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Keywords: Advertising, nudity, marketing, research, perception, attitude.
1 INTRODUCTION
Through the whole history of advertising erotic and sex was used to evoke dialogs
among consumers. Atwan et al. (1979) define sex in advertising as the presence of nudity
and/or suggestive content or the inclusion of physically attractive models (Jones, Stanaland,
Gelb, 1998). Similar opinions have researchers O’Keefe (1990), Peterson and Kerin (1977),
Alexander and Judd (1978), Morrison and Sherman (1972) and Sciglimpaglia et al. (1979)
who divide erotic appeals into two general categories: (1) suggestiveness and (2) nudity.
Stated definition can be interpreted in many different ways; which significantly affect also
differences in results of researches in the area of nudity in advertising.
The aim of the paper is therefore to analyse the relationship between nudity/sex in
advertising and its impact on purchase (AIDA model) together with focus on impact of
gender on the perception of nudity in ad (cognitive, emotional and conative dimension).
1.1 Use of sex in advertising
In the area of sex in advertising researches often study the effects of woman`s nudity
(Belch et al., 1982; Alexander and Judd, 1978; LaTour, 1990; LaTour andHenthorne, 1993;
Sciglimpagliaet al., 1978; Severn et al., 1990).The default assumption of these studies was
that the level of clothing of the model is a primary determinant of sexual response. An
assumption related to it is a linear relationship between the level of nudity and sexual arousal
(Reichert and Ramirez, 2000).Of course, there is a need for more formalized understanding of
the role of nudity and sexual suggestiveness regarding cognitive perception toward
advertising, because still overall agreement upon impact of nudity in advertising has not been
reached.
As sexual appeals in advertising we will use the segmentation according Reichert et
al. (2001), whodefine sexual appeals as messages that are associated with sexual information
and that evoke sexual thoughts or feelings.In this paper the term “nudity” or “sex” in
advertising means display of topless woman or man´s body.
We may find in literature three dimensions of behaviour related to nudity in ad – cognitive,
emotional and conative. MacInniset al. (1991) states that when the motivation to process the
data on the brand is weak, the objective of the advertiser is to draw the attention to the
advertisement starting from executional cues to which the individual will be sensitive,
independently of the brand (Dianoux and Linhart, 2010).Other researches (Lombardot, 2007;
Manceau andTissier-Desbordes, 2006; Vezina and Paul 1997) confirm subsequently
increased attention due to the positive effect of nudity.Because nudity attracts consumer´s
attention, the ad increases brand information processing within the ad (MacInniset al., 1991).
Results ofBelch et al. (1982) show that sexual appeals in advertising affect psycho-physical
reactions and cause higher attention and reaction. This hypothesis was validated also by Reid,
Salmon andSoley (1983). Another research (Dudley, 1999) introduced four ads to the same
product with different levels of sexual content: (1) product only, (2) swimsuit model, (3)
topless model and (4) nude model. The respondents marked the last type of ad as the most
attractive, interesting, unforgettable and the most successful in getting their attention.
The next role of sexual content in advertising is to evoke positive or negative emotional
responses (i.e. arousal, lust, displeasure or uneasiness), which can lend or reduce persuasive
impact of advertisement. Regarding nudity`s effect on attitude towards the brand or purchase
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intention, results of researches differ (Dudley, 1999, De Pelsmacker and Van Den Bergh,
1996; Severn, Belch and Belch, 1990; Vézina and Paul, 1997). Reason for this dissimilarity
could be found in a number of variables as a profile of the model, choice of the product (if it
is directly or obliquely related to nudity) or used methodology. Characteristics of
advertisement`s receivers included gender (Reichert, LaTour and Kim, 2007);and age (Loroz,
2006) have irreplaceable role as well.
Three studies by LaTour (LaTouret al. 1990; LaTour andHenthorne, 1993) tested
emotions induced by sexual stimuli. The emotions were both positive and negative. The
survey also focused on impact of emotions on attitude towards the ad or brand using Thayer´s
model (1978). The results showed that men had positive attitude towards naked women
displayed in the ad, but women had negative attitude. Authors therefore suggested using
nudity in advertising only for products targeted on men.
