The dialects however
do enjoy a high level of mutual intelligibility as Dumbuya K.M.S (1975) observes that “There
are however no clear cut boundaries between dialects and Limba may best be described as a
large dialect cluster with fussing boarders”
Joseph Greenberg (1963) in his attempt to classify African languages classified Limba as a West
Atlantic Language belonging to the Niger-Congo family. Westerman and Bryan (1957) further
sub-classify Limba to belong to the Kissi-Lamdoma sub group. However, Welmers (1971) subclassified Limba as a southern Mande Language within the West Atlantic group. Further Dalby
(1966) reclassified Mande languages and classified Limba as a Mel language.
1.11 MENDE; AN INTRODUCTION OF THE LANGUAGE AND THE PEOPLE

12. The Mende language as we know it today somehow came to be in Sierra Leone as a result of
Mande invasions that swept across West Africa in the mid sixteenth century. These invading
people were definitely of Mande origin and stock (Abraham 2003:18). Two accounts exist of the
causes of their movement. One account depicts that they broke off from a Mande civilisation in
the ancient empire of Mali, the other account says they were driven by Fulani herdsmen.
However Migeod (1919) dates their presence in Sierra Leone as far back as the second century
A.D. whatever the case may be, they somehow settled in the cape mount region in present day
Liberia where they used as a base for attacks into Sierra Leone.
Later, they thrust into Sierra Leone where they encountered and conquered the Sherbros, the
Bulloms etc. By 1656 the Mende language and identity as an ethnic group had appeared on a
European map (Abraham 2003). Their military surge continued until they were halted by the
Limbas and Yalunkas. According to Abraham, the Lokos who share linguistic and cultural
affinities with the Mende were part of the original mane force that invaded Sierra Leone, but
somehow, for some reason split and marched northwards, where they encountered and were
halted by the Themnεs in about 1550.
Today Mende is spoken by over one million people who inhabit about 12,000 sq miles, either as
a first language or as a regional lingua franca in the south, south-eastern and south-western
regions of Sierra Leone and also across the border around the cape mount region in Liberia. Of
the 149 chiefdoms in Sierra Leone, Mende is spoken predominantly in about 70 chiefdoms in the
Bo, Bonthe, Moyamba, Pujehun, Kailahun and Kenema districts. The Mendes are mainly
hunters, and farmers who grow cash crops like cocoa, coffee, and oil palm.
The first attempt at formalising the orthography of the language was in a consonant-vowelconsonant syllabery called the ki-ka-ku developed by Kissimi Kamara in 1921. The syllabery
contained 195 symbols. However, the ki-ka-ku was later replaced by the universal Latin symbols
used today
Mcculloch 1950 identifies three dialects in Mende

Kpaa Mende; constitutes 20% of the Mende population and inhabit 16 chiefdoms in the
south-west.

13. 
SΣwa Mende; constitutes 35% of the Mende population and is spoken primarily along
the SΣwa river

K
Mende; constitutes 55% of the Mende population and is spoken in the south and
south-east
However, other writers like Arthur Abraham acknowledge the existence of a fourth dialect called
the Wanjama Mende, which is half way between the SΣwa and K
dialects. This research
will duly accord the Wanjama variety the status of a dialect, and be treated as all other dialects.
Two accounts exist for the classification of the language. Greenberg 1963 classifies Mende as a
non-Manding language of the Niger-Congo group of languages. This classification highlights the
language’s affinity with Loko spoken in Sierra Leone, Loma and Kpelle spoken in Liberia and
Soninke spoken in Mali. Welmers (1971) reclassified Mende as a south-western Mande
language. This classification also highlights Mende’s affinity with Mandingo etc
1.12 THEMNΕ; AN INTRODUCTION OF THE LANGUAGE AND THE
PEOPLE
The Themnε people and thus their language migrated into Sierra Leone from Futa Jallon in
present day Guinea a very long time ago. This migration was a direct result of a dispute between
the susus and the mandinkas further north. In about 1233, a religious war broke out between the
predominantly Muslim mandinkas and the non-Muslim susus. The mandinkas wanted to subdue
the susus and convert them into Islam, this was vehemently rejected by the susus, a conflict
ensued in which the mandinkas emerged victorious. This forced the susus to flee southwards in
search of a new settlement. Moving southwards they encountered the Themnεs together with
other ethnic groups like the Kissi, Bullom, Gola, Krim, Lamdoma and possibly the Limba in the
Futa Jallon region. Subsequently, they clashed with the Themnεs and the Themnεs too moved
southwards into present day northern Sierra Leone, where they predominantly occupy till date
Today, Themnε is spoken predominantly in the Tonkolili, Kambia, Port Loko, and Bombali
districts in northern Sierra Leone, and the people constitute 32% of the population of Sierra

14. Leone (2004 population census), inhabiting 10,000 to 11,000 sq miles to the west coast
(Schlenker 1864), eastwards themneland stretches all the way to Kono district. The Themnes are
mostly farmers, hunters and fishermen.
Themne contains five dialects (Dalby 1962), each conditioned by direct interaction with
proximate linguistic, social and cultural factors. These factors are usually manifested in distinct
languages, as in the case of Themne which is surrounded by at least eight different languages
including Limba, Koranko, Fula, Mende, Kono, Mandingo and Susu. The dialects are;

Western Dialect; which is subdivided into the north-western variety spoken
predominantly in the Samu, Magbema and Dixing chiefdoms in the Port Loko district and
also around the Freetown peninsula, and the Sanda variety spoken in the buya Romende
chiefdom in the Port Loko district and the Sanda Tandaraŋ and Gbanti Kamaranka
chiefdoms in the Bombali district

The Yoni dialect; spoken mainly in the Yonibana chiefdom in the Port Loko district and
the Gbonkolenken, Kaffu Bullom, Marforki and Marampa-masimera chiefdoms in the
Port Loko district.

The Bombali dialect spoken mainly in the Makari, Gbanti and Bombali Shebora
chiefdoms in the Bombali district, and also in the Masongbala chiefdom in the Kambia
district

The Eastern Konke dialect; spoken in the Konke, Fulawoso and Konke Barina chiefdoms
in the Tonkolili district.

The Western Konke dialect; spoken in the Tane and Kholifa-Mamuntha-Rowala
chiefdoms in the Tonkolili district.
Greenberg (1963) classifies Themne as a West Atlantic language belonging to the Niger-Congo
Family. West Atlantic languages also include Wolof spoken in Senegal and Gambia, Fula and
Mandingo spoken all over West Africa and Limba spoken in Sierra Leone. In a sub-classification
by Dalby (1966), Themne was sub-classified as Mel language belonging to the southern branch
of the West Atlantic languages. Themne was later re-classified by Welmers (1971) as a northern
Mande language of the West Atlantic Family. This reclassification established Kono, Koranko,

15. Mandingo, Susu, Vai, Yalunka, Fula, Bage and other Bantu languages in central, south and east
Africa as sister languages of Themne
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW- INTRODUCTION
The literature review of this work is going to be an insight into the works of reputable authors on
the phonetics and sound systems of the four target languages. This will be, by virtue of a scrutiny
of the works in an attempt to identify flaws and to present a personal viewpoint.
This chapter will also examine general phonetic phenomena and how far they correspond to the
languages in question.
2.1 PHONETICS PHONOLOGY AND THE PHONEME
These three concepts are inseparable i.e. phonetics being the study of speech sounds, Phonology
the study of speech sound patterns, and the phoneme being their fundamental constituent unit.
However, for a thorough examination of the phoneme as phonetic concept an understanding of
phonetics and phonology is of considerate significance.
Generally, as the overall scientific study of speech sounds, phonetics comprises three fields;
1) Articulatory Phonetics: This deals with the study of speech sounds in relation to
articulatory organs and the processes involved.
2) Acoustic Phonetics: This deals with the study of speech sounds in relation to the sound
waves generated by speaking and their transmission through the air.

16. 3) Auditory Phonetics: This deals with the study of speech sounds in relation to the organ of
hearing, the perception of speech sounds and the psychology of the perception of speech
sounds.
Nonetheless, this study will focus on articulatory phonetics.
Attention should also be given to phonology which as a field of study goes beyond the
identification of speech sounds (phonetics) into the dynamic combinational tendencies of speech
sounds and the intricate speech sound patterns of languages. The scientific base for phonology is
that a speech sound is largely influenced by its environment. i.e. speech sounds are
environmentally conditioned.
In sum, although phonetics and phonology are inextricably related, they can be dichotomized by
the fact that phonetics which is the scientific study of speech sounds forms a base for phonology
which is the study of the sound patterns of languages.
Several linguists have tried to define the two concepts. Francis Katamba in his work an
introduction to phonology (1989:1) suggests that “phonetics is the study of the inventory of all
speech sounds human beings are capable of producing… since not all noises, which we are
capable of producing with our vocal apparatus are employed in speech” This definition draws a
clear line between speech sounds and human noises. However, Katamba focuses on articulatory
phonetics and ignores acoustic and auditory phonetics.
Loreto Todd in her work Introduction to Linguistics (1987:13) defines phonetics as “The study of
the production, transmission and reception of Speech Sounds”. This definition in all its brevity
captures the phenomenon. Its crux is on the perspectives from which speech sounds can be
studied i.e. Articulatory, Acoustic and Auditory Phonetics.
In relation to Phonology, George Yule in his work The study of Language (1996:44), defines
phonology as “Essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a
language”. This definition, at first sight seems convincing as its presumes the organizational
nature of speech sounds to form words, thus segmental phonology, however, it fails to capture
the phenomenon of supra-segmental phonology.

