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psychology
CHAPTER
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
third edition
development
across the life span
8
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Learning Objective Menu
• LO 8.1Special research methods used to study development
• LO 8.2Relationship between heredity and environmental factors
• LO 8.3	Chromosomes, genes, DNA and multiple births
• LO 8.4	Germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods of pregnancy
• LO 8.5	Physical changes in infancy and childhood
• LO 8.6	Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
• LO 8.7	Developing personalities, forming relationships and Erikson’s first four stag
• LO 8.8How adolescents develop formal operation, moral thinking and adolescent’s
• LO 8.9	Physical and cognitive changes during adulthood and aging
• LO 8.10Theories of why aging occurs and stages of death and dying
• LO 8.11How attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder affects adults
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
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Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Developmental Research Designs
• Human development - the scientific study
of the changes that occur in people as
they age from conception until death.
• Longitudinal design - research design in
which one participant or group of
participants is studied over a long period
of time.
LO 8.1 Special research methods used to study development
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Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Longitudinal Design
Tested at 1 year
(Time 1)
Again at 4 years
(Time 2)
Again at 7 years
(Time 3)
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Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Longitudinal Design
Tested at 1 year
(Time 1)
Again at 4 years
(Time 2)
Again at 7 years
(Time 3)
Same Participants
Different Times Different Times Different Times
Compare Compare
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Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Developmental Research Designs
• Cross-sectional design - research design
in which several different age groups of
participants are studied at one particular
point in time.
• Cross-sequential design - research design
in which participants are first studied by
means of a cross-sectional design but
also followed and assessed for a period of
no more than six years.
LO 8.1 Special research methods used to study development
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Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Nature versus Nurture
• Nature - the influence of our inherited
characteristics on our personality, physical
growth, intellectual growth, and social
interactions.
• Nurture - the influence of the environment
on personality, physical growth,
intellectual growth, and social interactions.
• Behavioral genetics – focuses on nature
vs. nurture.
LO 8.2 Relationship between heredity and environmental factors
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Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Genetics and Development
• Genetics - the science of inherited traits.
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - special
molecule that contains the genetic
material of the organism.
LO 8.3	 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
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Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 8.1 DNA Molecule
In this model of a DNA molecule, the two strands making up the sides of the “twisted ladder” are composed of sugars
and phosphates. The “rungs” of the ladder that link the two strands are amines. Amines contain the genetic codes for
building the proteins that make up organic life.
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Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Genetics and Development
• Gene - section of DNA having the same
arrangement of chemical elements.
– Dominant - referring to a gene that actively
controls the expression of a trait.
– Recessive - referring to a gene that only
influences the expression of a trait when
paired with an identical gene.
LO 8.3	 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
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Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 8.2 Dominant and Recessive Genes and PKU
This figure shows the variation of parents carrying one or two recessive genes and the result of this in their offspring.
(a) If only one parent carries the PKU gene, their children might be carriers, but will not have PKU.
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Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 8.2 (continued) Dominant and Recessive Genes and PKU
This figure shows the variation of parents carrying one or two recessive genes and the result of this in their offspring.
(b) Only if both parents are carriers of PKU will a child have the 1 in 4	 possibility of having PKU.
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Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Mendel Box
• B=Brown eyes b=Blue eyes
 
 
 
      Father (Bb)   
 
Mother (Bb) 
 
B 
 
b 
 
B     
 
b     
 
LO 8.3	 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
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Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Mendel Box
• B=Brown eyes b=Blue eyes
 
 
LO 8.3	 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
 
      Father (Bb)   
 
 
B 
 
b 
 
 
B 
 
b 
 
 
B   
 
b 
 
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Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Mendel Box
• B=Brown eyes b=Blue eyes
 
 
LO 8.3	 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
 
       
 
Mother (Bb)     
 
B 
 
B 
 
B 
 
b 
 
b 
 
b 
 
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Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Mendel Box
• B=Brown eyes b=Blue eyes
 
 
LO 8.3	 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
 
      Father (Bb)   
 
Mother (Bb) 
 
B 
 
b 
 
B 
 
BB 
 
bB 
 
b 
 
Bb 
 
bb 
 
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Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Mendel Box
• 7	5	% have brown eyes.
25	% have blue eyes.
 