Conative dimension means the intention to buy the advertised product. The survey of Severn
et al. (1990) tested effects of sexual and unisexual advertising on buying intention of
consumers. The hypothesis that sexual stimuli have significant impact on purchase intention
was confirmed.
1.2 Negative impact of nudity in advertising
Other than positive relationships between sexual appeals and remembering (Chestnut
et al., 1986; Reid, Salmon andSoley, 1983), there are also strong evidences which state the
opposite.Severn et al. (1990) found that remembering of brands with sexual appeals was not
different from non-sexual. The respondents were more focused on ad than the brand. Thus
sexual appeals may have negative impact; they are diffusing and thus make remembering
impossible. Sexual ads can drive the attention (Baker 1961, Courtney and Whipple 1983), but
in remembering are less effective than non-sexual ads (Steadman, 1969; Courtney and
Whipple 1983).
LaTour andHenthome (1993)showed that positive excitement leads to positive attitude
towards the ad and brand; on the other hand respondents who described their excitement as
negative or tension evaluated ad negatively and had negative attitude.
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
The researches of nudity in advertising have been conducted (seeDianoux and Linhart,
2010; Dianoux,Kettnerová, Linhart, 2005), but this particular research is specific in uniform
culture of middle Europe, by comparison of impact of woman and man´s nudity and the
experiment was done using mock-up magazine. The respondents were only instructed to read
through the magazine and their attention to ads was not distorted. The magazine was targeted
on students because: (1) according to Reichert and Lambias(1999) student´s magazines
contain nudity the most often and (2) the magazine makes advertising easier to process
because of three dimensions according to MacInniset al. (1991) containing motivation,
possibility and abilities, magazine have positive impact on two of those: possibility and
abilities.
We used similar questions as was used in survey focused on nudity in advertising by
Dianoux and Linhart(2010). To strengthen the impact of nudity on respondent´s attitude, we
used a product not related to nudity. The tablet Samsung was used with four possible levels
of nudity displayed (we used four different variants of magazines – there were four variants
of tablet Samsung ads: dressed man, topless man, dressed woman and topless woman). The
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tablet was also used because it is a high-involvement product. Contrary to La Tour, Pitts,
Snook-Luther (1990) who used fictive ads, we used real brands and existing ads to make sure
the respondents could previously see advertised products.
We also tested variants of displayed nudity. Five women and five men (always with
variants dressed and topless) were tested by 8 experts (4 men and 4 women) according to
Nelson andPaek(2005). The differences and the possibility to get the attention of
respondentwere compared; experts tried to avoid sexist photos (seeLysonski, 2005).Also the
size of ad can affect attention.Because in middle Europe the half-page ad is preferred
(Dianouxet al., 2006) we used this size. The questioning was divided into two parts (A and
B). Part A was containing questions related ads in general.Part B was focused on concrete
experimental ad containing nudity.
The sample of respondents contains 178 students of universities (state and also
private). All respondents were Czech; 54 % women and46 % men. Students were chosen for
the survey because those youth persons present and form the perception of advertising today
and in the future.
The sample was selected solely for the purposes of the survey. Answers of
respondents were categorised according to identification questions that formed the first part
of the questionnaire. In the survey, the measurement was based on closed questions with one
or several possible answer(s) that had been selected based on the study of literature,
documents and other related surveys.
Also, a semantic differential was applied that permitted the identification of nuances
in respondents’ attitudes through the questionnaire. Respondents’ reactions to target
statements and their attitudes to the given matter were restricted by offering a set of several
statements. The extremes of the seven-point scale represented bipolar concepts of the
evaluation dimension. Using a scale of 1 to 7, respondents expressed their inclination towards
one of the preset extreme statements or, provided it was not possible to favour either of the
sides, selected a median, neutral value (the median value was characterised by number 4).