17. A more comprehensive definition of phonology is derived from Nikolai Trubetzkoy in his work
Gründ Zuger der Phonologie (1939:10). He states that
“The task of phonology is to study which differences in sounds are
related to differences in meaning in a language, in which way the
discriminative elements are related to each other and the rules
according to which may be combined into words and sentences”
This definition clearly affirms the functional role of speech sounds, and how they distinguish
words of different meaning. This definition also highlights the rules that can be applied in the
formation of words using speech sounds.
From the preceding definitions, it is obvious that phonetics and phonology are distinct,
irrespective of parallels. This distinction is brought to the fore by this opinion from the leader of
the Prague School of Phonology Nikolai Trubetzkoy (1939:4).
“… the study of sounds pertaining to the act of speech (phonetics)
which is concerned with concrete physical phenomenon and would
have to use the methods of the natural science, while the study of
sounds pertaining to the system of language (phonology) would
use only the methods of linguistics or the humanities or the social
sciences”.
Trubetzkoy locates phonetics as a study outside the domain of linguistics proper, whilst
identifying phonology as an autonomous linguistic discipline. This draws parallel with the
opinion of Roger Lass in his work Phonology; An Introduction to the Basic Concept (1989:1).
“Phonology proper is concerned with the function, behaviour and organization of sounds as
linguistic items as opposed to phonetics, which is rather a neutral study of sounds”
Nonetheless, the two concepts are complementary to each other and it can be safely posited at
this stage, that no language can be properly analyzed without a clear understanding of the
concepts of phonetics and phonology which are inextricably related. In as such, Ladefoged in his
work Preliminaries to Linguistic Phonetics (1971) asserts that

18. “The first requirement for a phonetic description of a language is a
good account of phonology. It is also true that in order to describe
the phonology, one needs to know the phonetics. The two things go
hand in hand providing us with a chicken and egg problem as to
which must come first. Obviously they actually evolve together.
But it is usually phonological knowledge the precedes detailed
phonetic observation”.
Speech sounds are diverse and varied and a language draws from among audible sounds capable
of been produced by humans. In as such a language must utilize only some of all the sounds
humans are capable of producing. This assertion is augmented by R.H. Robbins in his work
General linguistics; An Introductory study “Languages must organize the available noises that
can be produced by the vocal organs into recurrent bits and pieces arranged in recurrent
patterns”.
Consequently, every language has an inventory of speech sounds which is different from other
languages. Significantly, based on the level of interference with the air stream from the lungs,
human speech sounds in generative phonology in as much as traditional phonology are divided
into two broad categories;
1) Vowels: These are produced with little or no obstruction of the air stream
2) Consonants: These are produced with noticeable obstruction in the air stream.
A clear cut definition of a vowel valid to all languages is very difficult to arrive at, however a
satisfactory definition would be from the British phonologist Daniel Jones, who defined a vowel
as “A voiced sound in forming which the air issues in a continuous stream through the Pharynx
and mouth, there being no obstruction and no narrowing such as would cause audible friction”
(culled from R.H. Robbins). Vowels are difficult to describe accurately and their production can
only be observed by x-ray photography and laryngoscopes. However, vowel sounds are
described and labeled in relation to two principal factors:

19. 1. The position of the tongue that is raised or the height of the tongue in the mouth
2. The shape of the lips.
In relation to the height or the position of the tongue in the mouth, it can be kept low in the
mouth or raised in varying degrees in the front towards the hard palate, or in the back towards
the soft palate, as such four degrees can be identified.
1. Open: The tongue is lowest or lies flat in the mouth
2. Mid open: The tongue is raised to about 2/3 of the distance from the highest to the lowest
possible positions.
3. Mid-close: The tongue is raised to about 1/3 of the distance from the highest to the lowest
possible position.
4. Closed: The tongue is closest to the roof of the mouth.
Consequently, the front, centre or back of the tongue is raised to achieve the degrees resulting in
front, centre or back vowels.
The lips can also be rounded or spread both in varying degrees or the can be neutral (not rounded
nor spread), in as much, five degrees can be recognized.
1) Spread Position: Lips are held apart, but still close together and spread out.
2) Neutral Position: Lips are relaxed with the lower jaw slightly lowered.
3) Open Position: Lips are wide open without any rounding.
4) Closed Round Position: Lips are slightly open and rounded.
5) Open Round Position: Lips are held wide apart and rounded.
Traditionally, vowel description is captured and formalized in an irregular quadrilateral for
phonemic languages and an inverted triangle for phonetic languages (These will be discussed
later in this chapter) with plotted vowel qualities as the ones shown below.

20. Front
Centre
Back
Close
Mid-close
Mid-open
Front
Centre
Back
Close
Mid-close
Mid-open
Open
Open
It is also worthy of note that vowels can be produced almost simultaneously i.e. the tongue
moves from one vowel position to another thus resulting in diphthongs. All vowels are voiced.
Consonants are a lot easier to describe than vowels, as their production involves noticeable
obstruction of the air stream and can be readily perceived. R.H. Robbins in his work General
Linguistics; An Introductory Survey (P. 85) aptly defines a consonant as “a segmental speech
sound other than a vowel” Three factors can be referred to in the production of consonants and
thus their labelling.
1) Place of Articulation
2) Manner of Articulation
3) Voicing
2.2 PLACE OF ARTICULATION
The place of Articulation as a consonant labelling term refers to the location in the mouth where
the obstruction or total constriction of the air stream that characterizes a consonant sound occurs.
More clearly, it refers to the organs of speech used in producing consonants.
This obstruction is caused by one ore more of the biological cum linguistic organs referred to as
articulators in the oral cavity. In as much, the following types can be referred to.

21. When the obstruction involves the two lips coming together to form a blockage, the resulting
sound is a bilabial. This is evidenced in the initial sounds of the words pat, bat, mat, in English.
When a sound is formed with the lower lip being raised to come into contact with the upper
teeth, the resultant sound is a labio-dental (from labio meaning lip and dental meaning teeth in
English). Labiodentals sounds include the initial sounds in the English words fan, van.
The production of some speech sounds involves contact or at least the approximation of the tip of
the tongue and the hard palate or the alveolar ridge. These sounds are called dentals. The term
“Interdental” is sometimes used for sounds produced with the tip of the tongue between the
upper and lower teeth. Examples include the initial sounds in thin and that.
Alveolars: These are produced as the tongue is raised to approximate the roof of the mouth.
These include the initial sounds in delay, tin, zinc and sin etc.
Alveo-Palatals: These are produced with the tip and blade of the tongue being raised to
approximate the alveolar ridge, typically the front part of the tongue is also raised to approximate
the hard palate. Sounds produced in this way include the initial sounds in shoe, judge and
church.
Palatals: These speech sounds are formed by the front part of the tongue being raised to
approximate the hard palate. Examples include the initial sound of yam.
Velars: These are speech sounds produced with the back of the tongue being raised to
approximate or contact the soft palate or velum. These include the initial sounds in kick and
fang.
Glottals: These are produced by a narrowing or a blockage made by the glottis. Examples include
the initial sound in heart.
2.3 MANNER OF ARTICULATION
The manner of Articulation as the name suggests refers to the various ways in which a consonant
sound can be produced. The air stream from the lungs in its upward and outward journey comes

22. into contact with speech organs, in as much, Manner of Articulation as a consonant labelling
parameter captures the behaviour of these speech organs when in the process of articulation.
Consequently, the following can be referred to:
Stops/Plosives: In the production of these sounds, the articulators briefly block the air stream
completely, allowing air pressure to build up behind them, the articulators then abruptly give way
resulting in an explosive release of the air. Examples include the following initial sounds in
English boy, king, dog etc.
Fricatives: These sounds are produced by a narrowing made by the articulators, the air stream is
then forced through the narrow opening causing friction or frication examples are the initial
sound in sack, venom etc.
Affricates: The production of these sounds involve an initial blocking of the air stream by the
articulators, this is followed by a gradual release of the air. In essence, affricates are a
combination of plosive and fricative features. Examples are the following initial sounds in chin,
gym etc.
Nasals: These unlike most other consonant sounds that are produced orally, are produced through
the nose. Typically, the soft palate or velum is lowered to open the nasal cavity and to block
passage through the oral cavity, leaving the nasal cavity the only route for the air to escape. All
nasals are voiced examples are the initial sounds in man, neck etc.
Semi-vowels/Glides: These are consonant sounds produced by a mere approximation of the
articulators. Their production is similar to high vowels and is therefore vowel like in some sense,
aptly put semi vowels are phonetically like vowels, but phonologically like consonants. All semi
vowels are voiced. They include the initial sounds in win, yet etc.
Lateral: Lateral sounds are produced when the tongue approximates or makes contact with the
roof of the mouth, thus blocking the air flow from moving centrally through the mouth, but
rather diverting the air to escape through the sides of the tongue. Example of such a sound is late.

23. Frictionless Continuant: In the production of these sounds, the tongue is convex to the roof of the
mouth, but there is no contact, the air is then diverted to escape through the sides of the tongue
example Rat.
2.4 VOICING
Voicing as a consonant distinction parameter is based on the activity of the vocal cords. The
vocal cords can either vibrate during the forced passage of the air stream or otherwise. With
regard to voicing several pairs of similarly articulated sounds can be distinguished in many
languages. Two sets of consonants can be referred to.
Voiced Consonants: These are produced when the vocal cords are held together tautly, and the air
stream forces its way through them causing the vocal cords to vibrate. This vibration can be
sensed by the fingers, when placed on the larynx. Examples of voiced sounds include all vowels
and the following underlined sounds in English.[b] , [d], [g].
Voiceless Sounds: These on the other hand are produced when the vocal cords are held wide
apart, allowing the air stream to flow freely through them. Example pot, tin, king, thin, sing,
chief, shoe etc.
It could thus be evidenced that all vowels are voiced, but consonants may be voiced or voiceless.
With the parameters just discussed, speech sounds can be universally described, classified and
labelled. With regard to the African, especially Sierra Leonean linguistic situation, reference
must be made to pre-nasals and digraphs. A digraph is a general term for a speech sound
represented by two symbols known as graphemes, pre-nasals on the other hand refer to
consonants sounds consisting of a nasal and another consonant. E.g. mb, ny etc. these two
features are widely attested in not only Sierra Leonean Languages but African languages as a
whole.
Haven created a solid base, I shall how build upon this foundation, my primary aim of research;
the phoneme.

