Dr. William Allan Kritsonis earned his BA in 1969 from Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington. In 1971, he earned his M.Ed. from Seattle Pacific University. In 1976, he earned his PhD from the University of Iowa. In 1981, he was a Visiting Scholar at Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, and in 1987 was a Visiting Scholar at Stanford University, Palo Alto, California. In June 2008, Dr. Kritsonis received the Doctor of Humane Letters, School of Graduate Studies from Southern Christian University. The ceremony was held at the Hilton Hotel in New Orleans, Louisiana

1. Philosophical Perspectives in Education
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Questions for Consideration
1. How can philosophical inquiry aid the educational leader in examining
problems and decisions facing education in general, and a district or a
campus in particular?
2. How is it possible for educational leaders to create educational theories
and even policies from examining and extrapolating from the various
philosophical systems?
3. How can the study of philosophy, viewed from an educational focus,
stimulate teachers and administrators to think about education in general
terms and for the general good of students; and how will these studies
help to avert empty promises of panaceas, or the lure of subscribing to
propagandistic slogans which mean little to the goals of education?
4. The eleven educational philosophies/theories discussed in this chapter
can be clustered into two major groups. The philosophies within these
groups have strong parallels and the general comparisons can simplify
the process of identifying them. Make a “t-chart” with a “traditional”
heading on one side and “non-traditional” on the other. Place each of the
philosophies on one side or the other as you read.

2. This chapter is a summary of the major philosophical perspectives in
education. The purpose of this chapter is to assist the reader in relearning,
classifying, comparing, contrasting, and analyzing these philosophical
perspectives. Ultimately, self-analysis and self-evaluation of our own
philosophies of leadership and teaching will result in more deliberate,
purposeful decision making in relation to our visions and goals. The chapter
is divided into the following sections: 1) Potential questions to consider for
preparation for the Comprehensive exams. Our final exam for the
Philosophical Perspectives class had six excellent question, of which I have
included three that have the most likely application to our daily practice as
educators; 2) key terms and definitions; 3) an introduction on why educators
should study philosophy; 4) Idealism; 5) Realism; 6) Naturalism; 7)
Pragmatism; 8) Progressivism; 9) Existentialism; 10) Essentialism; 11)
Perennialism; 12) Social Reconstructionism; 13) Critical Theory; 14)
suggested follow-up activities for application to your personal experiences;
and 15) internet links to relevant sites for each of the philosophies.
Introduction: Why Study Philosophy?
The great philosophers have struggled with the dualistic dilemma of
mind and body for thousands of years. Educators, too, have a dualistic
dilemma between theory and practice: The classroom theories of

3. professional training and thought, to the classroom practice of professional
action. Gerald Gutek, in Philosophical and Ideological Perspectives on
Education, writes that “theory without practice is insufficient; practice
unguided by theory is aimless” (1). The purpose of studying philosophical
perspectives in education is, ideally, to give aim to the myriad of “practices”
that are being proposed in our current era of educational reform.
When we talk about “philosophy” we are talking about how one views
the world. Every philosophy has an ontology (a view of what reality is), an
epistemology (a view of how we know about that reality), and an axiology
(those concepts that are valued within this reality). How one view’s reality
(ontology) shapes his/her beliefs about knowledge (epistemology). A
particular perspective of reality assumes, or is based on, specific conceptions
of human nature. This chapter’s summary of philosophical perspectives in
education will focus on Idealism, Realism, Thomism, Naturalism,
Pragmatism, Progressivism, Existentialism, Essentialism, Perennialism,
Social Reconstructivism, and Critical Theory.
“Education” refers to the process of enculturation of a society’s young
into the cultural life of the community. This enculturation happens
informally in the society through the family, church, media, government,
and peers. It also occurs more formally in the school setting. Therefore,

4. philosophers have long recognized the importance of the interaction between
human beings and society. Education, then, is the transmission of values.
The powerful philosophies that have transcended time have also shaped our
view of the world and our view of human nature, and, therefore, our view of
education. The perspective of a philosophy in education must be discussed
in terms other than ontology, epistemology, and axiology. It must
investigate how reality is taught, how truth is taught, why schools exist,
what should be taught (the curriculum), the role of the teacher, the role of
the student, and the school’s attitude toward change.
Two and a half years ago, Cohort VIII presented in depth self-
analyses of leadership style and teaching style in terms of the major
philosophical “isms” mentioned above. To a person, we were amazed at
how our “personal philosophies” were actually a combination of many, if
not all, of the “isms” in one way or another. An analysis of one class period
would likely reveal many of the “isms” being implemented, often
contradictory ones. How does this ‘meritage’ of philosophical ideas survive
in our supposedly rational minds? The study of philosophical perspectives
as systems of thought require us to use the scientific method of analysis to
pull apart the numerous world-views that have been proposed in order to
understand the individual parts more clearly. It is like an inquisitive

