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Liuqing Albert Zhang Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Application
ISSN : 2248-9622, Vol. 3, Issue 5, Sep-Oct 2013, pp.1647-1651

RESEARCH ARTICLE

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OPEN ACCESS

Removal of Chlorine Residual in Tap Water by Boiling or Adding
Ascorbic Acid
Liuqing Albert Zhang
*King George V School, 2 Tin Kwong Rd, Hong Kong

ABSTRACT
Society’s preference for bottled water mainly comes from a dislike of the mildly pungent taste and odor of tap
water. Such odor and taste may be caused by chlorine residual (in the form of free chlorine or chloramines),
which is maintained in a water distribution system to prevent regrowth of microorganisms and is thus present in
tap water. To encourage individuals who drink bottled water to shift to tap water, which affords numerous
financial and environmental advantages, a simple, effective and low-cost method of reducing chlorine residual in
tap water is essential. Two methods of reducing chlorine residual, boiling tap water and adding ascorbic acid to
tap water, were tested. The results showed that, for free chlorine, a quick and cheap way to reduce chlorine
residual is to add ascorbic acid, which if added in an equal molar amount to free chlorine would completely
eliminate chlorine residual within 1 min. For monochloramine, a quick and cheap way to reduce chlorine
residual is also to add ascorbic acid, but in greater quantity due to some ascorbic acid being oxidized by oxygen
in the air. Although boiling is slower, it is effective in removing low concentrations of chlorine residual.
Keywords: Drinking Water, Tap Water, Chlorine Residual, Boiling, Ascorbic Acid.

I.

INTRODUCTION

Chlorine is widely used to disinfect raw
water in drinking water treatment plants. It is low in
cost and effective in inactivating harmful
microorganisms and eliminating waterborne diseases,
such as the cholera-causing bacteria Vibrio cholerae
[1]. Treated water from a treatment plant is distributed
to households via a public drinking water distribution
system. During distribution, a low concentration of
chlorine is maintained to prevent regrowth of
microorganisms in the water, especially due to
possible leaks and other weaknesses in the system [2].
Thus, household tap water contains chlorine residual.
Like its effect on pathogens and parasites,
chlorine attacks delicate body tissues when tap water
is consumed. Many concerns have been raised about
the safety of chlorine residual in tap water, which has
been linked to adverse health effects, including
dementia in elderly patients [3] and heightened food
allergies [4]. More significantly, chlorine residual in
tap water causes a mildly pungent odor and taste,
which may be one of the primary reasons for people to
consume bottled water. It is known that bottled water
is considerably more expensive than tap water. Aside
from financial costs, purchasing bottled water or
delivered water induces environmental costs, mainly
associated with packaging, transportation and
disposal. In any given year in the United States, 17
million barrels of crude oil is used to make plastic for
29 billion bottles of water, which require 50 million
barrels of oil to transport and result in 2 million tons
of non-biodegradable plastic waste [5]. Accordingly, a
simple, effective and low-cost method of reducing

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chlorine residual in tap water is essential for
sustainable and palatable drinking water.
Two forms of chlorine residual exist in tap
water, free chlorine and combined chlorine. When
chlorine gas (Cl2) is applied to water, it undergoes a
disproportionation reaction to form hypochlorous acid
(HOCl) and hydrochloric acid (HCl). Hypochlorous
acid is known as free chlorine. In the presence of
ammonium ions, monochloramine (NH2Cl) is also
formed. Monochloramine is a species of combined
chlorine.
Combined
chlorine
also
includes
dichloramine (NHCl2) and trichloramine (NCl3), but
these two species exist in very low concentrations in
tap water, ranging from 0.0003 to 0.0025 mg/L [6]. In
this investigation, only monochloramine is tested. The
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [7] stipulates
that the annual average concentration of chlorine
residual in tap water must not exceed 4.0 mg/L.
It is known that chlorine residual may
decompose when exposed to sunlight and that ascorbic
acid (in the form of vitamin C tablets, an essential
nutrient and a reducing agent) may reduce chlorine
residual to chloride ions. However, the reduction of
chlorine residual in tap water by heating and boiling
tap water or by adding ascorbic acid to tap water has
not previously been investigated systematically and
quantitatively. Either method is safe and could be a
quick and easily accessible means to reduce chlorine
residual in households. Therefore, boiling tap water
and adding ascorbic acid to tap water were
systematically tested and compared in this
investigation.

