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Parte I:  Etiología y Fisiopatología de la Insuficiencia Cardiaca
Definición de Insuficiencia Cardiaca (IC) ,[object Object],[object Object]
Definición de Insuficiencia Cardiaca (IC) ,[object Object],[object Object]
Incidencia y prevalencia de la IC ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],1  World Health Statistics, World Health Organization, 1995. 2  American Heart Association, 2002 Heart and Stroke Statistical Update.
Etiología de la Insuficiencia Cardiaca ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Causas precipitantes ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Disfunción Ventricular Izquierda ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],30% 70% Disfunción Diastólica Disfunción Sistólica (FE < 40%) (FE > 40 %) 1  Lilly, L.  Pathophysiology of Heart Disease .  Segunda Edición p 200
Determinantes de la Función Ventricular Volumen Latido Precarga Postcarga Contractilidad Gasto  Cardiaco Frecuencia Cardiaca ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Gasto Cardiaco = FC X VL  (cantidad de sangre que bombea el corazón en un minuto).
Disfunción Ventricular Izquierda Sobrecarga De Volumen  Sobrecarga De Presión  Pérdida de  Miocardio Contractilidad Alterada  Disfunción VI FE < 40% ,[object Object],[object Object],Hipoperfusión     Volumen Telesistólico    Volumen Telediastólico Congestión Pulmonar
Bases Hemodinámicas de los síntomas de Insuficiencia Cardiaca ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Fisiopatología. Mecanismos Compensadores ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Fisiopatología. Mecanismos Compensadores ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Fisiopatología. Mecanismos Compensadores ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Fisiopatología. Activación Simpática en Insuficiencia Cardiaca Packer. Progr Cardiovasc Dis. 1998;39(suppl I):39-52.    Estímulo simpático del SNC Progreso De la Enfermedad ,[object Object],[object Object],receptores  1 - receptores   2 - receptores  1 - Vasoconstricción Retención Sodio Toxicidad Miocárdica  Aumento de arritmias    Actividad   Simpática hacia riñones + vasculatura periférica Activación del SRAA  1 -  1 -
Fisiopatología. Mecanismos Compensadores:  Sistema Renina-Angiotensina-Aldosterona (SRAA)   Vasoconstricción Estrés Oxidativo Crecimiento Celular Proteinuria Remodelado VI Remodelado Vascular Angiotensinógeno Angiotensina I Angiotensina II Receptor AT I Renina Enzima Convertidora de Angiotensina (IECA)
Fisiopatología. Mecanismos Compensadores:  Sistema Renina-Angiotensina-Aldosterona (SRAA)  PAM  =  (  VS  x   FC)  x   RTP Renina-Angiotensina-Aldosterona (   perfusión renal) Retención Sodio-agua Sed Aumento Simpático Vasoconstricción Descenso de la PAM
Fisiopatología. Mecanismos Compensadores:   Activación Neurohormonal – Vasopresina (HAD) Presión Arterial Media Disminuida Baroreceptores Centrales Estimulación del hipotálamo, que produce vasopresina secretada por hipófisis Secreción de vasopresina por la hipófisis Vasoconstricción Aumento de la presión arterial media Retroalimentación negativa Retención de H 2 0 (riñón)
Fisiopatología. Estimulación Compensadora Neurohormonal: Resumen   Gasto Cardiaco Disminuido ,[object Object],[object Object],   Sistema Renina-angiotensina    Hormona   Antidiurética  (vasopresina)    Frec. Cardiaca    Contractilidad Vasoconstricción    Volumen circulante Anteriolar Mantener presión arterial Gasto  Cardiaco    Volumen Latido + - + Venosa    Retorno Venoso al corazón (    precarga) Edema Periférico y congestión pulmonar
Fisiopatología. Respuestas Neurohormonales a la Falla Cardiaca Inicialmente Adaptativa, Nociva si persiste Jaski, B, MD:  Basics of Heart Failure:  A Problem Solving Approach Respuesta Efectos a Corto-Plazo  Efectos a Largo-Plazo Retención de Sodio y Agua Aumenta Precarga Congestión Pulmonar, Anasarca Vasoconstricción Mantiene P.A. para perfusión a órganos vitales Exacerba la falla de bomba (postcarga excesiva), aumenta consumo miocárdico de oxígeno Estimulación Simpática Aumenta FC y contractilidad Aumento en el consumo miocárdico de oxígeno
Fisiopatología. Otras Neurohormonas (Péptidos Natriuréticos). ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Fisiopatología. Substancias Vasoactivas Derivadas del Endotelio
Fisiopatología. Mediadores de la Insuficiencia Cardiaca ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Fisiopatología. Círculo Vicioso de la Insuficiencia Cardiaca Disfunción VI Gasto cardiaco disminuido y  Presión arterial disminuída Mecanismo de Frank-Starling  Remodelado Activación Neurohormonal Aumento del Gasto Cardiaco (via aumento de contractilidad y frecuencia cardiaca) Aumento de Presión Arterial (via vasoconstricción y aumento de volumen sanguíneo) Trabajo cardiaco aumentado (ya sea precarga o postcarga)
Fisiopatología. Mecanismos Compensadores ,[object Object],[object Object],Curry CW, et al. Mechanical dyssynchrony in dilated cardiomyopathy with intraventricular conduction delay as depicted by 3D tagged magnetic resonance imaging. Circulation 2000 Jan 4;101(1):E2.