5. youngster who takes apart the lawnmower to understand how it works. In
one pile of parts he/she investigates the workings of the ignition system.
Another pile contains parts that deal with the rotation of the blade. A study
of the individual parts allows for a deeper understanding of how the entire
lawnmower interacts as a system when it is put back together again.
Similarly, in this chapter, we will pull out the different philosophical
perspectives in education with the hope of having a better understanding of
ourselves when they are reassembled. It is this reflective process that creates
consciousness of the theories that underpin our practices. With this
awareness we can evaluate our practices as teachers and administrators
within the context of the educational missions of our district, state, and
nation. In this way, philosophy of education can help us avoid “promises of
panaceas or … propagandistic slogans…” and “encourage teachers to
examine and to formulate the broad personal and professional goals that
should guide educational practice” (Gutek, 10). How appropriate that
Plato’s famous line of “know thyself” is also the purpose of this inquiry.
We must know ourselves as educators in order for our practice to have aim!
Idealism
In Socrates’ and Plato’s era, those known as Sophists proposed one of
the dominant theories of philosophical ethics. The word sophist stimulates

6. thoughts of “sophomore” (wise fool) and “sophistry” (deceitful
argumentation), but simply stated it was a belief in the relativity of beliefs
about concepts such as truth, beauty, and good. The sophists argued for
situational ethics, which means that truth, beauty, and good change based on
the experiential circumstances of the individual. Therefore, ethics will
change when circumstances change. The sophists believed that education
could be achieved through specialized vocational or professional training
that fit the individual. The emphasis was on specialization.
From a modern anthropological perspective, the sophists have much
in common with our society’s efforts to foster cultural understanding,
religious tolerance, and even acceptance of economically influenced social
behaviors. The term “situational ethics” stirs images of “situational
leadership”, not so much in a consistency of beliefs but in the procedural
interactions with changing circumstances. The Sophists claim that changing
experiences and circumstances impacts ethics. This view hints of
‘primordial’ existentialism. A strong argument can be made that the
Sophists were professing a world-view similar to the more eloquent writings
of later existentialists Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Sartre.
As a student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle, the Greek
philosopher Plato is considered to be the founder of the western philosophy

7. of Idealism. Socrates and Plato developed a philosophical system that
responded directly to the dominant Sophists of the day, and created the
foundation for philosophical inquiry by western civilization. Plato’s major
works include The Republic, Protagoras, and Phaedo. Plato’s Cave
Allegory, which has achieved icon status in western learning, defines reality
as the world of the mind. Plato believed that all knowledge of the universe
had an underlying unity and that through the trauma of birth humans lost
memory of this universal knowledge. Therefore, the purpose of education,
and LIFE, was to journey inward into one’s own mind to “educe”, or pull
out, the universal knowledge that existed within. Thus the famous mantra of
“know thyself.” The journey inward is achieved through the Socratic
method of questioning, and dialogue with others as a means to question
ourselves. Through such reflective questioning, Plato believed the universal
(big ‘T’) Truths could be learned.
The cave serves as a symbol for the world where people do not know
themselves, but instead only see man made shadows of ideas. Because of
the lack of inquiry about these shadows, people believe them to be (little ‘t’)
truths. For Plato, the lack of inquiry of one’s own mind results in self-
deception. Such self-deception is equated to imprisonment as the people of
the cave are chained. Freedom is achieved through the arduous journey out

8. of the cave to the light where the universal Truths will be understood. At
that point, the newly “enlightened” philosopher should return to the cave to
lead, guide, and rescue others. The parallels to western religion and teaching
are astounding. God/Allah/Yahweh is a universal Being and All Knowing
often represented as the light that will lead mankind from darkness. Yet He
lives “within” everyone and individually people must seek Him. This
journey can be difficult and may require difficult changes in a person’s life
and lifestyle. When an individual becomes enlightened to this Universal
Knowledge, he or she should return to lead, guide, and rescue others.
Christianity and Islam in particular have evangelical elements that have
made them two of the most prolific religions in the world.
Plato’s impact on western philosophy reaches far into history to our
modern times, which is why subsequent philosophical perspectives in
education will have elements that are similar to Plato’s Idealism and other
philosophies in between. Nietzsche, regardless of personal opinions of his
work, offers a good definition of knowledge: “the strength of knowledge
does not depend on its degree of truth but on its age, on the degree to which
it has been incorporated…” (The Gay Science, 169-70).
The ontology (what is reality) of Plato is the world of the mind. It is
in the world of the mind where one sees universal Truths or the shadowy

