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Sudhir Chowdary.N, Siva Rama Krishna.Ch / International Journal of Engineering Research and
                 Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
                         Vol. 2, Issue 4, July-August 2012, pp.345-348
         Energy Minimization for Wireless Sensor Networks using
                        Opportunistic Routing
                        Sudhir Chowdary.N*, Siva Rama Krishna.Ch**
                    *
                      (department of Electronics and Communication, SRM University,Chennai)
                   **
                     (department of Electronics and Communication, SVIST Engg.Coll,Tiruvuru)


ABSTRACT
      Wireless sensor networking research has              location privacy problem and examine the privacy
received considerable attention in recent years as it      characteristics of different sensor routing protocols.
represents the next phase of networking evolution.         They introduce two metrics for quantifying source-
Efficient and reliable routing of data from the            location privacy in sensor networks, the safety period
source to destination with minimal power                   and capture likelihood. The authors propose new
consumption remains the crux of the research               techniques to enhance source-location privacy that
problem. Source privacy is one of the looming              augment these routing protocols.
challenges that threaten successful deployment of                   In [4] authors focus on the multi-hop
these sensor networks, especially when they are            performance of such a solution, in terms of average
used to monitor sensitive objects. In order to             number of hops to reach a destination as a function of
enhance source location privacy in WSN                     the distance and of the average number of available
Opportunistic routing scheme is used. In this each         neighbors. An idealized scheme (in which the best
sensor node transmits the packet over a dynamic            relay node is always chosen) is discussed, and its
path to the destination. Energy minimized                  performance is evaluated by means of both simulation
Opportunistic routing technique is used for the            and analytical techniques. Even though they provide
efficient utilization of the power. The energy can be      some discussion about practical issues and briefly
efficiently utilized by reducing transmission power        outline a possible protocol based on the main ideas
of each node. By using the Energy minimized                presented in this paper.
Opportunistic routing algorithm packets are sent
in a secured manner with minimal power.                    Such protocol is described and analyzed in detail in
                                                           this paper. In [6] authors describe security solutions
  I.     INTRODUCTION                                      for collecting and processing data in Wireless Sensor
         Currently wireless sensor network research        Networks (WSNs). In [7] the author proposes to use
has received considerable attention since it is the next   large-scale cognitive networking methods to resolve
generation of the surveillance and monitoring              the wireless multi-hop challenges. In this paper, we
scenario. We can deploy WSN throughout the                 propose a new Energy Minimized Opportunistic
geographical location for collecting data. The             Routing [EMOR] protocol. It makes use of the OR
efficiency of the WSN depends on the effective             protocol technique for forwarding the packets from
routing of the data.                                       source to destination, but in this source location
                                                           privacy is increased by reducing the transmission
         In [5] introduction about WSN and                 power of each node with this energy is also
applications of the WSN are discussed. It also explains    minimized.
the hardware and software used in WSN like
microprocessors, power, storage, bandwidth and                      This paper organized as follows. Section 2
operating systems used in WSN are discussed.               presents sensor network and threat model. Section 3
                                                           describes EMOR principles. Section 4 presents
         In [1] authors describe Opportunistic Routing     simulation results for the energy minimized
(OR), a new unicast routing technique for multi-hop        opportunistic routing. Finally, Section 5 presents the
wireless networks. OR forwards each packet through a       conclusion.
sequence of nodes, deferring the choice of each node
in the sequence until after the previous node has
                                                           II.   SENSOR NETWORK AND MODELS
transmitted the packet on its radio.
                                                               Assume a large predefined geographical area that
         In [2] authors proposed to examine source-
                                                           needs to be monitored, and deploy a wireless sensor
location privacy through opportunistic routing. In [3]
                                                           network consisting of many randomly distributed
authors provide a formal model for the source-
                                                           sensor nodes. The network continuously monitors