1647 | P a g e
Liuqing Albert Zhang Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Application
ISSN : 2248-9622, Vol. 3, Issue 5, Sep-Oct 2013, pp.1647-1651
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

2.2 Removal of Chlorine Residual in Tap Water by
Boiling
A fresh tap water sample was collected
locally. The chlorine residual in it was measured
immediately using the DPD ferrous titration method
[8]. As shown in Results and Discussion, the chlorine
residual in the tap water sample was mainly free
chlorine. Two L of the tap water was heated on a
magnetic stirring heater with temperature monitoring.
A series of 100-mL aliquots of water were sampled at
the temperature of 40, 60, 70, 80, 90, and 100 °C, and
cooled with an iced water bath. The chlorine residual
in each aliquot was measured once it was cooled to
room temperature [8].
To better observe the effect of boiling on
chlorine removal, free chlorine was added to two L of
the tap water at ~4 mg/L as Cl2 (to simulate the
maximum chlorine residual level that is allowed in the
distribution system). The measured chlorine residual
was 4.01 mg/L as Cl2. Then the tap water with added
free chlorine was heated to boiling. A series of
aliquots (~110 mL each) of the boiled water were
sampled at the boiling time of 0 (the moment when the
water reached 100 °C), 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 60 min,
and cooled with an iced water bath. Once an aliquot
was cooled to room temperature, the chlorine residual
in it was measured using the DPD ferrous titration
method [8]. To investigate the effect of boiling on
monochloramine removal, monochloramine was
added to two L of the tap water at ~4 mg/L as Cl2. The
measured chlorine residual was 3.98 mg/L as Cl2. The
above experiment was repeated except that a series of
aliquots were sampled at the boiling time of 0, 5, 10,
20, 30, 45, and 60 min.
2.3 Removal of Chlorine Residual in Tap Water by
Adding Ascorbic Acid
Tikkanen et al. [9] reported that ascorbic acid
could complete reduce free chlorine rapidly at a mole
ratio of 1:1. However, there is rare research on using
ascorbic acid to remove monochloramine. Thus, the
purpose of this experiment is to determine the
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stoichiometric amount of ascorbic acid and the
optimal reaction time for removing monochloramine
in tap water. To better observe the effect of ascorbic
acid on monochloramine removal, monochloramine
was added to five 2-L tap water samples at ~4 mg/L as
Cl2. The measured chlorine residuals in the samples
were in the range of 3.98−4.31 mg/L as Cl2. Then the
five samples were added with ascorbic acid at the
chlorine to ascorbic acid mole ratio of 1:1.00, 1:1.37,
1:1.50, 1:2.00, and 1:2.50. The addition of ascorbic
acid did not significantly change the pH of the five
samples. For each sample, after the addition of
ascorbic acid, a series of aliquots (100 mL each) were
sampled after a reaction time of 0 (without the
addition of ascorbic acid), 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45, and
60 min, and the chlorine residual in each aliquot was
measured immediately [8].
III.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1 Reduction of Chlorine Residual in Tap Water
with Temperature
Figure 1 shows the reduction of chlorine
residual in the tap water with heating temperature. The
temperature in this experiment was directly
proportional to the heating time. The magnetic stirring
heater was kept at a constant stirring speed and a
constant heating rate. This means that the reduction of
chlorine residual was not simply due to longer heating
time.
0.70

Total chlorine as Cl2 (mg/L)

II.

2.1 Chemicals and Reagents
All chemicals used were of analytical grade.
All solutions used were prepared with ultrapure water
(18.2 MΩcm) supplied by a NANOpure system
(Barnstead). Ascorbic acid was purchased from
Sigma, and a stock solution (17600 mg/L) was freshly
prepared before use. A free chlorine stock solution
(NaOCl, ~2000 mg/L as Cl2) was prepared by diluting
a commercial sodium hypochlorite solution (15%
active chlorine, Allied Signal) and standardized using
the N,N-diethyl-p-phenylene diamine (DPD) ferrous
titration method [8] prior to use. An monochloramine
stock solution was prepared just before use by adding
the free chlorine stock solution to an ammonium
chloride solution at a chlorine to ammonia mole ratio
of 0.8:1.0.