9. truths. Plato’s epistemology (how do we know) is that ideas are universal
and therefore consistent, allowing knowledge to be recognized like a
reminiscence of the universal ideas that exist within all of our minds.
Idealist axiology (values) is the imitation of the ideal self or emulation of an
‘enlightened’ persona. Based on the Idealist ontology, epistemology, and
axiology, we can understand the Idealist perspective in education. To teach
reality Idealists teach subjects that inquire about the mind such as literature,
philosophy, and religion. Teaching Truth is accomplished through teaching
ideas using lecture and discussion. Lecture and discussion as a teaching
method is consistent with the role of the teacher as a person to be emulated,
the enlightened one, and that goodness is taught through the imitation of
heroes and exemplars. The Idealist educator believes strongly in his or her
role as an exemplar for students. The purpose of a school’s existence is to
sharpen minds and the intellectual process so that students can learn the
“wisdom of the ages” (the Idealist curriculum). The great works that profess
the wisdom of the ages in themselves become exemplars of intellectual
thinking to be emulated. The role of the student is to receive and memorize
knowledge. Students do not create knowledge because knowledge already
exists universally. From an Idealist perspective, since Truth cannot be
changed it must be preserved which means that an Idealist school would be

10. against changes that threaten the pursuit of the world of the mind. The
Conservatism of Edmund Burke in the 18th century is a more modern
application of Idealism in that he reacted against the revolutionary changes
of his century. He believed in the “accumulated wisdom of the human race,
as a force for social stability” (Gutek, 198).
Realism
Plato’s greatest student was also his greatest critic. After studying
under Plato, Aristotle challenged the Idealist ontology of the world of the
mind as a result of his scientific inquiries into the natural world. Aristotle
created a hierarchy of nature. At the bottom were inanimate objects, such as
rocks, and progressively ranking plant and animal life forms with humans at
the top. What placed humans at the top, according to Aristotle, was the
ability to reason. Aristotle has been called the “Father of Science” because
of his methodical inquiries into the natural world, but when such methods
are built on Plato’s emphasis of self-inquiry, these two Greek philosophers
created a methodology for philosophical inquiry that has permeated the last
two thousand years. Philosophical inquiry has become self-examination
using the scientific method of inquiry. Aristotle’s scientific study of
material, objective reality did not completely disregard his Idealist teacher.
Aristotle believed that humans also possessed a soul, or mind, thus setting

11. up the great philosophical dilemma about the duality of human nature (mind
and body). Aristotle believed that humankind had the goal to progress
toward happiness, which could be achieved through the sharpening of
reason.
The ontology (reality) for Realism is a world of things.
Epistemologically (how we know), Realists use their senses of observation.
Unlike Idealism, Realism believes that the universal “Truths” exist in front
of us. We don’t discover those “Truths” through reflective inquiry, but
through the application of scientific reasoning. The axiology of Realism
(values), therefore, is the laws of nature that can be revealed through the
application of scientific reason. Teaching reality is done through subjects of
the physical world such as math and science. The purpose of a school’s
existence, then, is to reveal the order of the world and universe, and the
curriculum should teach the laws of physical reality. The curriculum should
also include liberal arts, which sharpen the development of rationality. The
role of the Realist teacher is to display and impart knowledge while the
student manipulates the knowledge and is at best a passive participant.
Since Realists believe that humankind is working toward a “goal”, change is
seen as positive as long as it is orderly. Truth in the Realist school would be
taught for “mastery of information” with the ability to demonstrate or recite

12. learned material. Basic intellectual access to knowledge is necessary in
order for scientific reasoning that requires problem solving, analysis, and
evaluation.
The Theistic Realism of Thomas Aquinas in the 13th century was an
important step in the survival of Realism in the Age of Faith. Aquinas’
Summa Theologiae successfully argued that reason and faith are
complimentary rather than contradictory as he attempted to synthesize
Aristotle’s philosophy with Christian doctrines. Like Aristotle, Aquinas saw
humankind working toward a greater good on earth, but added that the
ultimate good was the experience of being in the presence of God. Reason
was necessary for the implementation of free will. The ontology,
epistemology, and axiology of Theistic Realism are the same as Realism, but
there are some variations in the perspective of Theistic Realism, or
Thomism, in education. Thomists believe that human beings should
cultivate both spirituality and reason. Aquinas noted that knowledge does
not necessarily lead to morality, so moral education should require the use of
reason to recognize and evaluate “courses of action” (Gutek, 54). Moral
education is an issue that our schools are currently dealing with. Some
politicians believe/argue that poor test scores are a reflection of lower moral
standards. A Thomist would assert that the parent is the primary educator of