Parte II: Diagnóstico de la Insuficiencia Cardiaca
Diagnóstico de Insuficiencia Cardiaca ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Evaluación diagnóstica de Insuficiencia Cardiaca de nueva instalación ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Disfunción Ventricular Izquierda Sistólica y Diastólica ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Insuficiencia Ventricular Derecha Sistólica y Diastólica ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Criterios para el diagnóstico de insuficiencia cardiaca Modificado de Framingham Dos criterios mayores o  Un mayor y dos menores Criterios mayores Criterios menores Criterios mayores agregados DPN Edema tibial Pulso alternante Plétora yugular Tos nocturna Pulso deficiente Estertores pulmonares Disnea de esfuerzo Pulso decreciente Cardiomegalia radiográfica Hepatomegalia ,[object Object],[object Object],Edema agudo de  pulmón Derrame pleural Galope ventricular Taquicardia >120x’ Galope auricular Presión venosa  >16 cm H 2 O Reflujo hepatoyugular Peso   4.5 kg en 5 días
Evaluación Diagnóstica de la Insuficiencia Cardiaca de nueva instalación ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Cuadro Clínico ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Cuadro Clínico   (RAYOS X) Edema  intersticial Edema  agudo  de pulmón Derrame pleural Imagen típica  de I. C.
Cuadro Clínico ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Cuadro Clínico ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Clasificación Funcional  Asociación de Cardiología de N.Y. (NYHA) ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Clasificación de la IC:  Evolución y Progreso ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Hunt, SA, et al  ACC/AHA Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Chronic Heart Failure in the Adult, 2001
Parte III:  Tratamiento Actual de la Insuficiencia Cardiaca Crónica
El Círculo Vicioso del Tratamiento de la Insuficiencia Cardiaca IC Crónica Consulta Emergencia Hospitalización Descomp.    Peso Diurético VO Diurético IV o Ingreso Diuresis y Egreso
Tratamiento. Medidas Generales ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Tratamiento Farmacológico ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Tratamiento Farmacológico ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Tratamiento Farmacológico ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Tratamiento Farmacológico ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],1  Hunt, SA, et al  ACC/AHA Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Chronic Heart Failure in the Adult, 2001 p. 20.
Tratamiento Farmacológico ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Tratamiento Farmacológico ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Receptores para Angiotensina II Receptor AT 1 Receptor AT 2 ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object]
Enfoque terapéutico hacia el paciente con Insuficiencia Cardiaca Estadio A Alto riesgo, sin daño estructural Estadio B Daño estructural cardiaco, asintomático Estadio D IC refractaria que requiere tratamiento especializado ,[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],[object Object],Estadio C Daño estructural cardiaco con síntomas previos o actuales de IC Hunt, SA, et al  ACC/AHA Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Chronic Heart Failure in the Adult, 2001
ENFOQUE TERAPEUTICO HACIA EL PACIENTE CON INSUFICIENCIA CARDIACA Estadios de Insuficiencia Cardiaca y Opciones de Tratamiento para I. C. Sistólica NEJM, 2003;348: 2007-18

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Insuf. Cardiaca

  • 1. Parte I: Etiología y Fisiopatología de la Insuficiencia Cardiaca
  • 2.
  • 3.
  • 4.
  • 5.
  • 6.
  • 7.
  • 8.
  • 9.
  • 10.
  • 11.
  • 12.
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  • 14.
  • 15. Fisiopatología. Mecanismos Compensadores: Sistema Renina-Angiotensina-Aldosterona (SRAA) Vasoconstricción Estrés Oxidativo Crecimiento Celular Proteinuria Remodelado VI Remodelado Vascular Angiotensinógeno Angiotensina I Angiotensina II Receptor AT I Renina Enzima Convertidora de Angiotensina (IECA)
  • 16. Fisiopatología. Mecanismos Compensadores: Sistema Renina-Angiotensina-Aldosterona (SRAA)  PAM = (  VS x  FC) x  RTP Renina-Angiotensina-Aldosterona (  perfusión renal) Retención Sodio-agua Sed Aumento Simpático Vasoconstricción Descenso de la PAM
  • 17. Fisiopatología. Mecanismos Compensadores: Activación Neurohormonal – Vasopresina (HAD) Presión Arterial Media Disminuida Baroreceptores Centrales Estimulación del hipotálamo, que produce vasopresina secretada por hipófisis Secreción de vasopresina por la hipófisis Vasoconstricción Aumento de la presión arterial media Retroalimentación negativa Retención de H 2 0 (riñón)
  • 18.
  • 19. Fisiopatología. Respuestas Neurohormonales a la Falla Cardiaca Inicialmente Adaptativa, Nociva si persiste Jaski, B, MD: Basics of Heart Failure: A Problem Solving Approach Respuesta Efectos a Corto-Plazo Efectos a Largo-Plazo Retención de Sodio y Agua Aumenta Precarga Congestión Pulmonar, Anasarca Vasoconstricción Mantiene P.A. para perfusión a órganos vitales Exacerba la falla de bomba (postcarga excesiva), aumenta consumo miocárdico de oxígeno Estimulación Simpática Aumenta FC y contractilidad Aumento en el consumo miocárdico de oxígeno
  • 20.