The scale permitted not only the specification of respondents’ attitudes, but also their
intensity. Another part of questionnaire was based on Muehling´s scale (1987) which
measure attitude towards institution and instrument (Durvasula et al., 1993), economical
versus social aspects (Durvasula et al., 1999), verbal measurement of affective reaction of
respondents (Derbaix, 1995), attitude of respondents toward ad (Aad) (Coulter, 1998;
MacKenzie, Lutz & Belch, 1986), engagement of consumer (Consumer Involvement Profile,
CIP) by Kapferer and Laurent (1985) and some questions were adjusted according to
Dianoux and Linhart(2010).
The analysis was carried out using the Microsoft Excel 2007, and SPSS programmes.
The conclusiveness of the outputs and relationships obtained were supported by the tools of
descriptive statistics, for testing of results the analysis of correlation and factor analysis were
used to review the outcomes. The factor analysis was used based on the results, which have
shown requisite level of correlation/association coefficient between analysed variables as a
deeper and confirmatory analysis. The factor analysis was chosen in order to lower the
amount of resulted outputs. Varimax rotation method was used for the analysis. To separate
final amount of output factors a Kaiser-Guttman rule was employed. Such factors were used
for further analysis, whose variance was higher than 1.0. This value was chosen rationally
because explanatory factor must have at least equal value as original standardised attribute.
Such attributes (statements) were chosen as significant to create resulted factor, whose value
was 0.3 and higher (Anderson, 2009).
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3 RESULTS
Bellow in this chapter, main results will be interpreted. Firstly, the overall outputs –
attitude to advertising and nudity based on sex of the respondent will be presented. Secondly,
deeper analysis will give us insight view into attitudes towards advertising and behaviour to
buy.
3.1 Outputs of the survey
Firstly, we will present the selected group of results which we studied based on
theoretical background presented above in this article. Such questions were tested and
interpreted, which had relationship toward nudity in advertising. We tested if sex of
respondent affects the result of the overall impression about the ad (showing nude model) and
how it impress the AIDA model (attentions, interest, desire and action) in order to buy
advertised product. Namely we selected following statements: attention, focus, like it,
convincing, desire for information (as cognitive dimension); animation, feelings, deviation,
nice (as emotional dimension);and need and buy (as conative dimension).
Using extracted data dependency was tested by applying χ2
test. As the p–value
calculated by means of the χ2
test of 0.000 is lower than the selected level of significance
α=0.05, null hypothesis has been rejected. For power dependence test Contingency
coefficient was used.
The results of the article provide 12 hypotheses leading to the fulfilment of the set
goal – to reveal whether gender affects impression about the ad. The null hypothesis always
means that there is no difference between sex of the respondent and selected impression or
behaviour regarding the ad. Of the given zero hypotheses, 4 have been rejected, i.e. there is
a dependency between the qualitative attributes examined (men and women perceive ad in a
different way), while 8 zero hypotheses could not have been rejected, i.e. there is no
dependency between the qualitative attributes examined (gender does not affect impression
and behaviour towards the ad). The results of testing the below mentioned hypotheses are
shown in Table 1.
Table 1:χχχχ2
test among selected qualitative characteristics
No
Null hypothesis H0
p-value
χ2
Rejection of
H0
Power
dependence
Dependence
1 Attention– sexof the
respondent
0.181 NO - -
2 Focus– sex 0.458 NO - -
3 Like – sex 0.067 NO - -
4 Convincing – sex 0.242 NO - -
5 Information – sex 0.136 NO - -
6 Animation– sex 0.001 YES 0.400 Moderate
7 Feelings– sex 0.004 YES 0.393 Moderate
8 Deviation – sex 0.023 YES 0.320 Moderate
9 Nice – sex 0.001 YES 0.459 Moderate
10 Seductive– sex 0.175 NO - -
11 Want/need– sex 0.793 NO - -
12 Buy – sex 0.292 NO - -
Source: authors processing
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According to the results of the survey, the zero hypotheses that animation, feelings,
perceived deviation and nice feelings are not influenced by sex of a respondent has been
rejected. The survey revealed that respondents’ overall attitude toward nude ad is determined
by their sex. The test easily revealed characteristic which may differ among gender. Nude
model is perceived in a different way by men and women in the context of their animation,
feelings, perceived deviation of displayed ad and the perception of it as nice. Those attributes
are emotional dimension. Cognitive (attention, focus, convince, information) and conative
(want/need and buy) dimension do not differ among gender. We may say that sex in
advertising in Czech Republic affect differently emotions of men and women.