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0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
20

40

60
80
Temperature (°C)

100

Figure 1. Reduction of chlorine residual in the tap
water with heating temperature.
As shown in Figure 1, the chlorine residual
decreased faster at higher temperatures. At room
temperature (24 °C), the chlorine residual was 0.60
mg/L as Cl2. At the boiling temperature of water (100
°C), the chlorine residual fell to 0.02 mg/L as Cl2.
3.2 Reduction of Free Chlorine and Monochloramine in Tap Water through Boiling
Heating the water from room temperature
(about 24 °C) to 98 °C required about 30 min. A small
portion of the water (less than 5%), including its
chlorine residual content, was vaporized in this period.
Therefore, the starting concentration of free chlorine
1648 | P a g e
Liuqing Albert Zhang Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Application
ISSN : 2248-9622, Vol. 3, Issue 5, Sep-Oct 2013, pp.1647-1651
or monochloramine was lower than the original
“elevated” concentration.
With added chlorine
With added monochloramine

3.0
2.5

completely remove free chlorine was about 33 min,
and the boiling time required to completely remove
monochloramine was about 44 min.
The decomposition of free chlorine through
boiling is most likely due to the following reaction
[10]:
3OCl− → ClO3− + 2Cl−

2.0

1.0

The decomposition of monochloramine
through boiling is most likely due to the following
reaction:

0.5

3NH2Cl + 3H2O → ClO3− + 3NH4+ + 2Cl−

1.5

0.0
0

20

40
Time (min)

60

Figure 2. Reduction with boiling time of free
chlorine and monochloramine in the tap water with
elevated free chlorine and monochloramine.
Figure 2 shows the reduction with boiling
time of free chlorine and monochloramine in the tap
water
with
elevated
free
chlorine
and
monochloramine. In the set of data for boiling the tap
water with elevated free chlorine, the chlorine residual
refers predominantly to free chlorine. In the set of data
for boiling the tap water with elevated
monochloramine, the chlorine residual refers
predominantly to monochloramine. However, there
was a small concentration of free chlorine in the tap
water with elevated monochloramine and of
monochloramine in the tap water with elevated free
chlorine owing to the presence of free chlorine and
monochloramine in tap water itself.
As shown in Figure 2, both residuals of free
chlorine and monochloramine decreased with boiling
time, and the residual of free chlorine decreased
slightly faster than that of monochloramine. A second
degree polynomial was used to model the curve of
best fit for each set of data.
For the tap water with elevated free chlorine, the
best fit equation of chlorine residual (mg/L as Cl2)
versus boiling time (t, min) can be expressed as
Free Cl2 residual = 0.000843t2 – 0.09881t + 2.5414
For the tap water with elevated
monochloramine, the best fit equation of chlorine
residual (mg/L as Cl2) versus boiling time (t, min) can
be expressed as
2

NH2Cl residual = 0.000522t – 0.08656t + 3.3282
According to the equations, when the
concentration of chlorine residual was 2.00 mg/L as
Cl2, the reduction rates of free chlorine and
monochloramine were 0.0891 and 0.0687 mg/L-min,
respectively. Also, when the chlorine residual was
2.00 mg/L as Cl2, the boiling time required to
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3.3 Effect of Ascorbic Acid on Free Chlorine and
Monochloramine
Ascorbic acid added in a molar ratio of 1:1
(free chlorine to ascorbic acid) completely eliminated
free chlorine. The DPD indicator did not produce a red
color when added within 1 min after the addition of
ascorbic acid. Reduction of free chlorine by ascorbic
acid can be expressed as follows:
C6H8O6 + HOCl → C6H6O6 + HCl + H2O
Ascorbic acid (C6H8O6) is oxidized to
dehydroascorbic acid (C6H6O6) (Bedner et al., 2004).
Simultaneously, free chlorine (HOCl) is reduced to
chloride ions (HCl).
Five tap water samples with added
monochloramine were tested for the effect of ascorbic
acid. Each sample was conducted with a different
molar ratio of monochloramine to ascorbic acid.
Monochloramine was completely eliminated in a short
period of time after the addition of ascorbic acid.
However, 2 min later, the concentration of
monochloramine partially rebounded in 4 of the 5
samples (Figure 3).
Monochloramine as Cl2 (mg/L)

