A summary from a review article about "Cross-Cultural Training：
Best Practices, Guidelines, and Research Needs" by Littrell & Sallas. Expatriate Management, International Assignment, Culture Shock, Working and Living abroad

1. Hangzhou, March 2011
Prof. Dr. Hora Tjitra & Liu Jun, Zhejiang University
Cross-­Cultural
Awareness
Training
Best Practices, Guidelines, and Research Needs

2. Data from multinational corporations (MNCs):
 10% to 50% of expatriates returning early from
their assignments.(Eschbach et al., 2001)
 Expatriates’ difficulties are costly for MNCs, rangi-ng
from $250,000 to $1 million. (Eschbach et al., 2001;
Mervosh & McCleniahan, 1997)
 The percentage of companies offering CCT incre-
ased from 30% to 60% within 10 years. (Black &
Mendenhall, 1990; R. Bennett et al.,2000)

3. Data from multinational corporations (MNCs):
 10% to 50% of expatriates returning early from
their assignments.(Eschbach et al., 2001)
 Expatriates’ difficulties are costly for MNCs, rangi-ng
from $250,000 to $1 million. (Eschbach et al., 2001;
Mervosh & McCleniahan, 1997)
 The percentage of companies offering CCT incre-
ased from 30% to 60% within 10 years. (Black &
Mendenhall, 1990; R. Bennett et al.,2000)
Have your company faced the same situations as above?
Or have you met any difficulties as an expatriate?

4. Cross-­‐Cultural
Awareness
Training
3
14
years
in
Germany
7
years
in
China
Born
and
grew
up
in
Indonesia
Prof.Dr.Hora Tjitra - Cross-cultural and Business Psychology

5. Cross-­‐Cultural
Awareness
Training
3
14
years
in
Germany
7
years
in
China
Born
and
grew
up
in
Indonesia
Prof.Dr.Hora Tjitra - Cross-cultural and Business Psychology
Dipl.-Psych.,Technical University of Braunschweig
Organizational Psychology and Human Resource Management
Dr.Phil.,University of Regensburg
Intercultural Psychology and Strategic Management
Executive Education,INSEAD
HR Management in Asia

6. The increasing demand for CCT in organizations
CCT

7. The increasing demand for CCT in organizations
Expatriates’ failure
adjustment and
organizational financial
loss
CCT

8. The increasing demand for CCT in organizations
Increasing diversity of
workplace
Expatriates’ failure
adjustment and
organizational financial
loss
CCT

9. The increasing demand for CCT in organizations
Lost opportunities and damaged
relations
Delayed productivity
Increasing diversity of
workplace
Many expatriates leave their
organization within one year after
returning.
Expatriates’ failure
adjustment and
organizational financial
loss
CCT
Expatriate’s early return
from the assignment

10. The increasing demand for CCT in organizations
Lost opportunities and damaged
relations
Use of multicultural teams
Delayed productivity
Increased organizational
diversity
Increasing diversity of
workplace
Internationalization of the
economy
Many expatriates leave their
organization within one year after
returning.
Culture’s role from corner
shop to world conflict
Expatriates’ failure
adjustment and
organizational financial
loss
CCT
Expatriate’s early return
from the assignment

11. Definition and Purpose of CCT
Cross-Cultural
Training

12. Definition and Purpose of CCT
Cross-Cultural
Training
An educative process
focused on promoting
intercultural learning
through the acquisition
of behavioral, cognitive,
and affective
competencies required
for effective interactions
across diverse cultures.
(Landis & Brislin, 1996;
Morris & Robie, 2001).

13. Definition and Purpose of CCT
Cross-Cultural
Training
An educative process
focused on promoting
intercultural learning
through the acquisition
of behavioral, cognitive,
and affective
competencies required
for effective interactions
across diverse cultures.
(Landis & Brislin, 1996;
Morris & Robie, 2001).
D
evelop
m
eta-
cognitive
strategies

14. Definition and Purpose of CCT
Cross-Cultural
Training
An educative process
focused on promoting
intercultural learning
through the acquisition
of behavioral, cognitive,
and affective
competencies required
for effective interactions
across diverse cultures.
(Landis & Brislin, 1996;
Morris & Robie, 2001).
D
evelop
m
eta-
cognitive
strategies
Develop self-
maintenance
skills

15. Definition and Purpose of CCT
Cross-Cultural
Training
An educative process
focused on promoting
intercultural learning
through the acquisition
of behavioral, cognitive,
and affective
competencies required
for effective interactions
across diverse cultures.
(Landis & Brislin, 1996;
Morris & Robie, 2001).
D
evelop
m
eta-
cognitive
strategies
Develop self-
maintenance
skills
Developinterpersonalskills

16. Definition and Purpose of CCT
Improve an
expatriate’s
probability of
success on
the foreign
assignment
Cross-Cultural
Training
An educative process
focused on promoting
intercultural learning
through the acquisition
of behavioral, cognitive,
and affective
competencies required
for effective interactions
across diverse cultures.
(Landis & Brislin, 1996;
Morris & Robie, 2001).
D
evelop
m
eta-
cognitive
strategies
Develop self-
maintenance
skills
Developinterpersonalskills