24. 2.5 THE PHONEME
Phonology as discussed earlier in this chapter is based on the theory that every native speaker of
a language unconsciously knows about the sound patterns of that language, thus phonology is
actually concerned with the abstract or mental aspects rather than the actual physical articulation
of the speech sounds in a language. From this perspective, it can be discerned that there are two
levels of sounds; abstract sounds and the physical sounds we actually hear. Considering this, it
can safely be posited that the abstract sounds allows speakers to distinguish meaning in the
actual physical sounds we say. Each of these abstract meaning distinguishing sounds in a
language is known as a Phoneme.
So, in fact all speech sounds are phonemes or subsets of phonemes. A phoneme is defined from
three perspectives namely:
1) The Phoneme as a phonetic/physical reality.
2) The phoneme as a phonological reality
3) The phoneme as psychological reality
2.5.1 THE PHONEME AS A PHONETIC/PHYSICAL REALITY
The phoneme as a phonetic/physical reality can best be discussed with reference to the British
phonologist Daniel Jones (1931:74). He defined a Phoneme as “A family of sounds in a given
language, which are related in character and are used in such a way that no one member ever
occurs in a word in the same phonetic context as any other member”
This definition underlines the distributional and complementary properties of speech Sounds,
that is, which sounds can occur at which positions within a word, and which sounds cannot occur

25. in which positions in a word. For example some sounds can be aspirated (pronounced with an
extra puff of air) in word initial position in English. In as much, sounds (can occur anywhere
within a word) or can be in restricted distribution (can only occur in particular contexts).
Essentially, the assumption is that a phoneme can take different forms in different contexts. Each
of these contextualized forms of a phoneme is known as an allophone. For example, the [p] in
/spin/ and /pin/ are both allophones of the voiceless bilabial plosive [p]. Conclusively, from this
perspective, a phoneme is regarded as a convenient label for a number of phonetic units and is
viewed in terms of its distribution properties and thus its allophones.
2.5.2 THE PHONEME AS A PHONOLOGICAL REALITY
The phoneme as a phonological reality is defined by the Russian Phonologist Nikolai Trubetzkoy
(1939:36) as “a minimal unit that can function to distinguish meanings”. This definition
underlines the linguistic philosophy of the Prague School of Phonology, of which Trubetzkoy
together with Roman Jacobson are the most notable adherents. The Prague School was largely
driven by the function of phonemes, as a result the above definition viewed a phoneme as the
sum of the phonologically relevant properties of a sound, in other words, a phoneme functions as
a contractive and oppositional parameter within a phonological system.
Example [b] and [p]
These are both bilabials and at the same time plosives, the distinctive feature in this pair of
speech sounds is voicing i.e. [p] is voiceless and [b] is voiced.
2.5.3 THE PHONEME AS A PSYCHOLOGICAL REALITY
The phoneme as a psychological reality is largely a mental or philosophical notion. A Polish
linguist Jan Baudouin de Courtenay (1845-1929), a proponent of this view defined the phoneme
as “The intention of the speaker or the impression of the hearer or both” (quoted in Twaddell
1935:36).Courtenay views the phoneme as a sound imagined or intended. This view was largely
attacked and criticized by an American linguist William Freeman Twaddell (1906-1982 ) and
Nikolai Trubetzkoy (1890-1938). Twaddell maintained that “such a view was invalid as humans

26. have no right to guess about the linguistic workings of an inaccessible mind” Trubetzkoy also
maintains that “reference to psychology must be avoided in defining a phoneme which is a
purely linguistic and not a psychological concept”
Haven laid the foundation, I will now turn to thoughts, views suggestions and assertions on the
phonemes of Krio, Limba, Mende and Themne by earlier writers.
2.6 EARLIER WRITERS ON THE PHONEMES IN KRIO, LIMBA, MENDE
AND THEMNE
The sourcebook for four Sierra Leonean languages (1993:16) states the following peculiarities of
phonemes in Krio
.
1) The voiceless glottal fricative [h] is rarely used except for emphasis as in hala instead
of ala (shout)
2) The voiced palato alveolar fricative [zh] occurs only in a few words like plezh
or
mezh .
3) The voiceless dental fricative [th] occurs only in a few loan words or in the speech of
educated speakers e.g. bathde, generally, it is usually substituted by the voiced labiodental fricative [f] e.g. bafrum instead of bathrum and the voiceless alveolar fricative
[t] as in batrum instead of bathrum.
Limba has a lot of dialectal discrepancies possibly due to the number varieties the language has
(twelve in all). This claim is augmented by the sourcebook for four Sierra Leonean Languages
(1993:67).
“Note that (the voiceless labio-dental fricative) [f] and (the
voiceless glottal fricative) [h] are used alternately depending on the
dialect. While the Biriwa Limba cling to the [h] the safr
limba cling to the [f].
k

27. Examples
Biriwa
Safr
k
Gloss
Hati
Fati
Child
Hintima
Fintima
Darkness
The velar nasal [ŋ] also most often comes in final position preceeded by a vowel.
Examples:
Suŋ – fast
Al ŋ – to close
Kalaŋ – elder
A.T. Sumner (1917) in his work A handbook of the Mende language asserts that.
“The simple consonants are pronounced as in English, [g] is
always heard as in go. Of the compound consonants [gb] and [kp]
are the most difficult to pronounce, but are pronounced with one
vocal impulse”
In addition, The sourcebook for four Sierra Leonean Languages (1993:13) makes reference to
dissimilar vowels in sequence which are diphongal in nature and function, and similar vowels in
sequence.
In relation to Themne, Fyle et al (1980) assert that “Themne phonology is phonetic, that is to say
the words are spelt in exactly the same way they are pronounced” In addition, The sourcebook
for four Sierra Leonean Languages (1993:175) asserts that “diacritics should be properly placed”
as themne contains two central vowels[ å] and ]. The voiceless alveolar plosive [t] and the
[
voiceless palato alveolar affricate [ch] are used as free variants before the vowels i, e and Σ, the

28. voiceless alveolar fricative [s] and the voiceless palato – alveolar fricative [sh] are also in free
variance before the vowels i, e and Σ as illustrated overleaf:
1)
[t]
[ch]
Gloss
utik
uchik
Stranger
tim
chim
To fight
[S]
[sh]
Gloss
sim
Shim
To break
sel
shel
To laugh
2
Haven discussed the necessary prerequisite for my investigation into the phonemes of the four
national languages of Sierra Leone, I shall now delve in my research proper.

29. CHAPTER THREE
3.0 PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY; A SIERRA LEONEAN PERSPECTIVE
Speech sounds in the four national languages of Sierra Leone in particular and in other Sierra
Leonean and African languages in generally are produced as all human languages. The
fundamental vowel sounds i.e. [a], [i],[ u] are present in all Sierra Leonean languages, so are the
fundamental consonants [p] and [t]. According to R.H. Robbins “The number of phonemes in
any language… differs … but upper and lower limits of around fifty and fifteen have been
calculated the most frequent count being around thirty”. Sierra Leonean Languages fall within
that range
All phonemes are represented as per the Latin script. The symbols in the orthographies represent
only one phoneme. Such languages are said to be phonetic as opposed to phonemic languages
like English which require a precise and unambiguous system of representing sounds to cater for
the different sound variations of phonemes.
Notably Sierra Leonean Languages manifest pre-nasals, nasals stops and digraphs which in most
cases can be very difficult to articulate for non-Africans.
3.1 THE PHONEMES OF KRIO
As discussed in chapter two every language has its own distinct speech sounds drawn from the
total range of audible sounds humans are capable of producing.
Phonetically, Krio consists thirty six sounds; ten vowels and twenty six consonants. The vowels
comprise seven monophthongs or pure vowels and three diphthongs or impure vowels.