 
LO 8.3	 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
 
      Father (Bb)   
 
Mother (Bb) 
 
B 
 
b 
 
B 
 
BB 
 
bB 
 
b 
 
Bb 
 
bb 
 
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Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Genetics and Development
• Chromosome - tightly wound strand of
genetic material or DNA.
• Chromosome disorders include Down
syndrome, Klinefelter’s syndrome, and
Turner’s syndrome, whereas genetic
disorders include PKU, cystic fibrosis,
sickle cell anemia, and Tay-Sachs
disease.
LO 8.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
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Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Genetics and Development
• Conception - the moment at which a
female becomes pregnant.
• Ovum - the female sex cell, or egg.
• Fertilization - the union of the ovum and
sperm.
• Zygote - cell resulting from the uniting of
the ovum and sperm; divides into many
cells, eventually forming the baby.
LO 8.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
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Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Conception and Twins
• Monozygotic twins - identical twins formed
when one zygote splits into two separate
masses of cells, each of which develops
into a separate embryo.
• Dizygotic twins - often called fraternal
twins, occurring when two eggs each get
fertilized by two different sperm, resulting
in two zygotes in the uterus at the same
time.
LO 8.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
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Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 8.3 Monozygotic and Dizygotic Twins
Because identical twins come from one fertilized egg (zygote), they are called monozygotic. Fraternal twins, who come
from two different fertilized eggs, are called dizygotic.
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Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Periods of Pregnancy
• Germinal period - first two weeks after
fertilization, during which the zygote
moves down to the uterus and begins to
implant in the lining embryo name for the
developing organism from two weeks to
eight weeks after fertilization.
LO 8.4 Germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods of pregnancy
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Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Periods of Pregnancy
• Embryonic period - the period from two to
eight weeks after fertilization, during which
the major organs and structures of the
organism develop.
– Critical periods - times during which certain
environmental influences can have an impact
on the development of the infant.
– Teratogen - any factor that can cause a birth
defect.
LO 8.4 Germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods of pregnancy
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Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
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Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Periods of Pregnancy
• Fetal period - the time from about eight
weeks after conception until the birth of
the child.
– Fetus - name for the developing organism
from eight weeks after fertilization to the birth
of the baby.
LO 8.4 Germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods of pregnancy
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Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 8.4 Five Infant Reflexes
Shown here are (a) grasping reflex; (b) startle reflex (also known as the Moro reflex); (c) rooting reflex (when you touch
a baby‘s cheek it will turn toward your hand, open its mouth, and search for the nipple);
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Figure 8.4 (continued) Five Infant Reflexes
(d) stepping reflex; and (e) sucking reflex. These infant reflexes can be used to check the health of an infant’s nervous
system. If a reflex is absent or abnormal, it may indicate brain damage or some other neurological problem.
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Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Figure 8.6 Six Motor Milestones
Shown here are (a) raising head and chest—2 to 4 months, (b) rolling over—2 to 5 months, (c) sitting up with support—
4 to 6 months,
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Figure 8.6 (continued) Six Motor Milestones
(d) sitting up without support—6 to 7 months, (e) crawling—7 to 8 months, and (f) walking—8 to 18 months. The motor
milestones develop as the infant gains greater voluntary control over the muscles in its body, typically from the top of
the body downward. This pattern is seen in the early control of the neck muscles and the much later development of
control of the legs and feet.
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Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood
• Four critical areas of adjustment for the
newborn are:
– Respiration
– Digestion
– Circulation
– Temperature regulation
• Infants are born with reflexes that help the
infant survive: sucking, rooting, Moro
(startle), grasping, and Babinski.
LO 8.5 Physical changes in infancy and childhood
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Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood
• The senses, except for vision, are fairly
well developed at birth.
• Gross and fine motor skills develop at a
fast pace during infancy and early
childhood.
LO 8.5 Physical changes in infancy and childhood
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Immunizations
• Immunizations are far less dangerous
than the diseases they are designed to
prevent and are one of the most effective
weapons in the fight against infectious
diseases.
LO 8.5 Physical changes in infancy and childhood
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Cognitive Development
• Cognitive development - the development
of thinking, problem solving, and memory
scheme (plural schemas) a mental
concept formed through experiences with
objects and events.
LO 8.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
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Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Piaget’s Stage Theory