13. a child because they cultivate the “values that support morality, religion, and
education” (Gutek, 56). Research has been accumulating to support the
importance of the role of parental involvement in the academic achievement
of a child, and the influence of home life situations that support a child’s
academic endeavors, or identifies him/her as “at-risk.” Finally, the Thomist
teacher “should be a skilled communicator…” using words correctly, and
communicating within the realm of the student’s experience. The Thomist
teacher should lead a student to new educational outcomes based on what
the student already knows, which requires “careful structuring and
organizing of lessons” (Gutek, 57). Essentially, an orderly, rational
approach to the lesson will lead the student forward. For many Thomists,
and many teachers today, teaching comes from a love of learning and a call
“to serve humanity” (Gutek, 57).
Naturalism
Idealists, Realists, and Thomists have clear lines of demarcation from
one another, but the development of Naturalism in the early 18th century, and
it’s evolution in to the late 19th century, reveals a new view of human nature.
The three primary Naturalists are Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Heinrich
Pestalozzi, and Herbert Spencer. Rousseau often revealed a romantic view
of human nature, Pestalozzi retained a belief in God, and Spencer adapted

14. Darwin’s evolutionary theories into a competitive ethical system (Gutek,
63). Despite these differences, Naturalists share three common beliefs: 1)
“one must look to nature and to human nature, as part of the natural order,
for the purposes of education”, 2) we understand nature “through the
senses”, and 3) because “nature’s processes are slow…education also should
be unhurried” (Gutek, 63).
The ontology (reality) for Naturalism is nature itself. Naturalists
believe that human nature is defined by the interaction of human beings with
their environment, therefore, “there is no single order of reality” (Gutek, 63).
The subjectivity of human nature is thus introduced … a clear separation
from the objectivity of Idealism and Realism. If human nature is defined
through interaction with nature, the epistemology (how we know) of
Naturalism is observing results using the scientific method of inquiry. A
child can learn how to do something through trial and error. The axiology
(values) of Naturalism is to harmonize one’s life more closely with nature.
Notice how harmony with nature as a goal has replaced Plato’s universal
Truths, Aristotle’s happiness, and Aquinas’ presence of God. Teaching the
reality of Naturalism, if reality is nature itself, is achieved by observation of
nature. Nature will teach us what is real and truth can be learned through
experiences and discoveries, and interactions with others. Nature is the

15. teacher. The role of the ‘human teacher’ is that of a facilitator that
verbalizes little, focuses on the child’s growth development, and allows the
child to discover in a self-directed, unhurried pace. The role of the
Naturalist teacher is also very different from that of the verbal teacher in
Idealism, Realism, and Thomism. The Naturalist student is involved and
interactive rather than a passive receptacle of pre-existing knowledge. In
this context, schools exist to provide ‘guidance’ over a twenty-year period
until the student develops the habit of being a life long learner. The
curriculum should consist of practical subjects that allow for the mastery of
nature. Naturalist educators see change as a part of nature but warn of the
role of society in the development of character. Since character
development is currently a hot educational issue, it is interesting to note that
Rousseau clarified the difference between two types of self-esteem. The
first was amour de soi, or the intrinsic love of being, and amour propre, or
pride. Rousseau believed that intrinsic love of being could be learned from
nature, but pride and selfishness would be learned from society. Here, the
issue of self-esteem has entered the education lexicon, and would remain a
critical element of educational perspectives up to today.
Pestalozzi (1747-1827) is believed to be the Naturalist who had the
greatest impact on the development of American schools. His life coincided

16. with the events of the French Revolution and the early nation building of the
young United States. As with Rousseau, Pestalozzi likely received a
traditional education founded on the principles of Idealism and Realism.
Therefore, elements of both will be evident in Naturalism. Like the Realists,
Pestalozzi believed that reason was the key to understanding the natural laws
of the universe. The purpose of studying those laws is where he and the
other Naturalists differed. Pestalozzi argued that children are naturally good
and are only corrupted by society. Therefore, children could be made to be
good through education in spite of their parents and society. In the inner
cities and impoverished rural areas of the United States, the belief of
education as an equalizer, as a tool to create “good” people regardless of
sociological background, is central to the belief that education is critical to
democracy (as argued by Thomas Jefferson and Horace Mann).
Darwin’s Origin of Species, an example of the use of reason to
discover the natural law of specie diversification, inadvertently brought forth
a new twist on Naturalism. Evolutionary Naturalism became popular in its
argument that humankind successfully adapted to a changing natural
environment. Herbert Spencer, however, transferred the natural law to
society, arguing that individuals and even nations compete for survival, and
only the most fit will adapt to the changing social environment being created

17. by the industrial revolution. Spencer saw education as preparation for a
competitive world and emphasized early identification of skills and talents to
determine where a child’s energies could produce the most beneficial
education for his survival. The undemocratic language of such beliefs is
perhaps one of the reasons that “tracking” as an educational practice, is
considered unethical.
Naturalism took several turns, all of which have influenced our
educational practices, yet the primary contribution is the perspective that
nature (environment) influences the development of human beings (physical,
intellectual, and social). Naturalism serves as a springboard for perhaps the
most influential philosophy in American education; John Dewey’s
Pragmatism, and the introduction of human development as a psychological
process resulting from interaction with a subjective environment.
Pragmatism
Pragmatism is the first educational philosophy credited to American
origin. Despite the demarcation from Idealism, Realism, and Thomism to
Naturalism, these philosophies shared a common view of reality, “in which
truth is a priori, or prior to and independent of human experience” (Gutek,
78). Even the Naturalists who leaned more toward subjectivity believed in
natural laws that could be discovered through reason. Naturalism can be