30. Considering the traditional vowel articulatory parameters labels such as front, back, etc vowels
in Krio can be schematically represented thus:
Front
Close
centre
Back
i
u
Half Close e
Half open
Open
o
a
3.1.1 A PHONETIC DESCRIPTION OF KRIO PURE VOWEL PHONEMES GLOSSED
IN ENGLISH
1) [ i ] Front un-rounded high closed vowel
As in
it (food/to eat), tik (stick), pati (party).
2) [ e ] Front un-rounded half closed vowel
As in
ebi (heavy), beg (to beg), de (day)
3) [ Σ ] Front un-rounded half open vowel
As in
Σp (help/to help), bΣt (to bite), bΣlΣ (pregnancy/stomach)

31. 4) [ a ] Central low open vowel
As in
an (hand), hat (heart/to hurt), bata (drum)
5) [ ] back rounded half open vowel
As in
rinch (orange), m t (mouth), w
w
(ugly)
6) [ o ] Back rounded half closed vowel
As in
ol (to hold/old), pol (pole), po (poor)
7) [ u ] Back rounded high closed vowel
As in
uk (hook), gud (good), tu (two)
3.1.2 A phonetic description of Diphthongs or Impure vowel Phonemes in Krio
glossed in English
A diphthong is a combination of a vowel and a vowel, or a vowel and a semi vowel articulated
almost simultaneously. Krio consist three diphthongs as illustrated.
1) [ y ]
As in
yl (oil), b
2) [ ay ]
As in
yl (to boil), b
y (young man)

32. ayd (to hide), kayt (kite), tay (to tie)
3) [aw]
As in
awtin (outing), krawd (crowd), kaw (cow)
3.1.3 CONSONANTS IN KRIO
Consonants in krio include plosives, fricatives, nasals, semi vowels, digraphs, affricates and
glides (the lateral and a frictionless continuant) phonetically, they can be described thus
 Plosives
1) [ p ] Voiceless bilabial plosive
As in
paynt (pint), spitul (hospital), shap (shop)
2) [ b ] Voiced bilabial plosive
As in
bizi (busy), abop (to rely), sheb (share)
3) [ d ] Voiced Alveolar Plosive
dak (dark), winda (window), bad (bad)
4) [ t ] Voiceless Alveolar Plosive
As in
taya (tire or to be tired), arata (rat), trit (street)
5) [ k ] Voiceless Velar Plosive

33. As in
k
p (cup), kotoku (purse), tik (stick)
6) [ g ] Voiced Velar Plosive
As in
g d d (god), agidi (a food), beg (to beg)
7) [ gb ] Voiced labio velar stop
Attested in
gbana (stubborn), agbara (running water)
8) [ kp ] Voiceless labio velar stop
Attested in
kpak
(back of head), akpata (rock)
 Fricatives
1) [ f ] Voiceless labio dental fricative
As in
fek (fake), alafia (peace), laf (to laugh)
2) [ v ] Voiced labio dental fricative
As in
vΣks (to be annoyed), fiva (fever), sav (to serve)
3) [ s ] Voiceless Alveolar Fricative

34. As in
san (sun), plasas (sauce), sus (shoe)
4) [ z ] Voiced Alveolar Fricative
As in
ziro (zero), bizi (busy), briz (breeze)
5) [ sh ] Voiceless alveo-palatal fricative
As in
sheb (to share), kyash (coin)
6) [ zh ] Voiceless alveo-palatal fricative
Attested in
Plezh
(pleasure)
7) [ th ] Voiceless dental fricative
Attested in
Bathde (birthday)
8) [ h ] Voiceless glottal fricative
Attested in
hawn hawn (greedy), wahala (trouble)
Note: The voiceless glottal fricative is almost redundant in Krio as it can be almost always
replaced by the central low open vowel [a]. However, it is used for emphasis as in hala versus ala
(shout).

35.  Nasals
1) [ m ] Bilabial Nasal
Attested in
m toka (car), fambul (family), kam (to come)
2) [ n ] Alveolar nasal
Attested in
natin (nothing), lΣnt (to lent), ren (rain)
3) [ ŋ ] Velar Nasal
Attested in
siŋ (sing)
 Semi Vowels
1) [ w ] Bilabial semi vowel
Attested in
winda (window), pawa (power), aw (how)
2) [ y ] Palatal Semi Vowel
Attested in
yala (yellow), taya (to be tired), bay (to buy)

36.  Pre-nasals
1) [ ny ] Pre-nasalized palatal
Attested in
ny lΣ (food for the dead), kanya (a food)
 Glides
1) [ l ] Voiced alveolar lateral
Attested in
latrin (toilet), alaki (cursed), ol (hole)
2) [ r ] Voiced apico alveolar liquid
Attested in
rΣp (to be ripe), arata (rat), wΣr (to wear)
 Affricates
1) [ ch ] Voicless alveo-palatal affricate
Attested in
cham (to chew), kech (to catch)
2) [ j ] Voiced alve-palatal affricate

37. Attested in
jomp (to jump), ajo (kind gesture), ej (age)
From the preceding, it can be discerned that Krio contains thirty six speech sounds; seven pure
vowels, three diphthongs, six plosives, eight fricatives, three nasals, two semi vowels, three
digraphs, two affricates, a lateral and a frictionless continuant. Note the sound position(s) of each
phoneme. The basic syllable structure of Krio is complex, Jones 1980:46 suggests a vowel
sandwiched by 1 to 3 consonants on each side. A vowel in Krio can constitute a syllable,
however, the following configurations can be evidenced in the preceding data v, cv, ccv, cccv,
vc, vcc, vccc, ccvc, cccvc, cvcc, cvccc, ccvcc and cccvcc.
3.2 THE PHONEMES OF LIMBA
Limba phonetics is marred by a lot of controversies. Before now seventeen consonants were
identified, S.E.B. Koroma (1999) argued in support of the occurrence of the voiceless labio velar
stop [kp] in the language.
Now and for the purpose of this research 40 phonemes will be identified in the language. These
comprise pure vowels (monophthongs), impure vowels (diphthongs) and consonants.
The Vowels are produced as detailed in chapter two and can be schematically represented
Front
Closed
centre
Back
I
Half close
Half open
u
e
o

38. open
a
3.2.1 A PHONETIC DESCRIPTION OF VOWELS IN LIMBA
1) [ I ] Front un-rounded high close vowel
Attested in
hiti (smoke), bΣti (bird), bisi (heap)
2) [ e ] Front un-rounded half closed vowel
Attested in
feŋ (fish), mpende (millet), sere (mud fish)
3) [ Σ ] front un-rounded half open vowel
Attested in
b lΣ (black), thΣrΣ (charcoal), yΣrΣmΣ (woman)
4) [ a ]central open vowel
Attested in
masala (God), sosa (star), kata (carry)
5) [
] Back rounded half open vowel
Attested in
l pa (to stone), r ntima (nail), w th
(viper)
6) [ o ] Back rounded half closed vowel
Attested in
rogba (to hide), boya (hide), konso (beans)
7) [ u ] Back rounded high closed vowel

39. Attested in
huru (breeze), huyΣ (night, hunku (gun power)
3.2.2 A PHONETIC DESCRIPTION ON IMPURE / DIPHTHONG PHONEMES IN
LIMBA
1) [ ey ]
Attested in
hothey (young fish), husagbey (bitter cola)
2) [ Σy ]
Attested in
kuthΣy (in foot), bΣy (lice/something)
3) [ ay ]
Attested in
kay (farm), athay (to dry in the sun)
4) [ y]
Attested in
h y (rat), ad y (to labour)
5) [oy]
Attested in
kuthoy (a bone), boy (gold)
6) [ uy ]

40. Attested in
Kumuy (housefly), afuy (to be far/ become plenty)
3.2.2 A PHONETIC DESCRIPTION OF CONSONANT PHONEMES IN LIMBA
Limba consonants comprise plosives, fricatives, nasals, semi-vowels, digraphs, pre-nasals, prenasals and glides (a lateral and a liquid). These are phonetically described thus:
 Plosives/stops
1) [ b ] Voiced bilabial plosive
Attested in
bara (meat), yumba (wait)
2) [ p ] Voiceless bilabial plosive
Attested in
poro (noise), thampa
3) [ gb ] voiced labio-velar plosive
Attested in
gbusa (dig), hugbu (knee)
4) [ kp ] Voiceless labio-velar plosive
Attested in
kpala (write), kpΣgbΣ (knot), kpoyori (lock)
5) [ d ] Voiced Alveolar plosive
Attested in

41. doni (a load), kpede (impotence)
6) [ t ] Voiceless Alveolar plosive
Attested in
taka (sheep), mΣti (town)
7) [ th ] voiced apico dental stop
Attested in
thara (to run), detha (to look),
8) [ k ] Voiceless velar plosive
Attested in
kora (to kill), raka (stone/rock)
Note: Some writers suggest the existence and occurrence of the voiced velar plosive[g] in word
medial positions, However, the voiceless counterpart [k] is more recognized and used in the
sound system of the language. In fact both sounds seem to be allophones that operate on free
variation terms since the substitution of one for another does not create a semantic change, Also
the voiceless velar plosive, when in word medial position is pronounced like the voiced apico
alveolar liquid [r] except if preceded by the alveolar nasal examples…banka (house) as against
bara (meat)
9) [ m ] Voiced Bilabial nasal stop
Attested in
mala (to jump), kama (to dance)

42. 10) [ n ] Voiced alveolar nasal stop
Attested in
n ndi (truth), nine (to sleep), ntantan (anus)
11) [ ŋ ] Voiced velar nasal stop
Attested in
ŋΣna (shake/paddle), toŋa (to drop), dagbalΣŋ (shoes)
Note: The dental sound [th] and the nasal sunds [m], [n] and [ŋ] are evidently produced like
plosives, justifying their classification here as plosives.
 Fricatives
1) [ f ] Voiceless labio dental fricative
Attested in
furu (breeze), afuy (become plenty)
2) [ s ] Voiceless alveolar fricative
Attested in
sobo (water well), bisi (heap)
3) [ h ] Voiceless glottal fricative
Attested in
hora (to clap), huhu (foofoo)

43. Note: The voiceless labio dental fricative [f] and the voiceless glottal fricative [h] are invariably
used at word initial position without any semantic shift, the difference is attested in dialectal
variations.
 Semi Vowels
1) [ y ] Voiced palatal semi vowel
Attested in
yatha (to walk), niya (to do something)
2) [ w ] Voiced bilabial semi vowel
Attested in
wali (to work), dΣwa (to forge an iron)
 Glides
1) [ l ] Voiceless Alveolar Lateral
Attested in
l ŋa (to lock/close), s la (to praise)
2) [ r ] Voiced apico alveolar liquid
Attested in
raka (a stone/rock), kurotho (a dove)
 Pre-nasals