  • 21.
  • 22.
  • 23. Fisiopatología. Círculo Vicioso de la Insuficiencia Cardiaca Disfunción VI Gasto cardiaco disminuido y Presión arterial disminuída Mecanismo de Frank-Starling Remodelado Activación Neurohormonal Aumento del Gasto Cardiaco (via aumento de contractilidad y frecuencia cardiaca) Aumento de Presión Arterial (via vasoconstricción y aumento de volumen sanguíneo) Trabajo cardiaco aumentado (ya sea precarga o postcarga)
  • 24.
  • 25. Parte II: Diagnóstico de la Insuficiencia Cardiaca
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  • 33. Cuadro Clínico (RAYOS X) Edema intersticial Edema agudo de pulmón Derrame pleural Imagen típica de I. C.
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  • 38. Parte III: Tratamiento Actual de la Insuficiencia Cardiaca Crónica
  • 39. El Círculo Vicioso del Tratamiento de la Insuficiencia Cardiaca IC Crónica Consulta Emergencia Hospitalización Descomp.  Peso Diurético VO Diurético IV o Ingreso Diuresis y Egreso
  • 40.
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  • 49. ENFOQUE TERAPEUTICO HACIA EL PACIENTE CON INSUFICIENCIA CARDIACA Estadios de Insuficiencia Cardiaca y Opciones de Tratamiento para I. C. Sistólica NEJM, 2003;348: 2007-18

Notas del editor

  1. Under normal circumstances, the heart accepts blood at low filling pressures during diastole and then propels it forward at higher pressures during systole. A variety of disorders can impair the ability of the heart to meet the metabolic demands of the body. Heart failure (HF) can be defined as a complex clinical syndrome resulting from any structural or functional cardiac disorder that impairs the ability of the ventricle to fill with or eject blood. Today, substantial healthcare resources are used to treat heart failure patients, yet heart failure patients continue to have a poor quality of life and an unacceptably high mortality rate. According to the American Heart Association, the five-year mortality rate for heart failure patients is about 50%.
  2. Heart failure is estimated to afflict more than 22 million people worldwide with an estimated 2 million new cases diagnosed annually. 1 In the United States it is estimated that 5 million people have HF, with 10 out of every 1,000 over the age of 65 being afflicted. 2 It is the only major cardiovascular disorder that is increasing in incidence and prevalence. Other Heart Failure Statistics: HF patients take an average of six medications 3 78% of HF patients have had at least two hospital admissions per year 3 Cost of HF in the U.S. is estimated to be between $10 billion and $38 billion annually 4 5-year survival rate for all NYHA classes estimated at 50% 2 1 World Health Statistics, World Health Organization, 1995. 2 American Heart Association, 2002 Heart and Stroke Statistical Update 3 English M and Mastream M. Crit Care Nurse Q 1995;18:1-6. 4 Havranek EP, Abraham WT, The Healthcare Economics of Heart Failure 1998; 14:10-18.
  3. Listed above is the etiology of heart failure in order from most to least common causes.
  4. As previously seen, there are many causes of heart failure. Some diseases, however, tend to more adversely affect the heart’s systolic function (ventricular contraction/ejection), while others tend to more adversely affect diastolic function (ventricular filling/relaxation). This provides a useful way of classifying heart failure from a hemodynamic standpoint. Most patients who have systolic dysfunction also have a component of diastolic dysfunction.
  5. Stroke volume is affected by preload, afterload, and contractility . Preload is the amount myocardial stretch at the end of diastole. Afterload is the resistance that needs to be overcome for the heart to eject the blood. There is an inverse relationship between afterload and ventricular function. As the resistance to contraction increases, the force of contraction decreases which results in a decreased stroke volume. Also, as an increase in resistance occurs, there is an increase in myocardial oxygen demand. Contractility is the inotropic state of the heart independent of the preload and the afterload. Synergistic LV contraction, wall integrity, and the competence of the valves also affect cardiac output.
  6. LV dysfunction is defined as an ejection fraction of less than 40%. The number one cause of LV systolic dysfunction is loss of myocardium due to a myocardial infarction ( MI, or heart attack). Pressure overload due to uncontrolled hypertension is another major cause of systolic dysfunction. It is estimated that only 25% of all patients with hypertension are adequately treated. Impaired contractility also contributes to LV dysfunction and is usually the result of drugs such as alcohol or toxins such as chemotherapy. Volume overload from valvular diseases contribute to LV dysfunction. LV dysfunction causes decreased cardiac output, which in turn causes hypoperfusion of the body’s organs. In addition, LV dysfunction causes an increase in the amount of blood left in the ventricle when the heart squeezes, and therefore, both End Systolic and End Diastolic Volumes are subsequently increased. This increase in volume leads to pulmonary congestion and the patient being short of breath.
  7. This slide represents what we have seen on the previous 2 slides: a rise in LVEDP causes a rise in Left Atrial Pressure which causes a rise in pulmonary capillary pressure, and subsequently pulmonary congestion and shortness of breath.