                                                                                                  345 | P a g e
Sudhir Chowdary.N, Siva Rama Krishna.Ch / International Journal of Engineering Research and
                 Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
                         Vol. 2, Issue 4, July-August 2012, pp.345-348
activities and locations of the target in the area. When   in the data frame. Transmitted packets are received by
the target is discovered, the corresponding sensor         number of nodes which are in the hearing radius of the
becomes the source. Every sensor can be the source,        transmitting node.
and can send packets to neighboring sensors that are in         In next step the received nodes have to
the limited radio range. The source will continuously      acknowledge back according to the priority given in
send packets until the adversary discovers the source,     the candidate header set. First node in the candidate
or the target disappears from the monitoring area.         header set should send acknowledgement in first time
The system is assumed to have the following                slot if it receives the packet, remaining nodes which
characteristics:                                           receive packets sends acknowledgement in the time
      There is only one destination node at any           slots assigned to them. In final step received nodes
          time; while there can be more than one           have to decide whether to forward the or not. If the
          source.                                          packet is received by the node with highest priority
      All the nodes in the network can participate        then it will forward the packet else next node will
          in message transmission; hence, apart from       forward. These steps are repeated until the packet
          detection capabilities they all have transmit    reaches the destination.
          and receive functionality, based on the               In opportunistic routing protocol the chances of
          applied protocol.                                forwarding the packet by same node is very less, so
      Every node in the network knows the address         the path between the source and destination changes
          of the destination node.                         dynamically. Source location privacy is achieved by
      Every node in the network knows its relative        using OR since the packet follows different routes to
          location.                                        reach the destination.
      The adversary is assumed to have the                B. Energy Minimized Opportunistic Routing:
          following characteristics:                                 Energy Minimized Opportunistic Routing
      The adversary knows the location of the             [EMOR] also makes use of the OR principles for
          destination and can determine the location of    transmitting data between source and destination.
          the sender sensor from the instance of the       Apart from the source location privacy EMOR also
          packet that it overhears.                        address the energy minimization. As wireless nodes
      The adversary can physically move from one          are powered by limited energy source efficient
                                                           utilization of energy is required. There are many
          sensor to another and has unlimited amount
                                                           techniques used for efficient energy utilization of the
          of power.
                                                           sensor nodes, one of them is reducing the transmission
          The adversary will not interfere with the
                                                           power [6]. By combining the transmission power
          proper functioning of the network.
                                                           reduction technique with OR it provides better source
                                                           location privacy then the existing OR and it also
III.     ROUTING                   PROTOCOL
                                                           reduces the power consumption.
         PRINCIPLES            AND   PRIVACY                         In EMOR data is transmitted with the
         PROTECTION                                        reduced transmission power, so it takes more number
A. Opportunistic Routing principles:                       of hops for packets to reach the destination. As
          During the last decade, a number of protocols    number of hops between source and destination
have been developed in order to improve the                increases it takes more time for the adversary to trace
performance in wireless sensor networks. One               the source, so it provides better source location
promising approach is referred to as opportunistic         privacy then the existing OR. Since the transmission
routing; relay node is opportunistically decided by        power of each node is reduced life time of the node is
dynamic network conditions such as interference,           also increases as energy consumption is reduced. The
channel status and congestions. In general                 transmission power of nodes is reduced in such a way
opportunistic routing has three steps:                     that it does not degrade the total network performance.
     1) Select Forwarding Candidates
     2) Acknowledgements                                   IV.      SIMULATION RESULTS
     3) Deciding whether to forward a packet                         All simulations are performed in the Network
     In first step transmitting node prepares a set of     simulator-2 [NS-2] which is a discrete event network
forwarding candidates based on shortest path and           simulator for simulating the networks [5]. The
network conditions. The node which is nearer to the        topology we selected was 500 × 500 where the sensor
destination has highest priority and next nearest node     nodes are deployed. The simulation parameters
has the second priority based on this the forwarding       considered are listed in Table-I. Initially, the adversary
candidate set is prepared. Then the transmitting node      is located next to the destination node. Once it detects
broadcasts packets by giving forwarding candidate set      a packet, it moves to the node which transmits that
                                                                                                    346 | P a g e
Sudhir Chowdary.N, Siva Rama Krishna.Ch / International Journal of Engineering Research and
                 Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
                         Vol. 2, Issue 4, July-August 2012, pp.345-348
packet. In the same time slot, the adversary may detect
more than one packet, because in the opportunistic
routing each packet can choose different paths to the
destination node, with different number of hops. When
the adversary detects multiple packets, it moves
randomly to one of the transmitters.
Parameter                    Set To

Channel type                 Channel/Wireless
                             Channel
MAC type                     Mac/802_11

Antenna model                Antenna/OmniAntenna                 Fig.1 Safety period Vs Number of Nodes
                                                                   Fig. 2 shows the curves between the energy
                                                          consumed by system and the number of nodes
Max packet in queue          50                           participated in the communication.