44. 1) [ mb ] Pre-nasalized voiced bilabial plosive
Attested in
mbompa (leaf), mboma (sickness)
2) [ mp ] Pre-nasalized voiceless bilabial plosive
Attested in
Mpati (children), mpende (millet)
3) [ mgb ] pre-nasalized voiced labio velar plosive
Attested in
Mgbindi (back)
4) [ nd ] Pre-nasalized voiced alveolar plosive
Attested in
Ndamba (yam), ndanka (a whip made from hides)
5) [ nk ] Pre-nasalized voiced velar plosive
Attested in
Nkumba (stream), nkanka (basket)
6) [ nt ] Pre-nasalized voiceless alveolar plosive
Attested in
Ntigi (gluttony), ntantan (anus)
7) [ nth ] Pre-nasalized apico dental plosive
Attested in
Nthantha (root), nthaatha (potatoes)

45. 8) [ns] Pre-nasalized voiceless alveolar fricative
Attested in
Nsoronsi (drainage)
9) [nl ] Pre-nasalized alveolar lateral
Attested in
Nloma (a rope)
10) [ ny ] Pre-nasalized palatal semi vowel
Attested in
Nyathiki (friend), nyara (thread)
From the preceding pages, it can be discerned that Limba comprises seven Monophthongs or
pure vowels, Six diphthongs or impure vowels. Eleven plosives, three fricatives, two semi
vowels, two glides and ten pre-nasals totaling forty one speech sounds. The plosives include the
labio velars [gb] and [kp] and the apico dental [th] which are evidently plosified in Limba. The
voiceless labio dental fricative [f] and the voiceless labio-dental of [h] are used invariably
depending on variational differences, so do the voiceless velar plosive [k] and its voiced
counterpart [g]. The voiceless velar plosive [k] changes its pronunciation in word medial position
to an apico alveolar liquid like sound, except if preceded by the alveolar nasal [n]. The basic
structure of words in Limba is arranged in a consonant, vowel, consonant, vowel order (CVCV).
So words in Limba typically start with consonants and end in vowels.

46. 3.3 THE PHONEMES IN MENDE
Phonetically, Mende speech sounds are categorized into vowels and consonants. The vowels
consist an elaborate system of vowel sequences. The consonants include plosives, fricatives,
nasals, semi-vowels, affricates and pre-nasalized consonants. Mende like its sister languages
Kpelle and Lorma, have a seven vowel system, these are systematically detailed below:
Front
Closed
Centre
Back
I
Half closed
u
e
o
Half Open
Open
a
3.3.1 A PHONETIC DESCRIPTION OF VOWELS IN MENDE
1) [ I ] Front un-rounded high closed vowel
Attested in
Hinja (to pound), sani (bottle)
2) [ e ] front un-rounded half open vowel

47. Attested in
Genda (morning), fe (to give)
3) [ Σ ] Front un-rounded half open vowel
Attested in
yΣlΣ (to laugh), sΣlΣ (banana)
4) [ a ] Centre low open vowel
Attested in
Nja (water), hota (stranger)
5) [ u ] Back rounded high closed vowel
Attested in
Huma (to measure or steal), kugba (warrior)
6) [ o ] Back rounded half open vowel
Attested in
Hota (stranger), ndopo (child)
7) [ ] Back rounded half open vowel
Attested in
k li (leopard), K l (iron)
Note: Mende also consists an elaborate system double vowels which may be the same (elongated
vowels) as in gii (think), puu (ten) etc or dissimilar (diphthongs) as in gai (to break), siΣ (thank)

48. etc.These will be discussed in chapter Four. The feature underlines the tonality of the language as
the double vowels signal a particular tone.
3.3.2 PHONETIC DESCRIPTION OF CONSONANTS IN MENDE
 Plosives
1) [p] Voiceless bilabial plosive
Attested in
Poma (corpse), nΣp
(to coax)
2) [b] Voiced bilabial plosive
Attested in
Bulu (trumpet), samba (basket)
3) [t] Voiceless alveolar plosive
Attested in
Taga (cassava), mita (spoon)
4) [d] Voiced alveolar plosive
Attested in
Doli (hook), konda (mortar)
5) [k] Voiceless velar plosive
Attested in
Koto (to fold), bΣki (sack)
6) [g] voiced velar plosive

49. Attested in
genda (morning), ngegem
(worker)
7) [kp] voiceless labio velar stop
Attested in
Kpaki (shoulder), hakpa (sauce made from leaves)
8) [gb] Voiced labio stop
Attested in
gboki (hip), kugba (warrior)
9) [m] Voiced bilabial nasala stop
Attested in
mΣ (to eat), ndiam
(friend)
10) [n] Voiced alveolar nasal stop
Attested
nΣΣ (tongue), hunti (to mix)
11) [ŋ] Voiced velar nasal stop
Attested in
ŋanya (sand), ŋama (blood)
 Fricatives
1) [f] voiceless labio dental fricative
Attested in

50. faji (bucket), bafa (a hut)
2) [v] Voiced labio dental fricative
Attested in
Vonu (last year), kava (to cheat)
3) [s] Voiceless alveolar fricative
Attested in
Sani (bottle), yesu (Jesus)
4) [h] Voiceless glottal fricative
Attested in
hinje (to get up), maha (chief)
 Semi Vowels
1) [w} Voiced bilabial semi-vowel
Attested in
Wa (to come), mbawa (soap)
2) [y] Voiced palatal semi vowel
Attested in
yΣlΣ (to laugh), faya (to scatter)
 Glides

51. 1) [ l ] Voiced alveolar lateral
Attested in
Luma (to agree), mbala (sheep)
 Affricate
1) [ j ] Voiced alveo-palatal affricate
Attested in
Jasa (thatch), hinja (to pound)
 Pre-nasalized Consonants
1) [mb] Voiced bilabial pre-nasal
Attested in
Mba (rice), kamba (a grave)
2) [nd] Voiced alveolar pre-nasal
Attested in
Ndopo (child), hinda (something)
3) [ng] Voiced velar pre-nasal
Attested in
Ngolo (baboon), hingaa (men)
4) [nj] Voiced alveo-palatal pre-nasal
Attested in

52. Nja (water, manja (a quarrelsome woman)
5) [ny] Voiced palatal pre-nasal
Attested in
Nyini (rat), faanyi (gari)
In sum, Mende speech sounds consist seven pure vowels or monophthongs, eleven plosives, four
fricatives, two semi-vowels, a glide (the lateral), an affricate and five pre-nasalized consonants to
totalling thirty one phonemes. In addition to this, Mende also manifests double vowels; similar
and dissimilar. Jusu 2003 puts their number at seven for similar double vowels and twenty for
dissimilar double vowels. The basic syllable structure of Mende is in a consonant – vowel –
consonant – vowel (CVCV) order. Typically, words in Mende start with consonants and end with
vowels. Stops in Mende include the labio velars [kp], [gb] and the nasal stops [m], [n], [ŋ]. These
like those in Limba are evidently plosified in Mende.
3.3 THE PHONEMES OF THEMNE
Themne phonemes include vowels and consonants. Vowels include pure vowels or
monophthongs and impure vowels or diphthongs. The consonants include plosive, fricatives,
nasals, glides, semi vowels and affricates. Peculiarly, Themne consists nine vowels, these are
schematically represented below:
Front
Closed
Centre
I
u
Half closed e
o
Half Closed
Open
Back
a

53. 3.3.1 A PHONETIC DESCRIPTION OF VOWELS IN THEMNE
1) [ I ] Front unrounded closed vowel
Attested in
Fisa (better), fi (to die)
2) [ e ] Front un-rounded half closed vowel
Attested in
Mer (to swallow), shel (to laugh) be (a contraction of the conjunction) bepi (if)
3) [ Σ ] Front un-rounded half opened vowel
Attested in
kΣra (message), ahakΣ (sin)
4) [a] Centre low open vowel
Attested in
Yak (to launder), ba (to have/to lay eggs)
5) [ ] Back rounded half open vowel
Attested in
wath (child), K nΣ (to go), åŋl k
6) [ o ] Back round half closed vowel
Attested in
(maybe/perhaps)

54. Kor (stomach), wol (to play)
7) [ u ] Back rounded closed vowel
Attested in
Utik (stranger), sum (darkness), fu (new/for nothing)
8) [ å ] Mid Central half open vowel
Attested in
Nånt (fire), åŋl k
9) [
(perhaps), bå (to lay eggs)
] Mid central half closed vowel
Attested in
Gb
m (to pound), gb l (to sweep)
3.3.2 DIPHTHONGS OR IMPURE VOWELS
1) [ay]
Attested in
Fay (to slaughter), kay (young bush)
2) [åy]
Attested in
Kåy (to flog), påy (to prepare/to jump)
3) [ey]
Attested in
Key (thief), fey (hot)

55. 4) [ y]
Attested in
s y (Stealthily), th y (to burn)
5) [oy]
Attested in
Boy (succulent), foy (to float)
9) [uy]
Attested in
Kuy (alligator), tuy (ill/scarce)
3.3.3 CONSONANTS IN THEMNE
Themne consonants include plosives, fricatives, nasals, glides, semi vowels and an affricate.
These can be phonetically thus:
 Plosives
1) [ p ] Voiceless bilabial plosive
Attested in
Pim (to pick), bepi (if), yep (to borrow)
2) [ b ] Voiced bilabial plosive
Attested in
Buk
(to wash, åŋk biri (money), irab (an arab)
3) [ t ] Voiceless alveolar plosive

56. Attested in
Tim (to fight), utik (a stranger), nånt (fire)
4) [ d ] Voiced alveolar plosive
Attested in
Der (to come), afidao (prayer for the dead)
5) [ gb ] Voiced labio velar stop]
Attested in
Gbasi (to take), kågbeŋ (bracelet)
6) [ k ] Voiced velar plosive
Attested in
Kimå (smoke), åhakΣ (Sin), yak (to launder or wash)
 Fricatives
1) [ f ] Voiceless labio dental fricative
Attested in
Fål (to fly), nåfat (the iron), yif (to ask)
2) [ s ] voiceless alveolar fricative
Attested in
Sel (to laugh), dimsi (to wipe out/efface), lðmðs (to stone)
3) [ h ] Voiceless glottal fricative
Attested in