• Sensorimotor stage - Piaget’s first stage of
cognitive development in which the infant
uses its senses and motor abilities to
interact with objects in the environment.
– Object permanence - the knowledge that an
object exists even when it is not in sight.
LO 8.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
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Figure 8.7 Conservation Experiment
A typical conservation task consists of pouring equal amounts of water into two glasses of the same size and shape.
When the water from one of these glasses is poured into a taller, narrower glass, children who cannot yet conserve
tend to focus (centrate) on the height of the water in the second glass, assuming that the second glass now has more
water than the first one. In the second example, pennies are laid out in two equal lines. When the pennies in the top
line are spaced out, the child who cannot yet conserve will centrate on the top line and assume that there are actually
more pennies in that line.
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Piaget’s Stage Theory
• Preoperational stage - Piaget’s second
stage of cognitive development in which
the preschool child learns to use language
as a means of exploring the world.
– Egocentrism - the inability to see the world
through anyone else’s eyes.
– Centration - in Piaget’s theory, the tendency
of a young child to focus only on one feature
of an object while ignoring other relevant
features.
LO 8.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
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Piaget’s Stage Theory
• Preoperational stage - Piaget’s second
stage of cognitive development in which
the preschool child learns to use language
as a means of exploring the world.
– Conservation - in Piaget’s theory, the ability to
understand that simply changing the
appearance of an object does not change the
object’s nature.
LO 8.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
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Piaget’s Stage Theory
• Preoperational stage - Piaget’s second
stage of cognitive development in which
the preschool child learns to use language
as a means of exploring the world.
– Irreversibility - in Piaget’s theory, the inability
of the young child to mentally reverse an
action.
LO 8.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
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Piaget’s Stage Theory
• Concrete operations stage - third stage of
cognitive development in which the
school-age child becomes capable of
logical thought processes but is not yet
capable of abstract thinking.
• Formal operations - Piaget’s last stage of
cognitive development in which the
adolescent becomes capable of abstract
thinking.
LO 8.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
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Vygotsky’s Theory
• Scaffolding - process in which a more
skilled learner gives help to a less skilled
learner, reducing the amount of help as
the less skilled learner becomes more
capable.
LO 8.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
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Vygotsky’s Theory
• Zone of proximal development (ZPD) -
Vygotsky’s concept of the difference
between what a child can do alone and
what that child can do with the help of a
teacher.
LO 8.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
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Newer Theory
• Child-directed speech – children attend to
higher pitched, repetitious, sing-song
speech.
LO 8.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
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Stages of Language Development
• Cooing
• Babbling
• One-word speech (holophrases)
• Telegraphic speech
• Language acquisition device - governs the
learning of language during infancy and
early childhood.
LO 8.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
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Temperament
• Temperament - the behavioral
characteristics that are fairly well
established at birth.
– Easy - regular, adaptable, and happy
– Difficult - irregular, nonadaptable, and irritable
– Slow to warm up - need to adjust gradually to
change.
LO 8.7 Developing personalities and forming relationships
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Attachment
• Attachment - the emotional bond between
an infant and the primary caregiver.
– Secure - willing to explore, upset when mother
departs but easily soothed upon her return.
– Avoidant – unattached; explore without
"touching base."
– Ambivalent - insecurely attached; upset when
mother leaves and then angry with mother
upon her return.
LO 8.7 Developing personalities and forming relationships
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Attachment
• Attachment - the emotional bond between
an infant and the primary caregiver.
– Disorganized-disoriented – insecurely
attached and sometimes abused or
neglected; seemed fearful, dazed, and
depressed.
LO 8.7 Developing personalities and forming relationships
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Erikson’s First Four Stages
• Trust versus mistrust - first stage of
personality development in which the
infant’s basic sense of trust or mistrust
develops as a result of consistent or
inconsistent care.
• Autonomy versus shame and doubt -
second stage of personality development
in which the toddler strives for physical
independence.
LO 8.7 Erikson’s first four stages of psychosocial development
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Erikson’s First Four Stages
• Initiative versus guilt - third stage of
personality development in which the
preschool-aged child strives for emotional
and psychological independence and
attempts to satisfy curiosity about the
world.
LO 8.7 Erikson’s first four stages of psychosocial development
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Erikson’s First Four Stages
• Industry versus inferiority - fourth stage of
personality development in which the
adolescent strives for a sense of
competence and self-esteem.