18. understood as a bridge between the traditional philosophies of Idealism and
Realism, and Pragmatism. Pragmatism took a step in a different direction in
that it asserted that “truth was … derived from human experience” (Gutek,
78). Gutek argues that Pragmatism is an expression of America’s frontier
experience from the preceding century (1800’s) in which success was
“judged in terms of the consequences that came from transforming the
environment for human purposes” (79). Pragmatism developed in the social
atmosphere of the Industrial Revolution in the last forty years of the 19th
century. Despite the enormous wealth and the growing reputation of
America as the land of financial opportunity, underneath the gild of gold
were the social side effects of industrialization: child labor, filthy tenements,
political corruption, proliferation of disease, toxic food and drugs, a rising
consciousness of social stratification, and undemocratic conduct by big
business and government. The political Progressive movement that
addressed the social problems of industrial America was the backdrop of
John Dewey’s Pragmatism. Progressives set out to change society through
social reform. Dewey, like the American frontiersmen and pioneers that
expanded west, believed in practical application of ideas. Therefore, Dewey
believed that philosophy should solve human problems.

19. Although Dewey would later disagree with the Progressive
perspective of education, he was himself a Progressive, and he believed he
had a mission to “make the earth a better place to live, by reform and
education” (Gutek, 80). One of the earliest influences on Dewey was his
colleague George Herbert Mead. Mead developed a theory that children
learn through play, and thus, early childhood education could use play as a
connection to later activities, such as work (Gutek, 81). Like the Naturalists,
Dewey believed that a child learns through interaction with his/her
environment (a social environment in this case, rather than nature). For
Dewey’s philosophy of Pragmatism, the ontology (reality) is a world of
experiences. His epistemology (how we know) is still based on sensations,
but is subjective in that individuals experience sensations differently. In
Pragmatism, the school serves a social function for society by providing a
place where “children’s individual tendencies were to be directed toward
cooperative living in the school community” (Gutek, 82). The curriculum
required the “language, skills, and knowledge common to group life” and,
therefore, makes education “a deliberate process of bringing the immature
person into cultural participation by providing the necessary symbolic and
linguistic tools needed for group interaction and communication” (Gutek,
93). In this way, education serves the purpose of transmitting cultural skills,

20. knowledge, and values to perpetuate the cultural heritage. However, for
Dewey this meant providing the students with the skills, knowledge, and
values to improve social conditions. Subjects include social sciences such as
history and geography, organized sciences, and “making and doing” (Gutek,
99). Dewey’s Pragmatism closed the gap between theory and practice
(thought and action). The curriculum of Pragmatism is one of “making and
doing.” Modern examples of this are not “hands-on” activities as is often
assumed. A better example would be a “hands-on” project that requires the
cooperation of several students.
In the Pragmatist perspective of education, the student is an active
participant and contributes to the learning process. Dewey believed that
teacher questioning (as is the tradition of Idealism and Realism) imposed
external discipline. Instead, activities are problem oriented and required
self-direction and self-discipline. The teacher became a resource person, or
a guide. The role of the teacher is similar to Naturalism, but Dewey’s
Pragmatic student had more focused objectives in his/her learning than
Rousseau’s.
Because of Dewey’s Laboratory School, Pragmatism is also referred
to as Experimentalism. In this phrase we understand the axiology (values)
of Pragmatism. Commonly known as “the public test”, Dewey argued that

21. how children conducted themselves in the greater society would be a
measurable, pragmatic consequence of their education. As a member of a
society that was experiencing massive immigration in the late 1800’s and
early 1900’s, Dewey was a “moral relativist.” He believed that hierarchical
arrangements of value systems in his modern world created the need to
resolve cross-cultural conflicts. Gutek writes that “the basis of
Experimentalist valuation was found in human preferences, wants, wishes,
desires, and needs” (92). Dewey’s axiology is still relevant today with a
world wide, digitally based economy about to blossom. Americans no
longer wait for the world to come to them; the Internet takes Americans to
the world. The problem of cultural conflict, in Pragmatism, offers a society
the opportunity for “growth of social intelligence and enrichment” (Gutek,
92). Teaching “Truth” through Pragmatism is done through problem solving
and projects, both of which are seen as the basis of social progress.
Progressivism
Progressivism, like Pragmatism, has a strong foothold in Naturalism
while at the same time looking for ways to improve and perfect human
environments by applying intelligence and the scientific method. Human
beings, in this context, are capable of ‘progress’. Progressivism in education
is part of Progressivism in the United States. Progressives such as Woodrow