3.2 Factor analysis of approach towards nudity displayed in ad
To prepare the outputs for multivariate analysis we tested selected variables if there
are any relationships (using association table) to make sure the factor analysis will bring valid
results. As described above, we chosen only 13 variables to enter the analysis (sex of the
respondent, his/her feelings and variables related to AIDA model). We tested all four variants
of ad (dressed woman/man and naked woman/man), but only the variant with naked woman
have shown valid results. Those results have shown requisite level of correlation/association
coefficient between analysed variables, and a deeper analysis could have been used.
The factor analysis was chosenfirstly in order to lower the amount of resulted outputs and
secondly (mainly) to reveal specific approaches towards the nudity in advertising. We
expected to find a few different approaches towards specific display of the ad (displaying
naked woman).
Varimax rotation method was used for analysis. To separate final amount of output
factors a Kaiser-Guttman rule and Kaiser Normalization was employed. As shown in Table 2,
factor analysis revealed 4 statistically significant factors. Such factors were used for further
analysis, whose variance was higher than 1.0. This value was chosen rationally because
explanatory factor must have at least equal value as original standardised attribute. Such
attributes (statements) were chosen as significant to create resulted factor, whose value was
0.3 and higher (Anderson, 2009).
Table 2: Variance explained by factors
Total variance % of Variance Cumulative %
Factor 1 2.886 22.197 22.197
Factor 2 2.322 17.861 40.057
Factor 3 2.038 15.674 55.731
Factor 4 1.574 12.111 67.842
Source: authors processing
All factors together explain 68% of respondents´ behaviour and attitude towards nudity
displayed in the ad. Table 2 show results of analysis by the Varimax method; Table3
gradually show all factors and its attributes.
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Table 3: Resultant factors by method Varimax
Expressions towards the ad Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 Factor 4
Sex of respondent (male) .296 .146 .703 -.181
Attention -.003 .936 .116 .067
Focus .110 .920 .014 .156
Like it .799 -.086 .178 -.070
Convincing .800 .027 .018 .160
Desire for more information .739 .114 -.180 -.197
Animation .294 .652 .561 .067
Feelings .040 .232 .556 -.357
Deviates -.061 -.053 .830 .244
Nice .666 .161 .339 -.261
Seductive .652 .149 .138 .185
I want it/need .015 .137 .061 .678
I will buy it -.027 .088 -.121 .830
% of variance 22% 18% 16% 12%
Name of the factor
Nudity
admirers
Focus &
attention
Male
feelings
Buyers
Source: authors processing
Factor analysis revealed four approaches to women nudity in advertising. The first
factor which characterizes22 percent of respondents can be described as people whose
attention and feelings can be easily driven by specific (sexual) context of advertising. Those
respondents cannot be categorised by their gender, but coefficient 0.296 is very close to male.
They liked the ad, did not need any additional information about the advertised product, they
perceived it as convincing, nice and seductive. All resulted coefficients are quite high;
therefore it is possible to state that those attributes had close relationships. The desire to have
the product was not confirmed. The first factor was named Nudity admirers because this
group of respondents did not need anything else than nice picture.
The second factor revealed describes completely different type ofattitude towards
nudity in advertising. Specific kind of ad brought their attention, focus and animation
(cognitive dimension). But nothing more than that. They also did not want to have or to buy
the product, they not always like it, and they do not think it is nice or seductive - they do not
think it deviates from normal. As the first group represented by factor 1, they do not desire or
do not want to buy the product. This behaviour is characteristic for 18 per cent of
respondents. Again, all resulted coefficients are very high; this proves adequate selection of
inputs into analysis.
The third factor is the extreme ofmale feelings. 16 per cent of surveyed men perceived
displayed ad as animated, it attacked their feelings, and respondents think it deviates from
normal ads, but it is nice.Again, men represented by third factor did not want to have or to
buy the product.