57. hakΣ (sin), åharamu (sinful act)
4) [ sh ] voiceless palato-alveolar fricative
Attested in
Shel (to laugh)
5) [ th ] Voiceless apico-dental fricative
Attested in
This (knife), wath (child)
 Nasals
1) [ m ] Voiced bilabial nasal
Attested in
Mun (to drink), lompi (straight), pim (to pick)
2) [ n ] Voiced alveolar nasal
Attested in
n k
(dirt), m nΣ (poverty), ŋin (one/lone)
3) [ ŋ ] Voiced velar nasal
Attested in
ŋåt (to ascend) aroŋ (road)
 Semi Vowels
1) [ w ] Voiced bilabial semi vowel
Attested in

58. Wop (to hold),
2) [ y ] Voiced palatal semi vowel
Attested in
Yim (red), iyola (a rich man)
 Glides
1) [ l ] Voiced alveolar lateral
Attested in
L m s (to stone), k li (to look), kal (to roast)
2) [ r ] Voiced apico alveolar liquid
Attested in
Ruma (cloth) aret (the sun), mar (to help)
 Affricate
1) [ ch ] Voiceless alveo palatal affricate
Attested in
chΣp (to plant), uchick (a stranger)
Phonemes in Themne total thirty four. This consist nine pure vowels or monophthongs, six
diphthongs or impure vowels, six plosives, five fricatives, three nasals, two semi vowels, two
glides and an affricate. Words in Themne can either start with a vowel or a consonant,and end in
either too.

59. Haven independently examined the sound systems and the phonemes of the four languages. I
now proceed to the climax of this research; the contrastive analysis of phonemes in the four
languages.
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 INTRODUCTION
Languages all over the world share basic commonalities, this highlights the essence of linguistics
as the scientific study of languages. Linguistics assumes the existence of a universal underlying
structure on which all human languages are built. Consequently, languages only differ
superficially. It can be evidently said that all languages have vowels and consonants, lexical
classes; especially nouns and verbs, a mechanism for asking questions and the same basic
sentence structure. However, reference must be made to the extent to which languages differ. A
language draws from the overall elements available and organizes them into a specific
configuration. As such, some elements may be parallel to two or more languages. Thus, in sum,
no two languages are completely the same, and the technique and tools used in analyzing one
language may not be necessary used to analyze another. Conclusively, all languages require an
independent investigation to reveal its features and structure.
Generally, a phonetic analysis of languages would include the number of phonemes
(monophthongs, diphthongs,consonants, as may be the case), in relation to the labelling
terminology; the position of the tongue that is raised the height of the tongue or the shape of the
lips for vowels and the place and manner of articulation for consonants example; number of
monophthongs, number of diphthongs etc. Reference must also be made to the quality of the
phonemes and more importantly to the behaviour of the phonemes e.g. where the occur in words,
how they interact with neighbouring sounds etc.
In relation to the four languages, the contrast is going to be done in three sections:
1) Pure Vowels/ Monophthongs
2) Impure Vowels? Diphthongs

60. 3) Consonants
4.1 MONOPHTHONGS OR PURE VOWELS
All but one of the seventeen or so Sierra Leonean Languages gave a seven vowel system. The
vowels referred to here are pure vowels or monophthongs. Of the languages in question, three
have a seven vowel system while one has a nine vowel system, Krio, Limba and Mende share the
same number of vowels as illustrated below:
4.2 A PHONETIC DESCRIPTION OF THE PURE VOWEL PHONEMES IN KRIO,
LIMBA AND MENDE WITH EXAMPLES GLOSSED IN ENGLISH
Front Un-Rounded High Close Vowel
KRIO
It (to eat)
Timo (to love)
Ngoli (urine)
Hati (child)
Faji (bucket)
Kech (to Catch)
Nine (to sleep)
Fenda (to fill)
Ed (head)
Wathe (male)
Pote (to turn)
Σp (to help)
k thΣ (to know)
tΣli (black)
rΣs (rice)
b lΣ (black)
pΣlΣ (house)
Fambul (family)
Adoy (to labour)
Mba (rice)
Makit (market)
[i]
MENDE
Sidom (to sit)
1
LIMBA
l pa (to stone)
Faji (bucket)
Front Un-Rounded Half Close Vowel
2
[e]
Front Un-Rounded Half Open Vowel
3
[Σ]
Centre Low Open Vowel
4
[a]
Back rounded half open

61. 5
[
]
rinch (orange)
r ntima (nail)
n mi (green)
spitul (hospital)
t ŋa (to drop)
b ndo (okra)
Os (house )
Loya (to launder)
Kowe (white)
Po (poverty)
Pona (to cook)
Ngoli (urine)
Uk (hook)
huyΣ (night)
Mbu (under)
Buk
nkumba (stream)
Kulu (hug)
Back rounded half close vowel
6
[o]
Back rounded high close vowel
7
[u]
4.1.2 VOWEL SYSTEM OF THEMNE
Themne has two more vowels than Krio, Limba and Mende. It is the only language in Sierra
Leone that has a nine vowel system. The additional two vowels are both central. Detailed below
is the Themne vowel chart.
Front
Close
Center
Back
i
u
Half close e
Half open
Open
Σ
å
a
o

62. 4.1.2.1 PHONETIC DESCRIPTION OF PURE VOWEL PHONEMES IN
THEMNE
1) [ I ] Front un-rounded closed vowel
Attested in
Fisa (better), fi (to die)
2) [ e ] Front un-rounded half closed vowel
Attested in
Mer (to swallow), shel (to laugh) be (a contraction of the conjunction) bepi (if)
3) [ Σ ] Front un-rounded half opened vowel
Attested in
kΣra (message), ahakΣ (sin)
4) [ a ] Centre low open vowel
Attested in
Yak (to launder), ba (to have/to lay eggs)
5) [
] Back rounded half open vowel
Attested in
wath (child), K nΣ (to go), aŋl k
6) [ o ] Back round half closed vowel
Attested in
Kor (stomach), wol (to play)
(maybe/perhaps)

63. 7) [ u ] Back rounded closed vowel
Attested in
Utik (stranger), sum (darkness), fu (new/for nothing)
8) [ å ] Mid Central half open vowel
Attested in
Nånt (fire), åŋl)k) (perhaps), bå (to lay eggs)
9)[
] Mid central half closed vowel
Attested in
Gb
m (to pound), gb
l (to sweep)
From the aforementioned, it can be conclusively stated that Krio, Limba and Mende have seven
pure vowels, whilst Themne has nine. The difference being the Central Vowel Phonemes [å] and
[ ] found in Themne.
4.1.3 OCCURRENCE PATTERNS OF PURE VOWEL PHONEMES
Drawing from the segmental phonology, inherently, the peak of any of the above mentioned
segments is normally a vowel. Sounds making up words are divided into the onset, nucleus and
coda. The onset refers to the initial sound (s), the nucleus refers to the medial sound(s) and the
coda to the final sound(s). By virtue of the underlying phonological structure of a language, a
phoneme may only occur in one of the positions mentioned above. Phonemes variably occur in
one and not in another position. For example, a particularly phoneme can only occur in word
initial and not word final position.

64. 4.1.3.1 OCCURRENCE PATTERNS OF PURE VOWEL PHONEMES IN KRIO
Krio words manifest an elaborate system of syllable structure element configuration. Jones
1980:46 captures the phenomenon by suggesting that a vowel is sandwiched by one to three
consonants on each side. Essentially, the following configurations can be attested in the
language: CVC, CCVC, CCCVC, CCCVCC, CCCVCCC, CVCC, CVCCC etc.
Krio monophthongs especially the front un-rounded high close [ I ] and the central low open
vowel [ a] can be independently syllabic. The front un-rounded high close vowel [ I] is
used as the second person singular pronoun in the subjective mood. The central low open is also
used as the first person singular in the subjective mode. This is exemplified in the sentences
below glossed in English
1) i de kam
He/she/it is coming
2) i d n go
He/she/it has gone
3) a de slip
I am sleeping
4) a kik di b l
I kicked the ball
All pure vowel phonemes in Krio can invariably occur at word initial, medial or final, thus
constituting the onset, nucleus and coda as the case may be. The schema below shows the
occurrence patterns of pure vowel phonemes in Krio in relation to the initial, medial and final
sounds of words.