LO 8.7 Erikson’s first four stages of psychosocial development
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Table 8.4 (continued) Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development
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Gender Role Development
• Gender- the behavior associated with
being male or female.
• Gender identity - perception of one’s
gender and the behavior that is associated
with that gender.
LO 8.7 Erikson’s first four stages of psychosocial development
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Puberty and Adolescence
• Adolescence - the period of life from about
age 13 to the early twenties, during which
a young person is no longer physically a
child but is not yet an independent, self-
supporting adult.
• Puberty - the physical changes that occur
in the body as sexual development
reaches its peak.
– Period of about four years.
LO 8.8 How adolescents develop formal operation and moral thinking
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Egocentric Thinking
• Personal fable - type of thought common
to adolescents in which young people
believe themselves to be unique and
protected from harm.
LO 8.8 How adolescents develop formal operation and moral thinking
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Egocentric Thinking
• Imaginary audience - type of thought
common to adolescents in which young
people believe that other people are just
as concerned about the adolescent’s
thoughts and characteristics as they
themselves are.
LO 8.8 How adolescents develop formal operation and moral thinking
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Development of Morality
• Preconventional morality - first level of
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
in which the child’s behavior is governed
by the consequences of the behavior.
• Conventional morality - second level of
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
in which the child’s behavior is governed
by conforming to the society’s norms of
behavior.
LO 8.8 How adolescents develop formal operation and moral thinking
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Development of Morality
• Postconventional morality - third level of
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development
in which the person’s behavior is governed
by moral principles that have been
decided on by the individual and which
may be in disagreement with accepted
social norms.
LO 8.8 How adolescents develop formal operation and moral thinking
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Figure 8.8 Example of a Moral Dilemma
Source: Kohlberg, 1969, p. 379.
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Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Erikson’s Fifth Stage
• Identity versus role confusion - fifth stage
of personality development in which the
adolescent must find a consistent sense of
self.
LO 8.8 Adolescent’s search for identity
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Physical Changes and Aging
• Adulthood begins in the early twenties and
ends with death in old age.
– Divided into young adulthood, middle
adulthood, and late adulthood.
LO 8.8 Adolescent’s search for identity
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Physical Changes and Aging
• Women experience a physical decline in
the reproductive system called the
climacteric, ending at about age 50 with
menopause - the cessation of ovulation
and menstrual cycles and the end of a
woman’s reproductive capability.
LO 8.8 Adolescent’s search for identity
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Physical Changes and Aging
• Andropause - gradual changes in the
sexual hormones and reproductive system
of males.
• Increase in health problems, decrease in
reaction time, and stability in intelligence
and memory.
LO 8.8 Adolescent’s search for identity
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Erikson’s Last Three Stages
• Intimacy - an emotional and psychological
closeness that is based on the ability to
trust, share, and care, while still
maintaining a sense of self.
• Generativity - providing guidance to one’s
children or the next generation, or
contributing to the well-being of the next
generation through career or volunteer
work.
LO 8.9 Physical and cognitive changes during adulthood and aging
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Erikson’s Last Three Stages
• Ego integrity - sense of wholeness that
comes from having lived a full life and the
ability to let go of regrets; the final
completion of the ego.
LO 8.9 Physical and cognitive changes during adulthood and aging
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Theories of Aging
• Activity theory - theory of adjustment to
aging that assumes older people are
happier if they remain active in some way,
such as volunteering or developing a
hobby.
LO 8.10 Theories of why aging occurs and stages of death
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Theories of Aging
• Cellular clock theory - based on the idea
that cells only have so many times that
they can reproduce; once that limit is
reached, damaged cells begin to
accumulate.
LO 8.10 Theories of why aging occurs and stages of death
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Theories of Aging
• Wear-and-tear theory - as time goes by,
repeated use and abuse of the body’s
tissues cause it to be unable to repair all
the damage.
• Free radical theory - oxygen molecules
with an unstable electron move around the
cell, damaging cell structures as they go.
LO 8.10 Theories of why aging occurs and stages of death
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Stages of Death and Dying
• Denial
• Anger
• Bargaining
• Depression
• Acceptance
LO 8.10 Theories of why aging occurs and stages of death
Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Psychology, Third Edition
Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
Adult ADHD
• Many children with ADHD grow up to be
adults with ADHD, affecting their work,
relationships, and emotional well-being.
• ADHD in adults can be treated with
medication and/or therapy.
LO 8.11 How attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder affects adults