  8. Several natural compensatory mechanisms are called into action to help buffer the fall in cardiac output and help maintain sufficient blood pressure in order to perfuse vital organs. These compensatory mechanisms include: Frank-Starling mechanism Neurohormonal activation Ventricular remodeling
  9. The Frank-Starling mechanism plays an important compensatory role in the early stages of HF, which is demonstrated in this slide. On the graph, there are three points, A, B, and C. Point A is a healthy patient where cardiac performance increases as preload increases (the amount of stretch on the ventricle before contraction due to an increase in volume). Point B represents the same individual after developing LV systolic dysfunction. Since the heart is no longer able to contract as effectively as it did, stroke volume falls. As a result, there is a decrease in LV emptying which leads to an elevation of the end-diastolic volume (preload). Since point B is on the ascending portion of the curve, the increased end-diastolic volume initially serves a compensatory role because it leads to a subsequent increase in stroke volume (i.e., more diastolic stretch, the greater the contractility, and the greater the stroke volume...the Frank-Starling mechanism). This is less than the increase a normal patient would experience. As the patient’s heart failure progresses (represented by point C), which is on the relatively flat portion of the curve, stroke volume only increases slightly relative to further increases in end-diastolic volume (preload). Here the ability of the Frank-Starling mechanism to compensate for worsening LV function is nearly exhausted. In such circumstances, marked elevation of the end-diastolic volume and end-diastolic pressure results in pulmonary congestion, while decreasing cardiac output leads to increasing fatigue and exercise intolerance. Eventually, the curve starts downward due to decompensation of the heart muscle. It is of note that when cardiac resynchronization (discussed later) is implemented, the hope is to put the HF patient back on top of the curve rather than on the downward slope.
  10. Neurohormonal activation is an important compensatory mechanism involved in maintaining the mean arterial pressure. Hormones and neurohormonal systems play a important role in maintaining normal cardiovascular hemostasis; they also play an important compensatory role in the early stages of heart failure. First, let’s start by defining what a neurohormone is. A hormone is simply a biologically active substance that originates in one tissue and is transported through the bloodstream to another part of the body where it acts to either increase the activity of that tissue or stimulate the release of another hormone. Hormones that are formed by neurosecretory cells and are liberated by nerve stimulation are called neurohormones. In general, activation of the body’s various neurohormonal systems serve to increase systemic vascular resistance, thereby attenuating any fall in blood pressure (recall: Blood Pressure = Cardiac Output x Total Peripheral Vascular Resistance). In addition, many neurohormones encourage salt and water retention, which increases intravascular volume and LV preload so as to maximize stroke volume via the Frank-Starling mechanism. But as was the case with remodeling, too much of a good thing over the long-term eventually becomes detrimental to the failing heart. Because of the importance of neurohormonal activation in the cascade of events that lead to chronic heart failure, and ultimately death, the following slides will review the various neurohormones and neurohormonal systems in detail, starting with their role in maintaining normal cardiovascular hemostasis, and then later their contribution to the progression of heart failure. The acute effects of neurohormonal stimulation are beneficial but the long term or chronic activation of these mechanisms is detrimental.
  11. The sympathetic nervous system’s goal is to increase cardiac sympathetic activity. This response is mediated through three receptors: Beta 1, Beta 2, and Alpha 1. In normal situations the Beta 1 receptor increases cardiac sympathetic activity. In heart failure patients, the Beta 1 and Beta 2 receptors are activated. Alpha receptors and their role is yet to be fully delineated. Beta 1, Beta 2, and Alpha 1 receptors lead to myocardial toxicity in the ventricles. Myocardial toxicity leads to decreased ejection fraction, arrhythmias, and tachyarrhythmias caused by sympathetic activation. Increase in sympathetic activity also affects the kidneys and peripheral vasculature through the Beta 1 and Alpha 1 receptors. This mediates activation of the renin-angiotensin system ( discussed on the next slide ), which causes vasoconstriction, sodium retention, and thirst. All of these responses causes the disease to progress. Prolonged neurohormone release also has direct adverse effects on the heart tissue itself. Norepinephrine, for example, is known to be directly cardiotoxic. In fact, studies have established that in patients with heart failure, the probability of survival is markedly worse for those whose plasma norepinephrine levels are &gt;400 pg/ml than for those whose levels are &lt;400 pg/ml.
  12. The other mechanism in the neurohumoral response to heart failure is the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). In the RAAS, Renin ( secreted by the kidney ) acts on Angiotensinogen (secreted by the liver) to make Angiotensin I. The Angiotensin converting enzyme (secreted by the lungs) acts on Angiotensin I to make Angiotensin II. Angiotensin II in turn causes vasoconstriction, an increase in aldosterone, facilitates the release of norepinephrine from the SNS, causes sodium reabsorption, stimulates vasopressin secretion from the brain (discussed later), and increases contractility. Subsequently, remodeling of the heart occurs. In a heart failure patient, the effects of Angiotensin II are not beneficial. Why not think about using a medication to block the conversion of Angiotensin I to II? Or, an agent that blocks the Angiotensin I receptor? These blocking agents will be discussed later when we talk about the treatment of heart failure.
  13. So, when there is a decrease in the mean arterial pressure, there is decreased renal perfusion. Hence, the RAAS is stimulated, and the MAP is increased.