Chlorine residual as Cl2 (mg/L)

3.5

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5.0
1:1.00
1:1.37
1:1.50

4.0

3.0

1:2.00
1:2.50

2.0
1.0
0.0
0

10

20

30
40
Time (min)

50

60

Figure 3. Change with time of monochloramine in
the tap water with elevated monochloramine when
different monochloramine to ascorbic acid mole
ratios were used.

1649 | P a g e
Liuqing Albert Zhang Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Application
ISSN : 2248-9622, Vol. 3, Issue 5, Sep-Oct 2013, pp.1647-1651
In each sample, the concentration of
monochloramine fell to zero within 2 min after the
addition of ascorbic acid. The only exception was the
sample with 1:1.00 monochloramine to ascorbic acid,
but this may have been due to a rebound in the
concentration of monochloramine before the
withdrawal of the aliquot at 2 min. Also, the
concentration of monochloramine did not rebound at
all within 60 min in the repeat with 1:2.50
monochloramine to ascorbic acid. The rebound in the
concentration of monochloramine can be explained in
terms of chemical equilibrium. The reduction of
monochloramine by ascorbic acid can be expressed as:
C6H8O6 + NH2Cl ⇌ C6H6O6 + NH4Cl
Ascorbic acid (C6H8O6) is oxidized to
dehydroascorbic acid (C6H6O6) [11]. Simultaneously,
monochloramine (NH2Cl) is reduced to ammonium
chloride (NH4Cl). When ascorbic acid was added in
excess, the equilibrium position shifted to the right
and monochloramine was initially completely reduced
by ascorbic acid to ammonium chloride. The
concentration of ascorbic acid then gradually fell as it
was oxidized by oxygen dissolved in the solution and
present in the air:
2C6H8O6 + O2 ⇌ 2C6H6O6 + 2H2O
As a result of the decrease in the
concentration of ascorbic acid, the equilibrium
position of the first reaction shifted to the left and
monochloramine was reformed. This occurred until
both of the reactions were in equilibrium. For a larger
excess of ascorbic acid, the time required for ascorbic
acid to be oxidized by air was longer, and thus there
was a delay before the rebound in the concentration of
monochloramine. In the repeat with 1:2.00
monochloramine to ascorbic acid, the rebound did not
occur until 30 min after the addition of ascorbic acid.
In the repeat with 1:2.50, the rebound did not occur at
all in 60 min after the addition of ascorbic acid; this
may have been due to the ascorbic acid being
sufficiently in excess to shift the equilibrium position
in each reaction to the right.
In contrast, the concentration of free chlorine
did not rebound. This is because free chlorine is a
much stronger oxidant than monochloramine. The
equilibrium constant for the reduction of free chlorine
by ascorbic acid is therefore much larger and the
equilibrium position lies far to the right of the
reaction.

IV.