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PSYC1101 Chapter 8 PowerPoint

  • 1. psychology CHAPTER Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White third edition development across the life span 8
  • 2. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Learning Objective Menu • LO 8.1Special research methods used to study development • LO 8.2Relationship between heredity and environmental factors • LO 8.3 Chromosomes, genes, DNA and multiple births • LO 8.4 Germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods of pregnancy • LO 8.5 Physical changes in infancy and childhood • LO 8.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops • LO 8.7 Developing personalities, forming relationships and Erikson’s first four stag • LO 8.8How adolescents develop formal operation, moral thinking and adolescent’s • LO 8.9 Physical and cognitive changes during adulthood and aging • LO 8.10Theories of why aging occurs and stages of death and dying • LO 8.11How attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder affects adults
  • 3. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
  • 4. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Developmental Research Designs • Human development - the scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age from conception until death. • Longitudinal design - research design in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time. LO 8.1 Special research methods used to study development
  • 5. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Longitudinal Design Tested at 1 year (Time 1) Again at 4 years (Time 2) Again at 7 years (Time 3)
  • 6. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Longitudinal Design Tested at 1 year (Time 1) Again at 4 years (Time 2) Again at 7 years (Time 3) Same Participants Different Times Different Times Different Times Compare Compare
  • 7. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Developmental Research Designs • Cross-sectional design - research design in which several different age groups of participants are studied at one particular point in time. • Cross-sequential design - research design in which participants are first studied by means of a cross-sectional design but also followed and assessed for a period of no more than six years. LO 8.1 Special research methods used to study development
  • 8. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Nature versus Nurture • Nature - the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions. • Nurture - the influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions. • Behavioral genetics – focuses on nature vs. nurture. LO 8.2 Relationship between heredity and environmental factors
  • 9. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Genetics and Development • Genetics - the science of inherited traits. • DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) - special molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism. LO 8.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
  • 10. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Figure 8.1 DNA Molecule In this model of a DNA molecule, the two strands making up the sides of the “twisted ladder” are composed of sugars and phosphates. The “rungs” of the ladder that link the two strands are amines. Amines contain the genetic codes for building the proteins that make up organic life.
  • 11. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Genetics and Development • Gene - section of DNA having the same arrangement of chemical elements. – Dominant - referring to a gene that actively controls the expression of a trait. – Recessive - referring to a gene that only influences the expression of a trait when paired with an identical gene. LO 8.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
  • 12. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Figure 8.2 Dominant and Recessive Genes and PKU This figure shows the variation of parents carrying one or two recessive genes and the result of this in their offspring. (a) If only one parent carries the PKU gene, their children might be carriers, but will not have PKU.
  • 13. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Figure 8.2 (continued) Dominant and Recessive Genes and PKU This figure shows the variation of parents carrying one or two recessive genes and the result of this in their offspring. (b) Only if both parents are carriers of PKU will a child have the 1 in 4 possibility of having PKU.
  • 14. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Mendel Box • B=Brown eyes b=Blue eyes             Father (Bb)      Mother (Bb)    B    b    B        b        LO 8.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
  • 15. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Mendel Box • B=Brown eyes b=Blue eyes     LO 8.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births         Father (Bb)        B    b      B    b      B      b   
  • 16. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Mendel Box • B=Brown eyes b=Blue eyes     LO 8.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births             Mother (Bb)        B    B    B    b    b    b   
  • 17. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Mendel Box • B=Brown eyes b=Blue eyes     LO 8.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births         Father (Bb)      Mother (Bb)    B    b    B    BB    bB    b    Bb    bb   
  • 18. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Mendel Box • 7 5 % have brown eyes. 25 % have blue eyes.     LO 8.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births         Father (Bb)      Mother (Bb)    B    b    B    BB    bB    b    Bb    bb   