  14. Another neurohormone involved in the regulation of blood pressure is vasopressin, which is also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH). Vasopressin is produced by neurons (nerve cells) in the hypothalamus of the brain which is facilitated by the formation of Angiotensin II . Once formed, it is transported to the pituitary gland (also located in the brain) for release. Secretion of vasopressin from the pituitary is regulated by two different negative feedback loops. The first is diagrammed on this slide. When central baroreceptors detect a decrease in blood pressure, fewer inhibitory impulses are sent to the hypothalamus. This stimulates the hypothalamus to produce vasopressin for release by the pituitary. The circulating vasopressin causes vasoconstriction, and thus increased blood pressure. In addition,vasopressin causes the kidneys to retain water, which in turn, leads to decreased blood concentration (i.e., increased blood volume) which also increases blood pressure.  
  15. This slide shows a summary of the compensatory neurohormonal mechanisms that occur when there is a decrease in the cardiac output. As you can see, adverse consequences occur (dotted lines) secondary to these activations. Flow chart from Pathophysiology Of Heart Disease, Second Edition, by Leonard S. Lilly, page 205.
  16. End-stage Heart Failure Continued progression of heart failure eventually leads to a critical reduction in blood flow to vital organs. In this final phase, the body maximizes all its vasoconstrictor systems (norepinephrine, vasopressin, endothelin) in an attempt to redirect blood flow to these critical organ systems. But the activation of these systems only add to the hemodynamic burden of the failing heart; thus, ventricular function progressively deteriorates, and terminal heart failure ensues.
  17. Natriuretic Peptides The third neurohormone system on our list includes the natriuretic peptides. The natriuretic peptides — ANP, BNP, and CNP-- are vasodilating neurohormones. As such, they play an important role in counter-regulating the vasoconstricting effects of other neurohormones.   These peptides are made and stored in specialized cells in the atria and ventricles, and are released when the atria are stretched (e.g., in volume overload, which distends the atria) or when the ventricles are dilated. The natriuretic peptides act directly on blood vessels to cause vasodilatation. They also have natriuretic (salt excreting) and diuretic (water excreting) effects because of their ability to inhibit the secretion of renin, aldosterone, and vasopressin.
  18. Endothelium-Derived Vasoactive Substances   These hormones are produced by a thin lining of cells within the arteries and veins called the endothelium. Most of the effects of these substances are local, meaning that they exert their effects mostly on their local environment (unlike the circulating neurohormones discussed previously that tend to have a more diffuse effect).Their actions are primarily directed at one of three targets: the endothelium itself, the underlying smooth muscle cells of blood vessel walls (which cause the vessel to constrict or dilate), or on other substances circulating nearby in the blood.   Endothelium-derived vasoactive substances that signal the blood vessels to relax (vasodilate) are called endothelium-derived relaxing factors (EDRF). Nitric oxide (NO), bradykinin, and prostacyclin are three such substances. In contrast, vasoactive substances that lead to constriction (vasoconstriction) are called endothelium-derived constricting factors (EDCF). One of the most important EDCFs is Endothelin I, which is one of the most potent vasoconstricting substances known (it also directly decreases cardiac contractility, as does nitric oxide).
  19. Cytokines The cytokines are small protein molecules that decrease the strength of contraction, and thus are known as negative inotropes. Included in this class are tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, interleukin 1-alpha, interleukin-2, interleukin-6, and interferon-alpha. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, a cytokine, is known to have deleterious effects in heart failure. TNF-alpha used to be called cachectin. It is elaborated by cancers and causes the marked cachexia seen in patients with certain forms of cancer, and likely also causes the weight loss in certain patients with heart failure. Like norepinephrine and the natriuretic peptides, increased plasma levels of TNF-alpha are associated with a poor prognosis.
  20. In addition to maintaining normal cardiovascular homeostasis, the hormones and neurohormonal systems described in the last few slides also play an important role in compensating for the diminished cardiac output seen in patients with early heart failure. But it is also known that over time, these same neurohormone systems eventually become detrimental and contribute to the progression of heart failure. Why does this happen? Physiologists now recognize that the neurohormonal mechanisms activated in heart failure are identical to those normally triggered when cardiac output and blood pressure are threatened (e.g., intense physical exercise, hemorrhage), but with an important difference. Under normal circumstances, the release of neurohormones is generally successful in reversing the hemodynamic abnormalities seen in acute low volume/low output states, and consequently, neurohormonal activity eventually subsides. In contrast, neurohormonal activation never “ turns off ” in the setting of heart failure; rather, is always “ on ” in an attempt to compensate for the failing heart ’ s chronic inability to maintain normal cardiovascular homeostasis. Furthermore, the chronic presence of circulating neurohormones tends to exacerbate the hemodynamic abnormalities in heart failure, which only encourages further remodeling and neurohormone release and, thus, further hemodynamic deterioration. Thus, a vicious cycle develops whose end result is progressive ventricular dysfunction and death.