22. Wilson, Theodore Roosevelt, Jane Adams, and Upton Sinclair (to name a
few) used their position as educated citizens to fight the corruptions of
industrial society. Progressives were sometimes called ‘muckrakers’ for
their strategy of digging up unseemly stories of corporate giants. Dewey
would eventually criticize Progressive education as a reaction to traditional
education (Idealism, Realism, and Thomism). That is why Dewey
developed philosophy with pragmatic applications.
The ontology (reality) of Progressivism is that through interaction
with the environment, people grow and develop. Progressive epistemology
(how we know) states that knowledge is the outcome of inquiry and
interaction. Progressive axiology (values) is anything that promotes growth.
Progressives teach their view of reality with subject matter that is associated
with the personal experiences of the children and through interaction with
the environment. This sounds very similar to the Constructivist theory of
learning. Schools exist, for the Progressivist, to serve as a laboratory for
experimentation because the focus is on the growth of the child and not on
the subject matter. The curriculum is similar to Dewey’s Pragmatism in that
there is a focus on group activities, experiences, problem solving, and
projects. The Progressive teacher serves as a resource person and facilitator
of knowledge while the student is free to develop naturally through active

23. participation. Progressives, like the Naturalists, believed in a child-centered
curriculum. Finally, since the Progressive reality is growth and
development, Progressives are receptive to change in schools that are
associated with the needs of child growth and development.
Existentialism
While Dewey, as a citizen of the Industrial Revolution, wanted
Pragmatism to prepare children to make society better, Existentialism that
began approximately around the same time wanted to free the individual
from “the herd, the crowd, or the mass society” of the Industrial Age (Gutek,
108). Like the Pragmatists, the Existentialists recognized that
industrialization brought as many ills to civilization as it did benefits.
Prominent Existentialists of the 19th century include Soren Kierkegaard,
Freidrich Nietzsche, and Fyodor Dostoyevsky. In the 20th century, Martin
Heidegger and Jean-Paul Sartre have written some of the most influential
works. Overall, however, Existentialism is not so much a system of thought
as it is a philosophical perspective (Gutek, 107).
Where Dewey’s Pragmatism argued that truth was based on human
experience, the Existentialists argued that truth IS subjectivity (the title of
Kierkegaard’s famous work). In the search for absolutes, or big “T” truths,
Existentialists argue that the only truth that exists for all humankind is that

24. each individual lives a completely subjective life, with a world-view based
on that individual’s personal experiences. Previous philosophies held the
belief that humankind had an essence prior to existence. In other words, that
there was a ‘human nature’. Existentialists take the interaction between an
individual and his/her environment to its logical conclusion by writing that
existence precedes essence. In other words, there is no human nature until
the individual is born into the world. At that point, like Rousseau and
Pestalozzi, the child is a tabla rasa, or blank slate, onto which the
experiences of life will combine and evolve into a subjective worldview,
with subjective values for that individual. Individuals can communicate
within a society because of similar experiences. However, the previous
experiences and the new experiences that are combined with and the
complex valuations that take place cannot be the same for any two
individuals.
As the Industrial Age flourished, Existentialists revolted against the
objectification of mass society. For an Existentialist, freedom of choice is a
recurring theme, and emphasis is turned from reason to ‘passion’ as a
driving force in human development. Sartre contradicts Aristotle’s belief
that people are rational creatures. Sartre argues that each person freely
chooses his/her own meaning, or essence, because there are no universal

25. truths or goals that humanity is striving toward. With this absolute freedom
of choice comes responsibility. Nietzsche wrote, in The Gay Science,
“thoughts are the shadows of our feelings – always darker, emptier, and
simpler” (203). Here Nietzsche places passion above reason because reason
is merely a tool to try to understand the complexities of human emotion…to
use words to describe the indescribable.
Existentialism, as a philosophical perspective in education, is
concerned with mass education in school systems that reflect the factory
model of the industrial era. Existentialists believe that the use of the
scientific method to analyze people breaks down “the quality of human
experience into measurable and quantified responses” (Gutek, 114). One
way for Existentialists to inquire about the human experience is a process
known as Phenomenology, which is a method of analyzing conscious
awareness of experiences of how objects or events appear to the individual.
Therefore, the Existential epistemology (how do we know) is personal,
subjective choice. The axiology (value) of an Existentialist is freedom.
Teaching the Existential reality, the world of existing, can be
accomplished through art, ethics, or philosophy. If truth is subjectivity, then
teaching truth is a process of arousing student awareness of his/her
subjectivity. This can be accomplished through Socratic questioning and