17. Components of typical CCT programs

18. Components of typical CCT programs
Attribution training

19. Components of typical CCT programs
Culture awareness
training

20. Components of typical CCT programs
Cognitive-behavior
modification training

21. Components of typical CCT programs
Interaction training

22. Components of typical CCT programs
Language training

23. Components of typical CCT programs
Didactic training

24. Components of typical CCT programs
Experimental training

25. Components of typical CCT programs

26. Benefits of traditional CCT practices
in supporting expatriates

27. Benefits of traditional CCT practices
in supporting expatriates
CCL

28. Benefits of traditional CCT practices
in supporting expatriates
CCL
Work adjustment and general
adjustment to the culture

29. Benefits of traditional CCT practices
in supporting expatriates
CCL
Cognitive skill
development
Work adjustment and general
adjustment to the culture

30. Benefits of traditional CCT practices
in supporting expatriates
CCL
Cognitive skill
development
Work adjustment and general
adjustment to the culture
Self-confidence and overall
feelings of wellbeing

31. Benefits of traditional CCT practices
in supporting expatriates
Increased
performance
CCL
Cognitive skill
development
Work adjustment and general
adjustment to the culture
Self-confidence and overall
feelings of wellbeing

32. Benefits of traditional CCT practices
in supporting expatriates
Increased
performance
CCL
Cognitive skill
development
Work adjustment and general
adjustment to the culture
Self-confidence and overall
feelings of wellbeing
Decreased early
return rates

33. Benefits of traditional CCT practices
in supporting expatriates
Increased
performance
CCL
Cognitive skill
development
Work adjustment and general
adjustment to the culture
Self-confidence and overall
feelings of wellbeing
Decreased early
return rates
Success
foreign
assignment!

34. The current CCT “Best Practices”
Design
Delivery
Evaluation

35. The current CCT “Best Practices”
Design
Delivery
Evaluation

36. The current CCT “Best Practices”
Design
Delivery
Evaluation

37. The current CCT “Best Practices”
Design
Delivery
Evaluation

38. What Are Organizations Not Doing
that They Should Be Doing --- Guideline (A) : Design
Guideline 1: CCT Should Be Customized to Match the Expatriate’s Needs
Guideline 2: CCT Should Not Stand Alone
Guideline 3: Training Rigor Should Be Tailored to the Cultural Toughness
of the Destination Country
Guideline 4: MNCs Should Develop a Global Mindset
Guideline 5: Organizations Must Use a Skill-Based Approach When
Designing CCT
Guideline 6: MNCs Should Apply and Use Strategies Based on the Science
Designing CCT Programs
Guideline 7: Scenario-Based Training Should Be Implemented

39. Guideline (B) : Delivery
Guideline 8: Training Delivery Should Correspond to the Dynamic
Adjustment Process
Guideline 9: The Difficulties Surrounding Repatriation Should Be Addressed
Guideline 10: Multiple Media Strategies Should Be Used to Deliver CCT

40. Guideline (C) : Evaluation
Guideline 11: Organizations Must Establish Success Criteria for CCT
Programs
Guideline 12: Organizations Must Evaluate Whether the Learning from
CCT has Transferred to the Job
Guideline 13: Organizations Must Assess Whether the Investment in CCT
Yields Positive Organizational Outcomes

41. Current and Further Research of CCT
Current Status
✓ There is a surge in the amount
of research devoted to cross-
cultural training within these years.
✓ However:
➡ Lack of synthesis in the area of
CCT research.
➡ Recommendations are often limited
because of addressing only one
facet of CCT.
➡ Empirical researches are not
➡ abundant.
Implications for Future
Research
➡ Multicultural Team Training
➡ Adaptability
➡ Culture and Personality:
individual differences

42. Cross-­‐Cultural
Awareness
Training
13
International Project References in the Research Areas of
Culture Diversity,Talent Development,and Strategic Change
14
years
in
Germany
Born
and
grew
up
in
Indonesia
8
years
in
China
• Building Global Competence for Asian Leaders
• Applying Social Medias (Web 2.0) in Learning & Development.
• International Employability:Development of Intercultural
Competence of German and Chinese Young Professionals.
• Cross-Cultural Learning Behavior:
Effectiveness of the Western Technology Transfer and Learning
Approaches in China.
• Comparative Studies of Chinese-Indonesian Intercultural
Competence and Sensitivity.
• Dynamic Decision Making in Chinese and Multinational Teams.
• Intercultural Perspectives of International Post-Merger
Integration in Europe.
• Intercultural Synergy in Professional Team.
• Complex Problem Solving in Small Groups.
• ...

43. Thank
You
Contact us via …
Mail: hora_t@mac.com
Follow: twitter@htjitra
Website: http://horatjitra.com
Zhejiang
University,
Hangzhou
(China)
Based on: LISA N. LITTRELL, EDUARDO SALAS:
A Review of Cross-Cultural Training: Best Practices, Guidelines, and Research Needs.
Human Resource Development Review, 4(3), 2005. p305-334