Routing protocol             DSR/OR

X dimension of               500
topography
y dimension of               500
topography
Time of simulation end       150

            Table 1: Simulation Parameters

         Safety period is the time taken for
eavesdropper to reveal the location of the source                   Fig. 2 Energy Vs Number of Nodes.
before target disappears from the monitoring area. Fig.            In Figure 2 on X-axis number of nodes is
1 shows the safety periods of the opportunistic routing   taken and on Y-axis energy is taken. From above plot
and energy minimized opportunistic routing are            it infers that EMOR consumes less energy when
compared. As in the case of EMOR since transmission       compared to the OR. If optimal transmission power is
power is reduced it take more number of hops for the      not correctly chosen then the energy consumption by
packet to reach the destination, so intruder also takes   the system will increase. The ability of the EMOR
more time to trace the source. In this way EMOR           depends on the correctly choosing of the optimal
performs better than the OR protocol by increasing the    transmission power. So EMOR offers better
safety period.                                            performance than OR in terms of security and energy.

In Energy minimized opportunistic routing power of         V.      CONCLUSION
transmitter is reduced so energy consumed by each                  Source-location privacy is critical to the
node is also decreases.                                   successful deployment of many wireless sensor
                                                          networks, especially in monitoring applications. In this
                                                          thesis Energy minimized opportunistic protocol is
                                                          proposed and simulated in extension to the
                                                          opportunistic routing. The proposed Energy
                                                          minimized opportunistic routing protocol provides
                                                          better source location privacy than the opportunistic
                                                          routing protocol and it also consumes less energy.




                                                                                                  347 | P a g e
Sudhir Chowdary.N, Siva Rama Krishna.Ch / International Journal of Engineering Research and
                 Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com
                         Vol. 2, Issue 4, July-August 2012, pp.345-348
REFERENCES                                         Sudhir chowdary.N received his B.TECH. degree in
[1]   Sanjit     Biswas      and    Robert     Morris,   Electronics and Communication Engineering from
      “Opportunistic Routing in Multi-Hop Wireless       Chaitanya Institute of Engg. & Technology, JNTUH
      Networks” In ACM SIGCOMM , pp. 133–144,            University, India in 2009, M.TECH. degree in
      NY, USA, Jan. 2004.                                Communication Systems from S.R.M. University,
[2]   Petros Spachos, Liang Song, and Dimitrios          Chennai in 2011. His research interests include
      Hatzinakos, “Opportunistic Routing for             wireless communications.
      Enhanced Source-Location Privacy in Wireless
      Sensor Networks” IEEE Transaction on
      Communications, pp. 315-318, Kingston,             Siva Rama krishna received his B.TECH. degree in
      Canada, May 2010.                                  Electronics and Communication Engineering from
[3]   P. Kamat, Yanyong Zhang, W. Trappe, and C.         Mother Teresa Institute of Science & Technology,
      Ozturk, “Enhancing Source-location Privacy in      JNTUH University, India in 2009, M.TECH. degree in
      Sensor Network Routing,” in Distributed            Communication Systems from S.R.M. University,
      Computing Systems, 2005. ICDCS 2005.               Chennai in 2011. He is currently working as an
      Proceedings.      25th     IEEE    International   Assistant Professor in the Department of Electronics
      Conference, pp. 599–608, Columbus, OH, June        and Communication Engineering at SVIST
      2005.                                              Engineering College, Tiruvuru, India. Since 2011. His
[4]   Michele Zorzi, and Ramesh R. Rao,                  research interests include wireless communications,
      “Geographic Random Forwarding (GeRaF) for          error control coding, diversity combining and MIMO.
      adhoc and sensor networks: multi-hop
      performance” IEEE Transactions on Mobile
      Computing, vol. 2, no. 4, pp.337-348, Oct.-Dec.
      2003
[5]   David Culler, Deborah Estrin and Mani
      Srivastava, “Overview of Sensor Networks”,
      Published by the IEEE Computer Society, vol.
      37, no. 8, pp. 41-49, August-2004
[6]   Dirk WESTHOFF, Joao GIRAO, and Amardeo
      SARMA, “Security Solutions for Wireless
      Sensor Networks”, Special Issue: Dependable
      IT and Network Technology, vol. 3, no. 3, Nov.
      2006.
[7]   Liang Song and Dimitrios Hatzinakos,
      “Research Article: Real-Time Communications
      in Large-Scale Wireless Networks”, Hindawi
      Publishing Corporation International Journal
      of Digital Multimedia Broadcasting, vol. 2008,
      Article ID 586067, pp. 1-17, Sep. 2008.