26. dialogue, but unlike the Idealists, the Existential teacher does not know the
answers, and only the student can construct the meaning. The role of the
teacher, then, is one of questioner, and assists the student’s personal journey.
The student’s role is self-determined. Despite the differences from the
ontology and epistemology of Plato’s Idealism, the role of teacher as a guide
for the student’s personal inward journey is interestingly similar. Regarding
change, Existentialism is the exact opposite of Idealism. While Idealism is
anti-change, Existentialism understands that change is required at all times.
Existentialism serves an important role in modern schools because of its role
in the development of humanistic psychology that focuses on the
development of identity rather than breaking an individual down into a set of
identifiable impulses.
Essentialism
Essentialism is an educational philosophy that involves a return to the
basic skills, arts, and sciences that have been useful in the past and will
likely be useful in the future. This theory has had a long history in the
United States and reemerges whenever the issue of school efficiency and
productivity is questioned. There are six primary themes of Essentialism: 1)
elementary curriculum should focus on reading and math literacy, 2)
secondary curriculum should focus on math, science, language, and

27. literature, 3) discipline is needed for a proper learning environment, 4)
respect for legitimate authority, 5) students must put forth effort to master
knowledge and skills, and 6) teachers must be mature and well-educated in
their subject area. The authors of A Nation at Risk would be considered
Essentialists (Gutek, 266). In this context, the last 20 years of reform as a
result of A Nation at Risk can be interpreted, in part, as an Essentialist
movement. The College Board (Advanced Placement program) produced
Academic Preparation for College, which outlined the essential skills
needed to work in college. The Advanced Placement program, therefore,
has capitalized on the Essentialist revival of late.
The ontology (reality), epistemology (how we know), and axiology
(values) of Essentialism are very similar to the traditional philosophies of
Idealism, Realism, and Thomism, while at the same time oppositional to
Naturalism, Pragmatism, and Existentialism. The ontology of Essentialism
is a world of the mind and things. The role of the Essentialist school is to
transmit cultural elements. The mission is academic not social. The
curriculum of Essentialism is subject-matter curriculum, “organized
according to carefully arranged principles of scope and sequence” (Gutek,
274). The Essentialist teacher is an academic authority figure.

28. Perennialism
The Perennialists theory of education is closely related to, and based
on Realism and Thomism. Perennialism believes that human nature is
constant. The ontology (reality) of Perennialism is a world of God and
reason. Epistemologically (how we know), Perennialists rely on the
cultivation of reason and revelation, and their axiology (values) are
rationality and intellect. Perennialism is most closely associated with the
Catholic school system. Schools exist to develop reason and reveal God’s
will, teaching the reality of a world of God and reason through disciplinary
subjects and doctrine. This statement alone explains why Perennialists are
sometimes referred to as Neo-Thomists. The curriculum of a Perennialist
school is the “great books”, or classics of the Western world. The role of the
teacher is to tell students what they need to know, or to interpret the great
books for the students. A Perennialist teacher should have a liberal arts and
science background. Like Realism, the Perennialist student is a passive
receptacle. Since human nature is a constant to the Perennialist, no real
change is needed. Perennialists, like the Essentialists, cry out against
believed erosion of academic standards. The Perennialist extends the
erosion to ethical standards as well. Social Reconstructionists argue that

29. Perennialism is nothing more than a Eurocentric ideology to support
historically dominant institutions.
Social Reconstructionism
Social Reconstructionist oppose the conservative Essentialist and
Perennialist theories regarded to be “reflective theories that mirror inherited
social patterns and values” (Gutek, 307). According to Gutek, Social
Reconstructionists claim to follow the Pragmatism of John Dewey but want
to move beyond reconstructing the individual’s experience to reconstruction
of the social and cultural experience (307). The various forms of Social
Reconstructivism that have developed share three common premises: 1) “all
philosophies, ideologies, and theories are culturally based and emerge from
specific cultural patterns, 2) culture, as a dynamic process, is growing and
changing, and 3) human beings can refashion culture so that it promotes
human growth and development” (Gutek, 307). Social Reconstructionists
reject Realism, Thomism, Essentialism, and Perennialism because they are
all based on “abstract categories of unchanging reality, human nature, truth,
and value” (Gutek, 307). In essence, Social Reconstructionists want
students to be able to evaluate the beliefs and values of their society. Those
beliefs and values that are determined to exist because of custom should be
reconstructed. Science and technology can be used to achieve goals of

30. social reconstruction and to solve the modern societal crisis of economic
inequalities based on ethnicity. Social Reconstructionists believe that
Americans have not adequately distinguished the difference between
“schooling” and “education.” Americans have a faith in the power of
schooling to solve all problems and saw it as an entity isolated from
economic, social, and political influences. The Nazi’s of Germany and
Soviet Communists demonstrated how school could be used to serve the
interests of the dominant institutions.
When Social Reconstructionists argue for using schools to create a
new social order, they often hear charges of ‘indoctrination.’
Reconstructionists, however, believe that “schools are to identify the major
social problems that contribute to the cultural crisis and are to create the
skills and attitudes that will resolve these problems” (Gutek, 319). The
ontology (reality) of Social Reconstructivism is similar to Progressive
beliefs but is rooted in cultural experiences. The epistemology (how we
know) has several overlapping principals including truth seeking as a social
consciousness, and inquiry through the ‘group mind.’ The axiology (values)
of Social Reconstructionists is social self-realization. Reality is best taught
through history, especially history that focuses on social struggle. Human
survival and education are seen as interrelated. Schools exist for