  • 19. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Genetics and Development • Chromosome - tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA. • Chromosome disorders include Down syndrome, Klinefelter’s syndrome, and Turner’s syndrome, whereas genetic disorders include PKU, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Tay-Sachs disease. LO 8.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
  • 20. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Genetics and Development • Conception - the moment at which a female becomes pregnant. • Ovum - the female sex cell, or egg. • Fertilization - the union of the ovum and sperm. • Zygote - cell resulting from the uniting of the ovum and sperm; divides into many cells, eventually forming the baby. LO 8.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
  • 21. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Conception and Twins • Monozygotic twins - identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo. • Dizygotic twins - often called fraternal twins, occurring when two eggs each get fertilized by two different sperm, resulting in two zygotes in the uterus at the same time. LO 8.3 Chromosomes, genes and DNA and multiple births
  • 22. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Figure 8.3 Monozygotic and Dizygotic Twins Because identical twins come from one fertilized egg (zygote), they are called monozygotic. Fraternal twins, who come from two different fertilized eggs, are called dizygotic.
  • 23. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Periods of Pregnancy • Germinal period - first two weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining embryo name for the developing organism from two weeks to eight weeks after fertilization. LO 8.4 Germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods of pregnancy
  • 24. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Periods of Pregnancy • Embryonic period - the period from two to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop. – Critical periods - times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant. – Teratogen - any factor that can cause a birth defect. LO 8.4 Germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods of pregnancy
  • 25. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
  • 26. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Periods of Pregnancy • Fetal period - the time from about eight weeks after conception until the birth of the child. – Fetus - name for the developing organism from eight weeks after fertilization to the birth of the baby. LO 8.4 Germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods of pregnancy
  • 27. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Figure 8.4 Five Infant Reflexes Shown here are (a) grasping reflex; (b) startle reflex (also known as the Moro reflex); (c) rooting reflex (when you touch a baby‘s cheek it will turn toward your hand, open its mouth, and search for the nipple);
  • 28. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Figure 8.4 (continued) Five Infant Reflexes (d) stepping reflex; and (e) sucking reflex. These infant reflexes can be used to check the health of an infant’s nervous system. If a reflex is absent or abnormal, it may indicate brain damage or some other neurological problem.
  • 29. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Figure 8.6 Six Motor Milestones Shown here are (a) raising head and chest—2 to 4 months, (b) rolling over—2 to 5 months, (c) sitting up with support— 4 to 6 months,
  • 30. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Figure 8.6 (continued) Six Motor Milestones (d) sitting up without support—6 to 7 months, (e) crawling—7 to 8 months, and (f) walking—8 to 18 months. The motor milestones develop as the infant gains greater voluntary control over the muscles in its body, typically from the top of the body downward. This pattern is seen in the early control of the neck muscles and the much later development of control of the legs and feet.
  • 31. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood • Four critical areas of adjustment for the newborn are: – Respiration – Digestion – Circulation – Temperature regulation • Infants are born with reflexes that help the infant survive: sucking, rooting, Moro (startle), grasping, and Babinski. LO 8.5 Physical changes in infancy and childhood
  • 32. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood • The senses, except for vision, are fairly well developed at birth. • Gross and fine motor skills develop at a fast pace during infancy and early childhood. LO 8.5 Physical changes in infancy and childhood
  • 33. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Immunizations • Immunizations are far less dangerous than the diseases they are designed to prevent and are one of the most effective weapons in the fight against infectious diseases. LO 8.5 Physical changes in infancy and childhood
  • 34. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Cognitive Development • Cognitive development - the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory scheme (plural schemas) a mental concept formed through experiences with objects and events. LO 8.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
  • 35. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Piaget’s Stage Theory • Sensorimotor stage - Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development in which the infant uses its senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment. – Object permanence - the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight. LO 8.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
  • 36. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