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concentration in the United States [7], it was
determined that 10 mg of ascorbic acid is required to
treat 1 L of tap water. A common vitamin C tablet
weighs 500 mg and is commercially available in
bottles of 300 for US $21. Potentially, this is enough
to treat 15 m3 of tap water. For lower concentrations
of free chlorine (about 0.5 mg/L as Cl2), heating the
tap water from room temperature to boiling
temperature eliminated nearly all of the chlorine
residual. For higher concentrations of free chlorine
(about 4.0 mg/L as Cl2), heating the tap water from
room temperature to boiling temperature plus
additional an boiling time of 30 min eliminated about
95% of the chlorine residual. The latter case is not
recommended due to its high energy cost.
Monochloramine is more difficult to treat. A
44-min boiling was required to eliminate 3.33 mg/L of
monochloramine. The concentration of monochloramine did not rebound. A molar ratio of 1:2.50
monochloramine to ascorbic acid was required to
eliminate monochloramine as well as inhibit its reformation. For tap water containing 4 mg/L of
monochloramine as Cl2, which is the maximum
concentration in the United States, it was determined
that 25 mg of ascorbic acid is required to treat 1 L of
tap water. The same bottle of vitamin C tablets treats 6
m3 of tap water. In comparison to boiling tap water,
adding ascorbic acid to tap water is still quicker,
requiring less than 2 min to eliminate 4 mg/L of
monochloramine.
This investigation has demonstrated that heating
and boiling is effective in reducing of chlorine
residual in tap water when the concentration of
chlorine residual is relatively low; adding ascorbic
acid, on the other hand, affords a much quicker
reduction of chlorine residual in tap water when its
concentration is relatively high. Both methods are
simpler, less expensive and more effective in
obtaining palatable drinking water than purchasing
bottled water or delivered water.

V.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is grateful to Mr. Gary Horner of
King George V School, and Drs. Jiaqi Liu and
Xiangru Zhang of Hong Kong University of Science
& Technology for their guidance in the experimental
design and their suggestions in improving the
manuscript.

REFERENCES
[1]

IV. CONCLUSIONS

The quickest way to reduce the concentration
of free chlorine in tap water is to add powdered
vitamin C (ascorbic acid) tablets. At a ratio of 1:1.00,
free chlorine was completely eliminated by ascorbic
acid in less than 1 min. For tap water containing 4
mg/L of free chlorine as Cl2, which is the maximum

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[2]

L. West, Why is chlorine added to tap water?
About: Environmental Issues. Available
online
at:
http://environment.about.com/od/earthtalk
columns/a/chlorine.htm. Accessed on 11
April 2013.
G. C. White, Handbook of chlorination and
alternative disinfectants, 4th ed. (NY: John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1999)

1650 | P a g e
Liuqing Albert Zhang Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Application
ISSN : 2248-9622, Vol. 3, Issue 5, Sep-Oct 2013, pp.1647-1651
[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

www.ijera.com

J. Siritapetawee, W. Pattanasiriwisawa, and
U. Sirithepthawee, Trace element analysis of
hairs in patients with dementia. Journal of
Synchrotron
Radiation,
17(2),
2010,
268‒272.
N. McDermott, Chlorine in tap water linked
to increase in number of people developing
food allergies. Daily Mail Online. Available
online
at
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article22420
94/Chlorine-tap-water-linkedincrease-number-pe ople-developing-foodallergies.html. Accessed on 11 Apr 2013.
S. C. Didier, Water bottle pollution facts. In
National geographic: green living. Available
online at: http://greenliving.nationalgeogra
phic.com/water-bottle-pollution-2947.html.
Ac-cessed on 11 Apr 2013.
K. Kosaka, K. Seki, N. Kimura, Y.
Kobayashi, and M. Asami, Determination of
trichloramine in drinking water using
headspace
gas
chromatography/mass
spectrometry. Water Science & Technology:
Water Supply, 10(1), 2010, 23‒29.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Basic information about disinfectants in
drinking water: chloramine, chlorine and
chlorine dioxide. Available online at:
http://water.epa.
gov/drink/contaminants/basicinformation/disi
nfectants.cfm. Accessed on 11 Apr 2013.
APHA, AWWA, WEF, 2005. Standard
methods for the examination of water and
wastewater, 21th ed. (DC: Washington,
2005).
M. W. Tikkanen, J. H. Schroeter, L. Y. C.
Leong, and R. Ganesh, Guidance manual for
the disposal of chlorinated water. AWWA
Research Foundation Report 90863 (CO:
American Water Works Association, 2001).
M. Bolyard, P. S. Fair, and D. P. Hautman,
Sources of chlorate ion in US drinking water.
Journal of American Water Works
Association, 85(9), 1993, 81‒88.
M. Bedner, W. A. MacCrehan, and G. R.
Helz, Making chlorine greener: investigation
of alternatives to sulfite for dechlorination.
Water Research, 38(10), 2004, 2505‒2514.