  21. Ventricular Remodeling: Heart failure is a progressive disease, and the chronic hemodynamic stresses imparted on the failing heart eventually lead to alterations in the heart’s size, shape, structure, and function. This process is known as remodeling . As the heart remodels, its overall geometry changes; it becomes less elliptical and more spherical. There are also changes in ventricular mass, composition, and volume. Initially , the changes that occur with remodeling can be considered compensatory. For example, the dysfunctioning heart has a compromised stroke volume; thus, from a remodeling perspective, one adaptive mechanism to maintain stroke volume is to enlarge the ventricular volume (ventricular dilatation) so that a greater stroke volume results from a reduced ejection fraction. Remodeling also increases myocardial mass, resulting in increased ventricular wall thickness (hypertrophy). This added wall thickness initially helps reduce ventricular wall stress and improve contractility. It is the progressive nature of remodeling that occurs in the failing heart that eventually becomes detrimental. Continued hypertrophy and dilatation of the ventricle inevitably leads to increasing ventricular wall stress, and ongoing fibrosis of the damaged myocardium increasingly impairs contractility. Thus, the events associated with remodeling eventually become self-propagating and harmful. This remodeling is felt to cause an increase in cell death ( apoptosis). Text from the article: Images were generated by tagged magnetic resonance imaging, which offers a unique noninvasive tool for determining and displaying high-resolution 3D wall motion in patients. Two images are displayed in the Figure: on the left, a normal control patient is seen, and to the right, a patient with severe cardiomyopathy and left bundle branch morphology conduction delay is shown (each image is activated by double clicking over it with the mouse). During systolic contraction, the colors change, reflecting the distribution and timing of regional circumferential strains. Red coding corresponds to the diastolic relaxed state; shortening, by a transition from red to blue; and stretch, by red to yellow. In the normal heart, contraction is synchronous within the myocardium, with a normal symmetric distribution of negative strain (≈-20% by end-systole) across the wall. In contrast, the contraction pattern is markedly dyssynchronous in the heart with dilated cardiomyopathy. Myocardium in the septal region (green dot denotes septum) becomes first blue in early systole and then yellow (i.e., stretching) in late systole. Contraction slowly spreads to the lateral wall as the septum develops positive strains. The temporal magnitude of dyssynchrony is substantial. In this and other such patients, ventricular free wall (or biventricular) pacing with pre-excitation enhances the systolic function of the heart.
  22. Evaluating patients with heart failure requires gathering information to document the history of the patient ’ s heart failure, completing a physical examination, and obtaining laboratory and other diagnostic tests to gauge the severity of the disease. With this information, a prognosis and appropriate treatment plan can be made for the patient. This section reviews the typical historical and physical findings typically seen in a patient with heart failure. Useful laboratory and diagnostic tests will also be reviewed.
  23. All patients presenting with heart failure should undergo diagnostic evaluation that: Determines the type of cardiac dysfunction (systolic vs. diastolic) Uncovers the etiology and if it is reversible Defines the prognosis, and Guides therapy
  24. It is important to understand that the symptoms of systolic and diastolic heart failure are the same. Whether a patient has systolic or diastolic heart failure depends on the ejection fraction. If the EF is less than 40%, it is labeled systolic heart failure. If it is greater than 40%, it is labeled diastolic heart failure. Remember that almost all systolic heart failure has a component of diastolic failure. Patient symptoms must correlate to the physical signs in order for them to be diagnostic of heart failure. The symptoms of left ventricular dysfunction and the physical signs are all resultant of increased left arterial pressure, capillary pressure, and pulmonary congestion.
  25. The most common cause of Right Ventricular Failure is Left Ventricular Failure 1 . The symptoms of right ventricular dysfunction and the physical signs are due to a back flow problem and the build up of pressure in the liver, stomach, and intestines. This increase in pressure most often causes abdominal pain, leg swelling (peripheral edema), and increase in liver size (hepatomegaly). 1 Lilly, L. Pathophysiology of Heart Disease . Second Edition. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, 1998. P 202.
  26. Recent guidelines suggest that initial testing should include an ECG, chest x-ray, blood work, and echocardiography. ECG: Hypertrophy, arrhythmias, and conduction disturbances, such as an inter- or intraventricular conduction delay, are all commonly found in patients with heart failure, making the ECG an important diagnostic tool in these patients. In addition, the presence of infarct or ischemia, and the effects of certain cardiac drugs used n the treatment of heart failure can be monitored using the ECG. Chest X-ray: The chest x-ray is an important, inexpensive, and extremely useful tool in the evaluation and management of heart failure. Heart size and pulmonary congestion can be readily identified and help determine the severity of the patient ’ s heart failure. Blood Work: Laboratory blood work helps track important physiologic processes affected by heart failure, such as liver and kidney function, electrolyte balance, neurohormone levels, and drug levels, as well as reveal the presence of disorders or conditions that can lead to or exacerbate heart failure. Echocardiography: Echocardiography is probably the single most useful diagnostic test in heart failure. It uses ultrahigh frequency sound waves to evaluate the heart ’ s structure and function. The basic equipment used to perform echocardiography consists of a transducer, a computer, and a visual display unit. The transducer, which (except for transesophageal echo) is placed on the chest wall and aimed at the heart, emits ultrahigh frequency sound waves through the chest wall. Some of the sound waves bounce back towards the hand-held transducer each time they pass through an object in their path. These “ echos ” are detected by the transducer, which sends them to the computer for processing. The resulting image, called an echocardiogram, is then displayed on the video screen. Several types are echocardiography are available, including M-Mode, two-dimensional (with or without Doppler flow studies), and transesophageal echocardiography.
  27. After completing a thorough history and physical exam, physicians will commonly use the New York Heart Association (NYHA) functional classification to help describe the degree of physical disability a patient has. The NYHA class is also commonly used to determine entry criteria for patients participating in clinical research trials.