Fourth factor represents a group of respondents, who want the product and they will
most probably buy it. Other than that the fourth factor contains only feelings, which were
involved in perception of the ad. This 12 per cent of respondents was not attracted by
displayed nudity. They did not describe it in any usual way (nice, seductive, deviate,
convincing etc.) but contrary to other groups they finally feel the need for the product.
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It is possible to conclude that the theoretical assumptions have been proved. Nude model is
attracting respondents, but there is no desire for product and no need to buy it. Model AIDA
is not valid regarding nudity in advertising. Results of the analysis show that there is no
dependency between the perceived attention of the product, neither need for it, nor
willingness to buy it.
4 DISCUSSIONS
As it was mentioned in both parts of previous chapter, model AIDA was not validated
in case of sex in advertising. Nudity can bring attention or feelings, but the intention to buy
the product was not higher based on the results of analysis of this article. Only respondents
who did not express any of those feelings or animation for displayed ad were willing to buy
the product (probably because they had decided to buy the product before they saw the ad).
Therefore we may suggest using sex in advertising in such cases, when the brand or product
is advertised not in intention to be sold, but to broaden the awareness or knowledge of the
product or mark or firm and to make people remember it.
As we found in the literature, many professionals believe that sex is used to attract
viewer's attention. Based on realized researches we may say that it is true. But it is just a
short-term success. Gallup & Robinson (2008) has found based on more than 50 years of
tests, that use of sexual stimuli may be a successful approach how to communicate to the
market. Research has led to the fashionable idea that sex sells. But previous studies referring
to nudity in advertising stated that female nudity influence people in various ways, and not
only positively (LaTour 1990; Sciglimpaglia, Belch, and Cain 1978). Males have tendencies
to rate all experimental ads more favourably than females (Peterson and Kerin, 1977). These
results confirm study of Maciejewski (2004) which showed that men and woman differ
significantly in their appraisal of sexual appeals in advertising; females have more negative
attitudes than men. The same results we got from our survey. Man like the ad containing
nudity, but women expressed negative feelings which can damage the brand or displayed
product.
Grazer and Keesling (1995) claimed that the use of sexual appeal in print ads create
favourable responses and intention to purchase, contrary to the results of this survey. Similar
results brought study of Severn, Belch and Belch (1990), which declare that sexual appeals
results in stronger purchase intention than non-sexual appeals. But the difference is in the
deepness of analysis. When we compared the variants of ad containing different levels of
nudity, we found that the variant with naked model had more potential buyers than the other
ones. On the other hand, when the factor analysis was used, it revealed that the buying
intentions are not related to the respondents who have shown positive attitude towards the ad.
Thus it is possible to conclude that deeper analysis revealed the missing piece of
understanding.
5 CONCLUSIONS
The paper based on summarization of relevant literature and outputs of own survey
and data testing support the idea that men and women differ in the responses to sexual stimuli
and that nudity can increase attention of consumer and in some cases has effect on purchase
intention.
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According to the results of the survey, nude model is perceived in a different way by
men and women in the context of their animation, feelings, perceived deviation of displayed
ad and the perception of it as nice. Those attributes are emotional dimension. Cognitive
(attention, focus, information) and conative (want/need and buy) dimension do not differ
among gender.
Factor analysis revealed four possible approaches to women nudity in advertising. The
first factor was entitled “Nudity admirers” and can be described as people whose attention
and feelings can be propelled by sexual content in advertising. The second factor named
“Focus & attention” described that this kind of ad could do nothing else than attract
respondent`s attention, focus and animation. The third factor “Male feelings” describe
respondents who perceived displayed ad as animated, emotionalized, deviated from normal,
but still nice. Fourth factor called “Buyers” represents respondents, who want advertised
product and will most probably buy it, but displayed nudity does not affect it.
We tested how sex of respondent affects overall impression about the ad and how it
impacts AIDA model and the purpose to buy advertised product. We examined four variants
of ad, but only the variant with naked women have shown valid results. The use of nudity in
advertising attracts respondents, but has almost no influence on their desire or buying
intentions regarding displayed product.
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