31. Reconstructivism to awaken social consciousness and to create equality in
both society and education. The curriculum, therefore, would focus on
problem solving and cooperative learning in the social sciences, such as
economics, anthropology, sociology, political science, and psychology. The
Social Reconstructivist teacher facilitates student growth through problem
solving, group activities, and cooperative learning. The student uses
problem solving as a means to achieve greater social consciousness. Finally,
the school’s attitude toward change is centered on social change since
students must develop social self-realization.
Critical Theory
Brief mention of Critical Theory is needed because of a renewed
interest in multicultural education. Critical Theorists, like the Social
Reconstructionists, argue for an agenda that would transform schools and
society. Critical Theorists see “schools, curriculum, teaching, and learning
as agencies and activities that transcend the exclusively academic and have
important political, economic, social, and educational meanings and
implications” (Gutek, 330). They argue that children of economically
disadvantaged families, and politically disorganized groups, are taught that
they live in a society where “economic, social, and political institutions are
functioning correctly” … giving legitimization to the dominant groups and

32. preserving the hegemony over the subordinate groups (Gutek, 326). Critical
Theorists argue that schools are political agencies “that empower some and
disempower others” (Gutek, 326). They call for an educational experience
that encourages cultural diversity and a curriculum that uses the students
unique multicultural experiences to “develop new skills and knowledge”
(Gutek, 328).
Terms and definitions
Axiology – That which is valued. The attempt to prescribe what is good and
right conduct.
Epistemology – The methodology of how we understand our view of reality.
The theory of knowing and knowledge.
Ontology – The nature of existence. What is real, or what is reality.
Curriculum – The knowledge considered to have the most worth, and
valuable to the student as a member of society. The organized “experiences
that a student has under the guidance and control of the school” (Gutek, 5).
Activities
1. Take a typical day in a class you teach, or taught, and evaluate the
philosophical influence behind the different elements of the lesson
presentation.

33. 2. Use the list of educational reforms created in Dr. Kester’s Educational
Innovations class and identify the philosophical perspective of the
various innovations.
3. Determine the philosophical perspective of national, state, district, and
campus mission statements.
4. Use the personalities of the school board that exist in your current district
of employment. Knowing that they are likely unaware of the myriad of
philosophies intermingled in their verbal professions of what they think is
“good for the students and district”, discuss how your awareness of
philosophical perspectives in education could assist your practice of
situational leadership.
5. Create a family tree of the philosophical perspectives reviewed in this
chapter. The family tree should reflect the major divisions and
subdivisions to create a visual of the parallels, associations, or
connections between the different philosophies.
6. After reviewing your personal self-analysis again, evaluate co-workers
and determine if your campus or district “allies” and “foes” are labeled as
such because of philosophical differences.
Internet Links
Plato
http://plato-dialogues.org/

34. Plato
http://classiclit.about.com/cs/plato/index_3.htm?iam=dpile&terms=%22Plato%22
Plato’s texts
http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_text_plato.htm?iam=dpile&terms=
%22Plato%22
Aristotle’s texts
http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_text_aristotle.htm?
iam=dpile&terms=%22Aristotle%22
Aristotle
http://ancienthistory.about.com/cs/aristotle/index.htm?iam=dpile&terms=
%22Aristotle%22
Pestalozzi
http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-pest.htm
Herbert Spencer
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/s/spencer.htm
Pragmatism and Education Power Point
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu:8050/agexed/aee501/show13/tsld059.htm
Essentialism
http://www.edst.purdue.edu/georgeoff/phil_am_ed/ESSENTIALISM.html
Philosophy as a Basis for Curriculum slide show
http://uwf.edu/coehelp/trial/ch2/tsld001.htm
History of Progressivism
http://www.ils.nwu.edu/e-for-e/nodes/NODE-86-pg.html
Summary of Some Main Points from Sartre's Existentialism and Human Emotions
http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/dbanach/sartreol.htm
Existentialist Philosophy
http://atheism.about.com/cs/existentialistphi/index.htm?iam=dpile&terms=
%22Existentialism%22

35. Existentialist Philosophers
http://atheism.about.com/cs/existentialistphi1/index.htm?iam=dpile&terms=
%22Existentialism%22
Thomism
http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/etext/thomism.htm
Critical Theory
http://www.uta.edu/huma/illuminations/
The Critical Theory of Jurgen Habermas
http://www.phy.nau.edu/~danmac/habcritthy.html