  • 37. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Figure 8.7 Conservation Experiment A typical conservation task consists of pouring equal amounts of water into two glasses of the same size and shape. When the water from one of these glasses is poured into a taller, narrower glass, children who cannot yet conserve tend to focus (centrate) on the height of the water in the second glass, assuming that the second glass now has more water than the first one. In the second example, pennies are laid out in two equal lines. When the pennies in the top line are spaced out, the child who cannot yet conserve will centrate on the top line and assume that there are actually more pennies in that line.
  • 38. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Piaget’s Stage Theory • Preoperational stage - Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development in which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world. – Egocentrism - the inability to see the world through anyone else’s eyes. – Centration - in Piaget’s theory, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features. LO 8.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
  • 39. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Piaget’s Stage Theory • Preoperational stage - Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development in which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world. – Conservation - in Piaget’s theory, the ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the object’s nature. LO 8.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
  • 40. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Piaget’s Stage Theory • Preoperational stage - Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development in which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world. – Irreversibility - in Piaget’s theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action. LO 8.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
  • 41. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Piaget’s Stage Theory • Concrete operations stage - third stage of cognitive development in which the school-age child becomes capable of logical thought processes but is not yet capable of abstract thinking. • Formal operations - Piaget’s last stage of cognitive development in which the adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking. LO 8.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
  • 42. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Vygotsky’s Theory • Scaffolding - process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable. LO 8.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
  • 43. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Vygotsky’s Theory • Zone of proximal development (ZPD) - Vygotsky’s concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher. LO 8.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
  • 44. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Newer Theory • Child-directed speech – children attend to higher pitched, repetitious, sing-song speech. LO 8.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
  • 45. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Stages of Language Development • Cooing • Babbling • One-word speech (holophrases) • Telegraphic speech • Language acquisition device - governs the learning of language during infancy and early childhood. LO 8.6 Looking at cognitive development and how language develops
  • 46. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Temperament • Temperament - the behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth. – Easy - regular, adaptable, and happy – Difficult - irregular, nonadaptable, and irritable – Slow to warm up - need to adjust gradually to change. LO 8.7 Developing personalities and forming relationships
  • 47. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Attachment • Attachment - the emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver. – Secure - willing to explore, upset when mother departs but easily soothed upon her return. – Avoidant – unattached; explore without "touching base." – Ambivalent - insecurely attached; upset when mother leaves and then angry with mother upon her return. LO 8.7 Developing personalities and forming relationships
  • 48. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Attachment • Attachment - the emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver. – Disorganized-disoriented – insecurely attached and sometimes abused or neglected; seemed fearful, dazed, and depressed. LO 8.7 Developing personalities and forming relationships
  • 49. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Erikson’s First Four Stages • Trust versus mistrust - first stage of personality development in which the infant’s basic sense of trust or mistrust develops as a result of consistent or inconsistent care. • Autonomy versus shame and doubt - second stage of personality development in which the toddler strives for physical independence. LO 8.7 Erikson’s first four stages of psychosocial development
  • 50. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Erikson’s First Four Stages • Initiative versus guilt - third stage of personality development in which the preschool-aged child strives for emotional and psychological independence and attempts to satisfy curiosity about the world. LO 8.7 Erikson’s first four stages of psychosocial development
  • 51. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Erikson’s First Four Stages • Industry versus inferiority - fourth stage of personality development in which the adolescent strives for a sense of competence and self-esteem. LO 8.7 Erikson’s first four stages of psychosocial development
  • 52. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
  • 53. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Table 8.4 (continued) Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development
  • 54. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Gender Role Development • Gender- the behavior associated with being male or female. • Gender identity - perception of one’s gender and the behavior that is associated with that gender. LO 8.7 Erikson’s first four stages of psychosocial development