  28. A new approach to the classification of HF emphasizing both the evolution and progression of the disease recognizes that there are established risk factors and structural prerequisites for the development of HF, and that therapeutic interventions performed even before the appearance of LV dysfunction or symptoms can reduce the morbidity and mortality of HF. Hunt, SA, Baker, DW, Chin, MH, Cinquegrani MP, Feldman AM, Francis GS, Ganiats TG, Goldstein S, Gregoratos G, Jessup ML, Noble RJ, Packer M, Silver MA, Stevenson LW. ACC/AHA guidelines for the evaluation and management of chronic heart failure in the adult: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines, 2001.
  29. As you can see from this diagram, heart failure is difficult to manage chronically. When a heart failure patient moves from a compensated state to a decompensated state, their symptoms increase. Subsequently, their medications are adjusted, and often hospitalization is required. After diuresis, the patient typically moves back to a compensated state until something occurs, such as eating too much salt, etc., which pushes them back to a decompensated state.
  30. The treatment of heart failure has changed considerably over the past decade, primarily because we now understand the importance of neurohormonal activation in the progression of this disease. In this section we will learn about the treatment of heart failure; however, the focus will be on the ever-expanding armamentarium the pharmacologic agents used to treat this disease. [Note: The material discussed in this section is based on the ACC/AHA Practice Guidelines 2001, Circulation December 2001.] General Measures: An important part of heart failure management is identifying and treating factors that are known to encourage heart failure and its progression. This often requires encouraging patients to adopt lifestyle changes to address these factors. Lifestyle Modifications: Weight Reduction — Obese patients should lose weight Smoking — Smokers should stop smoking Alcohol — Excessive alcohol use, and the use of other cardiotoxic substances, should be avoided Exercise — Improve physical conditioning where appropriate
  31. Digoxin Digoxin has been used in the management of heart failure for more than 200 years, yet it wasn ’ t formally approved by the FDA for this indication until 1997. Digoxin enhances inotropy (contractility) of cardiac muscle and, at the same time, reduces activation of the SNS and RAAS. These neurohormonal effects are sustained during prolonged treatment with digoxin. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials such as PROVED (Prospective Randomized Study of Ventricular Failure and the Efficacy of Digoxin) and RADIANCE (Randomized Assessment of Digoxin and Inhibitors of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme) have shown that long-term therapy with digoxin reduces symptoms and increases exercise tolerance 1 . These two trials demonstrated that “ patients with mild to moderate chronic heart failure due to left ventricular systolic dysfunction, who are clinically stable on either maintenance therapy of Digoxin and diuretics (PROVED), or with additional background therapy with ACE Inhibitors (RADIANCE), are at considerable risk for clinical deterioration if Digoxin is withdrawn. ” 2 Unfortunately, the Digoxin Investigation Group (DIG) Trial demonstrated that digoxin had no effect on mortality; however, digoxin did reduce the hospitalization rate for decompensated heart failure 3 . The ACC/AHA Guidelines support the use of digoxin in conjunction with diuretics, an ACE inhibitor, and a beta-blocker in patients with LV systolic dysfunction who remain symptomatic despite treatment with an ACE inhibitor and a beta-blocker, and in those in whom heart failure is accompanied by rapid atrial fibrillation.The usual digoxin dose is 0.125-0.25 mg per day , and should be adjusted for age, renal function, and body mass. The Guidelines note that although the adverse effects of digoxin, such as cardiac arrhythmias and gastrointestinal and neurologic complaints, occur primarily at high doses, these higher doses are usually not necessary to achieve clinical benefits in patients with heart failure. 1 Young, J. Clinical Management of Heart Failure . Professional Communications, Inc. 2001. p 97. 2 McMurray, J and Cleland, J. Heart Failure in Clinical Practice . Second Edition. Martin Dunitz Ltd. p 232. 3 Young, J., p. 111
  32. Most patients with heart failure require a diuretic to relieve fluid retention. In addition to rapidly decreasing symptoms such as pulmonary congestion and peripheral edema, diuretics improve exercise tolerance and facilitate the use of other drugs indicated for heart failure. Treatment with a diuretic is generally started at a low dose and then gradually tapered upward until a threshold dose is established. Some patients with heart failure can be taught to adjust their diuretic dose themselves based on changes in body weight, which should be monitored daily. After fluid retention has resolved, diuretic therapy is continued to prevent its recurrence. Electrolyte depletion is a frequent complication of long-term diuretic therapy; therefore, electrolyte levels need to be monitored frequently during initial stages of therapy and after increases in diuretic dose. Diuretics are usually used along with ACE inhibitors and beta-blockers in heart failure, and should never be used alone. Increased doses of diuretics have been associated with increased mortality.
  33. Angiotensin Converting Enzyme (ACE) inhibitors are recommended for all heart failure patients, whether they are symptomatic or not. Use of ACE inhibitors relieves symptoms and improves exercise tolerance in patients with chronic heart failure. Data from placebo-controlled trials show that ACE inhibitors can also reduce the risk of death and disease progression in heart failure patients. The benefits of ACE inhibitor therapy may not become apparent for 1-2 months after initiation of treatment. But even in the absence of symptomatic improvement, continued long-term ACE inhibitor therapy is recommended to reduce the risk of death or hospitalization. Most patients with heart failure tolerate long-term ACE inhibitor therapy. Potential side effects include a decrease in blood pressure, transient worsening of kidney function, hyperkalemia, and chronic cough. Angioedema, a disorder characterized by the development of large, edematous areas of the skin, mucous membranes, and organs, is an infrequent, but life-threatening complication of ACE inhibition, and obviously, ACE inhibitors should not be used in patients with a history of this condition. Enalapril (Vasotec) and Captopril (Capoten), have been shown to decrease mortality in large heart failure clinical trials. For this reason, these two are typically the drugs of choice.