                                                                                               348 | P a g e

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  • 1. Sudhir Chowdary.N, Siva Rama Krishna.Ch / International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com Vol. 2, Issue 4, July-August 2012, pp.345-348 Energy Minimization for Wireless Sensor Networks using Opportunistic Routing Sudhir Chowdary.N*, Siva Rama Krishna.Ch** * (department of Electronics and Communication, SRM University,Chennai) ** (department of Electronics and Communication, SVIST Engg.Coll,Tiruvuru) ABSTRACT Wireless sensor networking research has location privacy problem and examine the privacy received considerable attention in recent years as it characteristics of different sensor routing protocols. represents the next phase of networking evolution. They introduce two metrics for quantifying source- Efficient and reliable routing of data from the location privacy in sensor networks, the safety period source to destination with minimal power and capture likelihood. The authors propose new consumption remains the crux of the research techniques to enhance source-location privacy that problem. Source privacy is one of the looming augment these routing protocols. challenges that threaten successful deployment of In [4] authors focus on the multi-hop these sensor networks, especially when they are performance of such a solution, in terms of average used to monitor sensitive objects. In order to number of hops to reach a destination as a function of enhance source location privacy in WSN the distance and of the average number of available Opportunistic routing scheme is used. In this each neighbors. An idealized scheme (in which the best sensor node transmits the packet over a dynamic relay node is always chosen) is discussed, and its path to the destination. Energy minimized performance is evaluated by means of both simulation Opportunistic routing technique is used for the and analytical techniques. Even though they provide efficient utilization of the power. The energy can be some discussion about practical issues and briefly efficiently utilized by reducing transmission power outline a possible protocol based on the main ideas of each node. By using the Energy minimized presented in this paper. Opportunistic routing algorithm packets are sent in a secured manner with minimal power. Such protocol is described and analyzed in detail in this paper. In [6] authors describe security solutions I. INTRODUCTION for collecting and processing data in Wireless Sensor Currently wireless sensor network research Networks (WSNs). In [7] the author proposes to use has received considerable attention since it is the next large-scale cognitive networking methods to resolve generation of the surveillance and monitoring the wireless multi-hop challenges. In this paper, we scenario. We can deploy WSN throughout the propose a new Energy Minimized Opportunistic geographical location for collecting data. The Routing [EMOR] protocol. It makes use of the OR efficiency of the WSN depends on the effective protocol technique for forwarding the packets from routing of the data. source to destination, but in this source location privacy is increased by reducing the transmission In [5] introduction about WSN and power of each node with this energy is also applications of the WSN are discussed. It also explains minimized. the hardware and software used in WSN like microprocessors, power, storage, bandwidth and This paper organized as follows. Section 2 operating systems used in WSN are discussed. presents sensor network and threat model. Section 3 describes EMOR principles. Section 4 presents In [1] authors describe Opportunistic Routing simulation results for the energy minimized (OR), a new unicast routing technique for multi-hop opportunistic routing. Finally, Section 5 presents the wireless networks. OR forwards each packet through a conclusion. sequence of nodes, deferring the choice of each node in the sequence until after the previous node has II. SENSOR NETWORK AND MODELS transmitted the packet on its radio. Assume a large predefined geographical area that In [2] authors proposed to examine source- needs to be monitored, and deploy a wireless sensor location privacy through opportunistic routing. In [3] network consisting of many randomly distributed authors provide a formal model for the source- sensor nodes. The network continuously monitors 345 | P a g e