65. 1) [ i ] Front un-rounded high close vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
it (food/to eat)
Tik (stick)
Pati (party)
ib (to drop something)
Swip (to sweep)
izi (easy)
izi (easy
Ziro (zero)
Mami (elder woman)
2) [ e ] Front un-rounded half close vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
ed (head)
fent (faint)
pe (to pay)
eg (egg)
beg (to beg)
de (day)
ebi (heavy)
pent (paint)
se (said)
3) [ Σ ] Front un-rounded half open vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
Σp (help)
bΣnch (bench)
bΣlΣ (stomach/Pregancy)
Σŋ (to hand)
bΣt (to bite)
Σmti (empty)
pΣn (pen)
lΣlΣ (a food)
4) [ a ] Central low open
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
an (hand)
bat (bat)
ala (shout)
ala (to shout)
kyat (cat)
pawa (power)
at (heart)
shap (shop)
winda (window)

66. 5) [
] Back rounded half open vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
p t (pot)
mΣzh
m le (local alcohol)
w d (word)
m
 t (hot/to put out)
b l (ball)
s
rinch ( orange)
(measure)
(more)
(sore)
6) [ o ] Back rounded half open vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
ol (hole/old)
bon (bone)
go (to go)
os (house)
kol (cold/charcoal)
ajo (kind gesture)
jomp (to jump)
po (poverty)
7) [ u ] Back rounded high close vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
uk (hook)
rum (room)
du (to do)
uman (woman)
chuk (to stab)
tu (two)
us (which)
skul (School)
yu (you)
4.1.3.2 OCCURRENCE PATTERNS OF PURE VOWEL PHONEMES IN LIMBA
Words in Limba manifest a basic consonant – vowel – consonant – vowel (CVCV) structure. In
essence words variably start with a consonant and end with a vowel. Consonants do not cluster in

67. Limba, so there is an intervening vowel after every consonant. Generally, pure vowels or
mnophthongs do not occur at word initial position, except in rare cases like:
1) Okiyaŋ (my own)
2) okΣntu (our own)
3) od y (to labour)
4) afuy (to be far/become plentiful)
5) athay (to dry in the sun)
More evidently, pure vowels in Limba can occupy word medial and final positions. The schema
below shows the occurrence patterns of pure vowel phonemes in Limba in relation to the initial,
medial and final sounds of words.
1) [ i ] Front un-rounded high close vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
ŋinda (to send)
bΣti (bird)
Toŋina (to show)
Hati (child)
2) [ e ] Front un-rounded half close vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
mpende (millet)
nine (to sleep)
feŋ (fish)
wathe (male)
3) [ Σ ] Front un-rounded half open vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
bΣti (bird)
hakΣ (all)
fΣtha (friend)
namΣ (how)
mΣti (town)
k thΣ (to know)

68. 4) [ a ] Central low open vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Final
hati (child)
foma (all)
kpaku (chief
punka (able)
kasi (taboo)
5) [
Sound Medial
hΣΣra (opportunity)
] Back rounded half open vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
k ra (to kill)
Sim k
r gba (to hide)
Pit k
(to forget)
t ŋina (to show)
w th
(viper)
(to remember)
6) [ o ] Back rounded half close vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
boka (cutlass)
timo (like/love)
bompa (leaves)
foma (all)
7) [ u ] Back rounded high close vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
duba (blessing)
baalu (goat
hurinki (firestone)
gbaku (a chief)
punka (able)

69. 4.1.3.3 OCCURRENCE PATTERNS OF PURE VOWEL PHONEMES IN MENDE
Words in Mende generally manifest a consonant – vowel (CV) structure, in essence most words
begin with consonant and end in a vowel. Mende pure vowel phonemes especially the central
low open [a], the front un-rounded high close [i] and the front un-rounded half open [Σ] vowels
can be independently syllabic. The central low open vowel phoneme is used as the third person
singular pronoun in the interrogative mood, the front un-rounded high close vowel phoneme is
used as the third person singular pronoun in the declarative mood, the front un-rounded half open
vowel especially when lengthened is used as the negative marker for the third person singular
pronoun in the declarative mood. This is exemplified below.
1) a mba mΣΣ
He/she/it rice eat
Does he/she/it eat rice?
2) a nyiil
flo
He/she/it write it feast
Will he/she/it write it fast
3) i mba mΣnga
He/she/it rice eaten
He/she/it has eaten the rice
4) i nyiinga flo
He/she/it written it fast
He/she/it has written it fast
5) ΣΣ mba mΣ

70. He/she/it (negative) rice eat
He/she/it does not eat rice
6) ΣΣ nyii flo
He/she/it (negative) write fast
He/she/it will not write it fast
Mende pure vowel phonemes do not occur in sound initial position of words, but can occur in
sound medial and final positions. The schema below shows the occurrence patterns of pure
vowel phonemes in relation to the initial, medial and final sounds of words.
1) [ i ] Front un-rounded high close vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
hindo (male)
faji (bucket)
ndiam
sani (bottle/glass)
(friend)
ngeinda (morning)
n)mi (green)
2) [ e ] Front un-rounded half close vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
ngewo (God)
fele (two)
ngegem
wote (to turn)
(worker)
demia
kpete (swamp)
3) [ Σ ] Front un-rounded half open vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final

71. bΣki (sac)
mΣ (to eat)
fΣlei (winnower)
makΣ (to bring up/rear)
Sembei (hut)
sΣlΣ (banana)
Sound Medial
Sound Final
sani (bottle)
huma (to steal/measure)
faji (bucket)
hota (stranger)
nyanii (poverty)
kekema (scorpion)
4) [ a ] Central low open
Sound Initial
5) [
] Back rounded half open vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
n mi (green)
b nd
(okra)
k li (leopard)
v nd
(to sweat)
k l
(iron)
6) [ o ] Back rounded half close vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
hota (stranger)
tato (to start)
gboki (hip)
nyapo (young woman)
poma (corpse)
folo (sun)
7) [ u ] Back rounded high close vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final

72. juma (Friday)
vonu (last year)
hunti (to mix)
k lu (iron)
huma (to steal/measure)
kuulu (accept)
4.1.3.4 OCCURRENCE PATTERNS OF PURE VOWEL PHONEMES IN
THEMNE
Basically words in Themne can either start with a vowel or a consonant and can also end in
either, thus words in Themne manifest a CVC or a VCV structure. The front un-rounded high
close vowel [i] is used as the first person singular pronoun in the language as attested below:
1) i k
ri l ŋ
I went there yesterday
Some Themne pure vowel Phonemes like the central half open [å] in åhakΣ (sin), the central low
open vowel [a] in aroŋ (a road), the [u] as in uckik (stranger) can occur in sound initial position,
but most others only occur in sound medial and final positions. The schema below shows the
occurrence patterns of pure vowel phonemes in Themne in relation to the initial, medial and final
sounds of words.
1) [ i ] Front un-rounded high close vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
yif (as ask)
bi (black)
pim (to pick)
k li (to look)
fir (to find)
di (to eat)
2) [ e ] Front un-rounded half close vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final

73. Fer (to drum)
Mer (to swallow)
Leŋ (to sing)
3) [ Σ ] Front un-rounded half open vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
bΣk (bag)
m nΣ (poverty)
mΣr (salt)
hakΣ (sin)
dΣr (a place)
k nΣ (to go)
Sound Medial
Sound Final
kal (to roast)
ba (to have)
wath 9child)
lasa (perhaps)
pat (to cook)
kala (money)
4) [ a ] Central low open
Sound Initial
5) [
] Back rounded half open vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
n t (to push)
Buk
n y (to receive)
b
(to loan)
f f (to talk)
k
to go
(to wash)
6) [ o ] Back rounded half close vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final

74. dor (hunger)
for (to gossip)
pol (to clap)
7) [ u ] Back rounded high close vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
buk
fu (new/in vain)
(to wash)
wur (to come out)
ru (to plait)
thuf (to spit)
8) [ å ] Mid central half open vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
nånt (fire)
kårå (to bring)
fåk (to drop)
bår (to add)
9) [
] Mid central half closed vowel
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
B
th (morning)
K
Sound Final
li (to look)
Gb
l
From the preceding analysis, it can be discerned, that there tangible differences in the pure vowel
phonemes of the four languages in question, Limba, Krio and Mende manifest seven pure
vowels, Themne manifests nine, the difference being the central vowel phonemes [
] and [å].

75. Limba, Mende and Themne rarely manifest vowel phonemes in sound initial position in words.
Krio abundantly manifests all pure vowel phonemes in sound initial, medial and final positions
of words. Mende pure vowel phonemes are longer i.e. they are produced in a longer duration
than usual, primarily because the language is very tonal, krio pure vowel phonemes are shorter
than the other three languages.
4.2 DIPHTHONGS OR IMPURE VOWELS
Krio, Limba and Themne manifest three, six and six diphthongs respectively. Mende consists
two sets of co-articulated vowels; similar vowels in sequence and dissimilar vowels in sequence.
4.2.1 DIPHTHONGS OR IMPURE VOWELS IN KRIO
As started earlier, Krio manifest three diphthongs, these are [aw], [ay] and [ y]. [aw] and [ay]
can be independently syllabic as in;
aw (how)
ay (high)
These diphthongs, as in Krio pure vowel phonemes can occupy sound initial, medial and final
position in words. The schema overleaf shows the occurrence patterns of diphthong phonemes in
Krio.
[aw]
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
awtin (outing)
krawd (crowd)
naw (now)
sawnd (sound)
kaw (cow)
rawnd (round)

76. [ay]
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
ayd (to hide
fayn (fine)
kray (cry)
aydul (idle)
sayd (side)
lay (to lie)
ays (ice)
paynt (pint)
kayt (kite)
Sound Medial
Sound Final
t y (toy)
j y (joy)
p ynt (to point)
b y (servant
[ y]
Sound Initial
yl (oil)
4.2.2 DIPHTHONGS OR IMPURE VOWELS IN LIMBA
Limba comprises six diphthongs; [uy], [oy], [ay], [Σy] and [ey]. These diphthongs do not occur
at word initial position, but can occur rarely at word medial position, and are much more
productive at word final position. The following schema illustrates the occurrence patterns of
diphthong phonemes in relation to the initial, medial and final sounds of words.
1) [uy]
As in
Afuy (to be far
2) [oy]
As in
Kuthoy (a bone), kusoy (a fish cone/thorn)

77. 3) [ y]
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
Kut yti (church)
Ad y (to labour)
Th yo (python)
4) [ay]
As in
Athay (to dry in the sun)
5) [Σy]
As in
kuthΣy
6) [ey]
As in
Husagbey (bitter kola)
4.2.3 MENDE SIMILAR AND DISSIMILAR VOWELS IN SEQUENCE
Some writers assert that the Mende sound system is devoid of diphthongs. However, a thorough
analysis would reveal that Mende, by virtue of its high tonality comprises similar vowels in
sequence; which are lengthened versions of the pure vowels, and dissimilar vowels in sequence;
which are an elaborate system of combined and co-articulated pure vowels that are diphthongal
in nature.
4.3.2.1 SIMILAR VOWELS IN SEQUENCE