  34. Beta-Blockers Beta-blockers exert their cardioprotective effects through blockade of excessive sympathetic stimulation of the myocardium, peripheral vasculature, and kidneys. While a short-term fall in myocardial contractility is to be expected, it is usually followed by a rise in ejection fraction over the next 1-3 months of use. In the past, beta-blockers were believed to be contraindicated in patients with heart failure because of the LV depression that occurs with short-term use. More recently, the favorable long-term effects of beta-blockade on the heart have been recognized, and the ACC/AHA guidelines support the use of beta-blockers for patients with stable NYHA Class I, II or III heart failure related to LV systolic dysfunction. Beta-blockers are generally well-tolerated. Hypotension associated with dizziness, light-headedness, or blurred vision may occur within the first few days of treatment, but tends to subside with continued drug administration. Decreases in heart rate and alterations in cardiac conduction produced by beta-blockers may also lead to to bradycardia or heart block. These changes can be severe, causing symptomatic hypotension, especially when high doses are used. In these cases, the dose must be reduced or discontinued if the condition persists. Carvedilol (COPERNICUS Trial), bisoprolol (CIBIS-II Trial), and metoprolol CR/XL (MERIT-HF Trial) have all shown to decrease mortality in patients with mild to severe HF 1 . Currently, carvedilol and metoprolol-CR/XL are the only FDA approved beta-blockers for HF patients. 1 Young, J. Clinical Management of Heart Failure . Professional Communications, Inc. 2001. pp 96, 100, 178.
  35. Aldosterone Antagonists Spironolactone, long known for its potassium-sparing diuretic effects, is an aldosterone antagonist, and the only aldosterone antagonist available for clinical use in the US. The RALES study (Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study), a multi-center mortality trial examined the effect of adding low-dose spironolactone to standard diuretic/ACE inhibitor therapy in HF (NYHA Class III and IV patients) has shown to reduce mortality in heart failure patients 1 . ACC/AHA Guidelines recommends the use of spironolactone in patients with severe HF. The role of spironolactone in patients with mild to moderate HF has not been defined, and use of the drug cannot be recommended in such individuals 2 . Hyperkalemia is a concern. Serum potassium and creatinine should be closely monitored, and patients with a potassium level &gt;5 or creatinine &gt;2.5 should not be treated with spironolactone. While therapy with spironolactone is generally well-tolerated, about 9% of patients in the Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study experienced gynecomastia (swelling of the mammary glands in the male). 1 McMurray, J and Cleland, J. Heart Failure in Clinical Practice . Second Edition. Martin Dunitz Ltd. p 101. 2 Hunt, SA, et al ACC/AHA Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Chronic Heart Failure in the Adult, 2001 pp 23-24
  36. Angiotensin Receptor Blockers Angiotensin receptor blockers, or “ ARBs, ” are the newest class of drugs to be promoted as a potential treatment for patients with heart failure. ARBs are most often given when a patient cannot tolerate an ACEI. To understand how these unique drugs work, we must first take a closer look at angiotensin II and and the receptors that bind it. Angiotensin II, as we learned previously in this program, is produced from angiotensin I by the action of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE). As we now know, angiotensin II has a number of potentially adverse effects that contribute to the development and progression of HF, including vasoconstriction, salt and water retention, and activation of the SNS. In addition, angiotensin II is associated with collagen deposition, fibrosis, and myocardial and vascular hypertrophy, which contribute to cardiac remodeling. The effects of angiotensin II throughout the body are mediated via two receptor subtypes, designated AT 1 and AT 2, which bind angiotensin II. The AT 1 receptor has been extensively studied, and has been shown to be widely distributed in the vasculature, heart, kidneys, adrenal glands, and brain. The AT 1 receptor subtype is responsible for most of the physiologic effects of angiotensin II on blood pressure, salt and water balance, and cell growth, and therefore plays a central role in the pathogenesis of heart failure.
  37. These drugs for HF are still under clinical investigation and have not been proven better than or equal to ACE inhibitors. Angiotensin receptor blockers bind to AT1. These receptors are widely distributed in the heart and appear responsible for the mediation of all the classical effects of Angiotensin II. 1 1 McMurray, J and Cleland, J. Heart Failure in Clinical Practice . Second Edition. Martin Dunitz Ltd. p 199.
  38. Stages (as classified in ACC/AHA guidelines) in the evolution of heart failure and recommended therapy Hunt, SA, Baker, DW, Chin, MH, Cinquegrani MP, Feldman AM, Francis GS, Ganiats TG, Goldstein S, Gregoratos G, Jessup ML, Noble RJ, Packer M, Silver MA, Stevenson LW. ACC/AHA guidelines for the evaluation and management of chronic heart failure in the adult: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines, 2001.