  • 55. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Puberty and Adolescence • Adolescence - the period of life from about age 13 to the early twenties, during which a young person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self- supporting adult. • Puberty - the physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak. – Period of about four years. LO 8.8 How adolescents develop formal operation and moral thinking
  • 56. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Egocentric Thinking • Personal fable - type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm. LO 8.8 How adolescents develop formal operation and moral thinking
  • 57. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Egocentric Thinking • Imaginary audience - type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe that other people are just as concerned about the adolescent’s thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are. LO 8.8 How adolescents develop formal operation and moral thinking
  • 58. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Development of Morality • Preconventional morality - first level of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development in which the child’s behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior. • Conventional morality - second level of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development in which the child’s behavior is governed by conforming to the society’s norms of behavior. LO 8.8 How adolescents develop formal operation and moral thinking
  • 59. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Development of Morality • Postconventional morality - third level of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development in which the person’s behavior is governed by moral principles that have been decided on by the individual and which may be in disagreement with accepted social norms. LO 8.8 How adolescents develop formal operation and moral thinking
  • 60. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Figure 8.8 Example of a Moral Dilemma Source: Kohlberg, 1969, p. 379.
  • 61. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White
  • 62. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Erikson’s Fifth Stage • Identity versus role confusion - fifth stage of personality development in which the adolescent must find a consistent sense of self. LO 8.8 Adolescent’s search for identity
  • 63. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Physical Changes and Aging • Adulthood begins in the early twenties and ends with death in old age. – Divided into young adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood. LO 8.8 Adolescent’s search for identity
  • 64. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Physical Changes and Aging • Women experience a physical decline in the reproductive system called the climacteric, ending at about age 50 with menopause - the cessation of ovulation and menstrual cycles and the end of a woman’s reproductive capability. LO 8.8 Adolescent’s search for identity
  • 65. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Physical Changes and Aging • Andropause - gradual changes in the sexual hormones and reproductive system of males. • Increase in health problems, decrease in reaction time, and stability in intelligence and memory. LO 8.8 Adolescent’s search for identity
  • 66. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Erikson’s Last Three Stages • Intimacy - an emotional and psychological closeness that is based on the ability to trust, share, and care, while still maintaining a sense of self. • Generativity - providing guidance to one’s children or the next generation, or contributing to the well-being of the next generation through career or volunteer work. LO 8.9 Physical and cognitive changes during adulthood and aging
  • 67. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Erikson’s Last Three Stages • Ego integrity - sense of wholeness that comes from having lived a full life and the ability to let go of regrets; the final completion of the ego. LO 8.9 Physical and cognitive changes during adulthood and aging
  • 68. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Theories of Aging • Activity theory - theory of adjustment to aging that assumes older people are happier if they remain active in some way, such as volunteering or developing a hobby. LO 8.10 Theories of why aging occurs and stages of death
  • 69. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Theories of Aging • Cellular clock theory - based on the idea that cells only have so many times that they can reproduce; once that limit is reached, damaged cells begin to accumulate. LO 8.10 Theories of why aging occurs and stages of death
  • 70. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Theories of Aging • Wear-and-tear theory - as time goes by, repeated use and abuse of the body’s tissues cause it to be unable to repair all the damage. • Free radical theory - oxygen molecules with an unstable electron move around the cell, damaging cell structures as they go. LO 8.10 Theories of why aging occurs and stages of death
  • 71. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Stages of Death and Dying • Denial • Anger • Bargaining • Depression • Acceptance LO 8.10 Theories of why aging occurs and stages of death
  • 72. Copyright ©2012 by Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved. Psychology, Third Edition Saundra K. Ciccarelli • J. Noland White Adult ADHD • Many children with ADHD grow up to be adults with ADHD, affecting their work, relationships, and emotional well-being. • ADHD in adults can be treated with medication and/or therapy. LO 8.11 How attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder affects adults