78. Due to the high tonality of the language, words can only be understood when individual
phonemes are accorded the right tone, Mende consists of seven similar vowels in sequence.
These are lengthened pure vowels these usually occur in sound final position of words. They are
illustrated below:
1) [ii] as in gii (to think)
2) [ee] as in tee (to cut)
3) [ΣΣ] as in mΣmΣΣ (mirror)
4) [aa] as in ndolaa (baby)
5) [
] as in gb
(what is this), b)) (football)
6) [oo] as in koo (pregnancy/to be inside)
7) [uu] as in puu (ten)
4.2.3.2 DISSIMILAR VOWELS IN SEQUENCE
These are dissimilar vowel combinations that are actually diphthongs in nature. There are twenty
of such vowel sequences in Mende
1) [ae] as in dae (please)
2) [ai] as in gai (to break)
3) [au] as in kpay (bridge)
4) [ia] as in tia (they)
5) [iΣ] as in siΣ (thank)
6) [ie] as in bie (name)
7) [io] as in gobio (male name)
8) [iu] as in makiu (male name)
9) [uΣ] as in puΣ] (mud)
10) [ui] as in pupui (ant)
11) [ua] as in kpua (take it out)
12) [Σi] as in tΣi (black)
13) [ i] as in s)I (a saw)
14) [ Σ] as in k)Σ (letter)

79. 15) [ a] as in t)a (saw)
16) [oe] as in koe (to find)
17) [oa] as in foa (to reach)
18) [oi] as in soi {horse)
19) Ei [ as in hei (to sit)
20) [eo] as in leo (to go on)
The dissimilar vowels in sequence all occur at sound final position in words
4.2.4 DIPHTHONGS OR IMPURE VOWELS IN THEMNE
Themne like Limba, but unlike Krio and Mende manifests six diphthongs; [ay], [åy], [oy], [ y],
[uy], and [ey]. These diphthongs are manifested mainly in sound final positions in words
1) [ay] as in
Kay (young bush), fay (to slaughter), say (to neglect)
2) [åy] as in
Kåy (to glog), tåy (something/problems), låy (quick/to open one’s palm)
3) [oy] as in
Boy (succulent), åsoy (horse), foy (to float)
4) [ y] as in
b y (to immerse), th y (to burn something), s y (stealthily)
5) [uy] as in
åkuy (a crocodile), fuy (to increase), tuy (sick/scarce)
6) [ey] as in

80. Tey (to stop), ukey (a thief), they (rotten)
In sum Krio manifests three diphthongs that can occur at sound initial, medial and final positions
in words. Limba and Themne manifest six diphthongs each, these diphthongs do not occur at
sound initial position, but occur rarely in sound medial position, and are widely manifested in
sound final position in words. Mende manifests twenty dissimilar vowels in sequence that are
diphthongal in nature and seven lengthened or similar vowels in sequence. These occur at sound
final position of words.
4.3 CONSONANTS
The number of consonants in the languages in focus vary; Krio manifests twenty six consonants,
Limba manifests twenty eight (some writers separate consonants from digraphs and prenasalized consonants thus claiming the number of consonants in the language to be eighteen),
Mende manifests twenty four consonants. Themne manifests eighteen consonants. This analysis
is going to be done in relation to the conventional labelling categories given to consonants.
4.3.1 PLOSIVES/STOPS
The number stops or plosives in the languages in focus differ, Krio manifests eight plosives,
Limba manifests eleven plosives, Mende manifests eleven plosives and Themne six. The nasal
consonants [m], [n] and [ŋ] are evidently plosified in Limba and Mende, bit not in Krio or
Themne. The apico dental [th] is also evidently plosified in Limba.
4.3.1.1 STOPS/PLOSIVES IN KRIO
As stated earlier Krio manifests eight plosives and most can occur in sound initial, medial and
final position of words. The following data illustrates this point.

81. 1) [p] Voiceless bilabial plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Paynt (pint)
 spitul (hospital)
Sound Final
Abop (to rely)
Pikin (child)
Kapu (to grap)
Shap (shop)
p t (pot)
Napi (napkin)
Kyap (cap)
2) [b] Voiced bilabial plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
Bizi (busy)
Fambul (family)
Sheb (to share)
b d (bird)
Abop (to rely
Bab (to barb)
b ks (box)
Tebul (table)
3) [d] Voiced alveolar plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
d g (dog)
Winda (window)
Sawnd (sound)
De (day)
Kyandul (candle)
Bad (bad)
Day (to die)
Kad (card)
4) [t] Voiceless alveolar plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
Tinap (to stand)
Wetin (what)
Trit (street)
Tide (today)
Arata (rat)
Makit (market)
Trade (a while ago)
Bata (drum)
m t (mouth)

82. 5) [g] Voice velar plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
Gem (game)
Agidi (a food)
Beg (to beg
g t (gut)
Bag (bag)
g n (gun)
6) [k] Voice velar plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
Kik (to kick)
Kotoku (purse)
Tik (stick)
k p (cup
Makit (market)
Fek (fake)
Kyat (cat)
7) [kp] Voiceless labio velar plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Kpak
Akpata (rock)
(back of head)
Sound Final
Shakpa
8) [gb] Voiced labio velar plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final

83. Gbana (stubborn)
Agbara (running water)
Yagba
The labio velar plosives are hardly attested in sound final position of words.
4.3.1.2 PLOSIVES/STOPS IN LIMBA
Limba manifests eleven plosives which are primarily attested in sound initial and medial
positions in words. The following data illustrates this point.
1) [b] Voiceless bilabial plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Bara (meat)
Yumba (wait)
Banka (house)
Duba (blessing)
Boka (cutlass)
Sound Final
Kubapu (an axe)
2) [p] Voiced bilabial plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Paka (rice)
Kubapu (an axe)
Pit k
Bompa (leaves)
(to forget)
Sound Final
pΣkila (loose)
3) [d] Voiced alveolar plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final

84. Doni (a load)
kpΣdΣ (impotence)
Duba (blessing)
Handa (your father)
Dama (hunt)
t ŋina (to show)
4) [t] Voiceless alveolar plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Tali (medicine)
ŋata (go upwards)
Tala (lay down)
mΣti (town)
t ŋina (to show)
Sound Final
Hati (child)
5) [gb] Voiced labio velar plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Gbisa (to dig)
kpΣgbΣ (knot)
Gbasa (to mark)
Sound Final
Hugbu (knee)
Husagbey ( bitter kola)
6) [kp] Voiceless labio velar plosive
Sound Initial
Kpala (write)
kpΣgbΣ (knot)
Kpoyori (to lock)
Sound Medial
Sound Final

85. 7) [k] Voice velar plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
k ra (to kill)
Banka (house)
Kasi (taboo)
Sound Final
Baka (meat)
Note: in intervocalic position the voiceless velar plosive is pronounced as the fluid [r] unless if
preceded by the alveolar nasal [n]
8) [th] Voiced apico dental plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Thara (to run)
Detha (to look)
Thunkuna (to pay)
Sound Final
fΣtha (laugh)
9) [m] Voiced bilabial nasal plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Manaŋ (cow)
yΣrΣmΣ (woman)
mΣΣti (salt
Name (how)
mΣtΣŋ (clean)
Dama (hunt)
Sound Final

86. 10) [n] Voiced alveolar nasal plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
Nanda (your mother)
ŋayna (to keep)
ŋayen (sticks)
namΣ (how)
Payni (complete)
11) [ŋ] Voiced velar nasal plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final
ŋinda (send)
t ŋina (to show)
Manaŋ (cow)
ŋata (go upwards)
t ŋa (to drop)
Feŋ (fish)
dagbalΣŋ (shoes)
The apico dental [th] and the nasals in the language are evidently plosified thus their
classification as plosives. The nasals especially the alveolar nasal and the velar nasal can occur at
sound final position of words.
4.3.1.3 PLOSIVES/STOPS IN MENDE
Mende manifests eleven plosives, these occur primarily at sound initial and medial position of
words. The following data substantiates this assertion.
1) [p] Voiceless bilabial plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
pujΣ (pepper)
nΣp
Puu (ten)
Pupui (ant)
p li (promiscuisity)
(to coax)
Sound Final

87. 2) [b] Voiced bilabial plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Bulu (trumpet)
Samba (basket)
Bafa (hut)
Jumbu (fur/hair)
b ndo (okra)
Sound Final
vΣmbΣ (to touch)
3) [t] Voiced alveolar plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Taga (cassava)
Mita (spoon)
tΣi (black)
Yata (to prostrate)
Tei (chicken)
Sound Final
Wote (to turn)
4) [d] Voiceless alveolar plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Dae (name)
Konda (mortar)
Doli (hook)
f nd
Sound Final
(sweat)
5) [k] Voice velar plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Koto (to fold)
bΣki (sac)
Kava (to cheat)
kΣkΣ (father)
Konda (mortar)
Sound Final

88. 6) [g] Voiced velar plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Genda (morning)
Taga (cassava)
gΣlΣ (to stop)
Ngegem
Gele (to fry)
Sound Final
Hingaa (men)
(worker)
7) [kp] Voiceless labio velar plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Kpaki (shoulder)
Sound Final
Hakpa (sauce )
Kpaa (farm)
Kpawa (to count)
8) [gb] Voiced labio velar plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Gboki (hip)
Sound Final
Kuba (warrior)
Gbuja (to climb down)
Gbapi
9) [m] Voiced bilabial nasal plosive
Sound Initial
Sound Medial
Sound Final