  • 2. Sudhir Chowdary.N, Siva Rama Krishna.Ch / International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com Vol. 2, Issue 4, July-August 2012, pp.345-348 activities and locations of the target in the area. When in the data frame. Transmitted packets are received by the target is discovered, the corresponding sensor number of nodes which are in the hearing radius of the becomes the source. Every sensor can be the source, transmitting node. and can send packets to neighboring sensors that are in In next step the received nodes have to the limited radio range. The source will continuously acknowledge back according to the priority given in send packets until the adversary discovers the source, the candidate header set. First node in the candidate or the target disappears from the monitoring area. header set should send acknowledgement in first time The system is assumed to have the following slot if it receives the packet, remaining nodes which characteristics: receive packets sends acknowledgement in the time  There is only one destination node at any slots assigned to them. In final step received nodes time; while there can be more than one have to decide whether to forward the or not. If the source. packet is received by the node with highest priority  All the nodes in the network can participate then it will forward the packet else next node will in message transmission; hence, apart from forward. These steps are repeated until the packet detection capabilities they all have transmit reaches the destination. and receive functionality, based on the In opportunistic routing protocol the chances of applied protocol. forwarding the packet by same node is very less, so  Every node in the network knows the address the path between the source and destination changes of the destination node. dynamically. Source location privacy is achieved by  Every node in the network knows its relative using OR since the packet follows different routes to location. reach the destination.  The adversary is assumed to have the B. Energy Minimized Opportunistic Routing: following characteristics: Energy Minimized Opportunistic Routing  The adversary knows the location of the [EMOR] also makes use of the OR principles for destination and can determine the location of transmitting data between source and destination. the sender sensor from the instance of the Apart from the source location privacy EMOR also packet that it overhears. address the energy minimization. As wireless nodes  The adversary can physically move from one are powered by limited energy source efficient utilization of energy is required. There are many sensor to another and has unlimited amount techniques used for efficient energy utilization of the of power. sensor nodes, one of them is reducing the transmission  The adversary will not interfere with the power [6]. By combining the transmission power proper functioning of the network. reduction technique with OR it provides better source location privacy then the existing OR and it also III. ROUTING PROTOCOL reduces the power consumption. PRINCIPLES AND PRIVACY In EMOR data is transmitted with the PROTECTION reduced transmission power, so it takes more number A. Opportunistic Routing principles: of hops for packets to reach the destination. As During the last decade, a number of protocols number of hops between source and destination have been developed in order to improve the increases it takes more time for the adversary to trace performance in wireless sensor networks. One the source, so it provides better source location promising approach is referred to as opportunistic privacy then the existing OR. Since the transmission routing; relay node is opportunistically decided by power of each node is reduced life time of the node is dynamic network conditions such as interference, also increases as energy consumption is reduced. The channel status and congestions. In general transmission power of nodes is reduced in such a way opportunistic routing has three steps: that it does not degrade the total network performance. 1) Select Forwarding Candidates 2) Acknowledgements IV. SIMULATION RESULTS 3) Deciding whether to forward a packet All simulations are performed in the Network In first step transmitting node prepares a set of simulator-2 [NS-2] which is a discrete event network forwarding candidates based on shortest path and simulator for simulating the networks [5]. The network conditions. The node which is nearer to the topology we selected was 500 × 500 where the sensor destination has highest priority and next nearest node nodes are deployed. The simulation parameters has the second priority based on this the forwarding considered are listed in Table-I. Initially, the adversary candidate set is prepared. Then the transmitting node is located next to the destination node. Once it detects broadcasts packets by giving forwarding candidate set a packet, it moves to the node which transmits that 346 | P a g e
  • 3. Sudhir Chowdary.N, Siva Rama Krishna.Ch / International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com Vol. 2, Issue 4, July-August 2012, pp.345-348 packet. In the same time slot, the adversary may detect more than one packet, because in the opportunistic routing each packet can choose different paths to the destination node, with different number of hops. When the adversary detects multiple packets, it moves randomly to one of the transmitters. Parameter Set To Channel type Channel/Wireless Channel MAC type Mac/802_11 Antenna model Antenna/OmniAntenna Fig.1 Safety period Vs Number of Nodes Fig. 2 shows the curves between the energy consumed by system and the number of nodes Max packet in queue 50 participated in the communication. Routing protocol DSR/OR X dimension of 500 topography y dimension of 500 topography Time of simulation end 150 Table 1: Simulation Parameters Safety period is the time taken for eavesdropper to reveal the location of the source Fig. 2 Energy Vs Number of Nodes. before target disappears from the monitoring area. Fig. In Figure 2 on X-axis number of nodes is 1 shows the safety periods of the opportunistic routing taken and on Y-axis energy is taken. From above plot and energy minimized opportunistic routing are it infers that EMOR consumes less energy when compared. As in the case of EMOR since transmission compared to the OR. If optimal transmission power is power is reduced it take more number of hops for the not correctly chosen then the energy consumption by packet to reach the destination, so intruder also takes the system will increase. The ability of the EMOR more time to trace the source. In this way EMOR depends on the correctly choosing of the optimal performs better than the OR protocol by increasing the transmission power. So EMOR offers better safety period. performance than OR in terms of security and energy. In Energy minimized opportunistic routing power of V. CONCLUSION transmitter is reduced so energy consumed by each Source-location privacy is critical to the node is also decreases. successful deployment of many wireless sensor networks, especially in monitoring applications. In this thesis Energy minimized opportunistic protocol is proposed and simulated in extension to the opportunistic routing. The proposed Energy minimized opportunistic routing protocol provides better source location privacy than the opportunistic routing protocol and it also consumes less energy. 347 | P a g e
  • 4. Sudhir Chowdary.N, Siva Rama Krishna.Ch / International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ISSN: 2248-9622 www.ijera.com Vol. 2, Issue 4, July-August 2012, pp.345-348 REFERENCES Sudhir chowdary.N received his B.TECH. degree in [1] Sanjit Biswas and Robert Morris, Electronics and Communication Engineering from “Opportunistic Routing in Multi-Hop Wireless Chaitanya Institute of Engg. & Technology, JNTUH Networks” In ACM SIGCOMM , pp. 133–144, University, India in 2009, M.TECH. degree in NY, USA, Jan. 2004. Communication Systems from S.R.M. University, [2] Petros Spachos, Liang Song, and Dimitrios Chennai in 2011. His research interests include Hatzinakos, “Opportunistic Routing for wireless communications. Enhanced Source-Location Privacy in Wireless Sensor Networks” IEEE Transaction on Communications, pp. 315-318, Kingston, Siva Rama krishna received his B.TECH. degree in Canada, May 2010. Electronics and Communication Engineering from [3] P. Kamat, Yanyong Zhang, W. Trappe, and C. Mother Teresa Institute of Science & Technology, Ozturk, “Enhancing Source-location Privacy in JNTUH University, India in 2009, M.TECH. degree in Sensor Network Routing,” in Distributed Communication Systems from S.R.M. University, Computing Systems, 2005. ICDCS 2005. Chennai in 2011. He is currently working as an Proceedings. 25th IEEE International Assistant Professor in the Department of Electronics Conference, pp. 599–608, Columbus, OH, June and Communication Engineering at SVIST 2005. Engineering College, Tiruvuru, India. Since 2011. His [4] Michele Zorzi, and Ramesh R. Rao, research interests include wireless communications, “Geographic Random Forwarding (GeRaF) for error control coding, diversity combining and MIMO. adhoc and sensor networks: multi-hop performance” IEEE Transactions on Mobile Computing, vol. 2, no. 4, pp.337-348, Oct.-Dec. 2003 [5] David Culler, Deborah Estrin and Mani Srivastava, “Overview of Sensor Networks”, Published by the IEEE Computer Society, vol. 37, no. 8, pp. 41-49, August-2004 [6] Dirk WESTHOFF, Joao GIRAO, and Amardeo SARMA, “Security Solutions for Wireless Sensor Networks”, Special Issue: Dependable IT and Network Technology, vol. 3, no. 3, Nov. 2006. [7] Liang Song and Dimitrios Hatzinakos, “Research Article: Real-Time Communications in Large-Scale Wireless Networks”, Hindawi Publishing Corporation International Journal of Digital Multimedia Broadcasting, vol. 2008, Article ID 586067, pp. 1-17, Sep. 2008. 348 | P a g e