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Jn3516471651

  • 1. Liuqing Albert Zhang Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Application ISSN : 2248-9622, Vol. 3, Issue 5, Sep-Oct 2013, pp.1647-1651 RESEARCH ARTICLE www.ijera.com OPEN ACCESS Removal of Chlorine Residual in Tap Water by Boiling or Adding Ascorbic Acid Liuqing Albert Zhang *King George V School, 2 Tin Kwong Rd, Hong Kong ABSTRACT Society’s preference for bottled water mainly comes from a dislike of the mildly pungent taste and odor of tap water. Such odor and taste may be caused by chlorine residual (in the form of free chlorine or chloramines), which is maintained in a water distribution system to prevent regrowth of microorganisms and is thus present in tap water. To encourage individuals who drink bottled water to shift to tap water, which affords numerous financial and environmental advantages, a simple, effective and low-cost method of reducing chlorine residual in tap water is essential. Two methods of reducing chlorine residual, boiling tap water and adding ascorbic acid to tap water, were tested. The results showed that, for free chlorine, a quick and cheap way to reduce chlorine residual is to add ascorbic acid, which if added in an equal molar amount to free chlorine would completely eliminate chlorine residual within 1 min. For monochloramine, a quick and cheap way to reduce chlorine residual is also to add ascorbic acid, but in greater quantity due to some ascorbic acid being oxidized by oxygen in the air. Although boiling is slower, it is effective in removing low concentrations of chlorine residual. Keywords: Drinking Water, Tap Water, Chlorine Residual, Boiling, Ascorbic Acid. I. INTRODUCTION Chlorine is widely used to disinfect raw water in drinking water treatment plants. It is low in cost and effective in inactivating harmful microorganisms and eliminating waterborne diseases, such as the cholera-causing bacteria Vibrio cholerae [1]. Treated water from a treatment plant is distributed to households via a public drinking water distribution system. During distribution, a low concentration of chlorine is maintained to prevent regrowth of microorganisms in the water, especially due to possible leaks and other weaknesses in the system [2]. Thus, household tap water contains chlorine residual. Like its effect on pathogens and parasites, chlorine attacks delicate body tissues when tap water is consumed. Many concerns have been raised about the safety of chlorine residual in tap water, which has been linked to adverse health effects, including dementia in elderly patients [3] and heightened food allergies [4]. More significantly, chlorine residual in tap water causes a mildly pungent odor and taste, which may be one of the primary reasons for people to consume bottled water. It is known that bottled water is considerably more expensive than tap water. Aside from financial costs, purchasing bottled water or delivered water induces environmental costs, mainly associated with packaging, transportation and disposal. In any given year in the United States, 17 million barrels of crude oil is used to make plastic for 29 billion bottles of water, which require 50 million barrels of oil to transport and result in 2 million tons of non-biodegradable plastic waste [5]. Accordingly, a simple, effective and low-cost method of reducing www.ijera.com chlorine residual in tap water is essential for sustainable and palatable drinking water. Two forms of chlorine residual exist in tap water, free chlorine and combined chlorine. When chlorine gas (Cl2) is applied to water, it undergoes a disproportionation reaction to form hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and hydrochloric acid (HCl). Hypochlorous acid is known as free chlorine. In the presence of ammonium ions, monochloramine (NH2Cl) is also formed. Monochloramine is a species of combined chlorine. Combined chlorine also includes dichloramine (NHCl2) and trichloramine (NCl3), but these two species exist in very low concentrations in tap water, ranging from 0.0003 to 0.0025 mg/L [6]. In this investigation, only monochloramine is tested. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [7] stipulates that the annual average concentration of chlorine residual in tap water must not exceed 4.0 mg/L. It is known that chlorine residual may decompose when exposed to sunlight and that ascorbic acid (in the form of vitamin C tablets, an essential nutrient and a reducing agent) may reduce chlorine residual to chloride ions. However, the reduction of chlorine residual in tap water by heating and boiling tap water or by adding ascorbic acid to tap water has not previously been investigated systematically and quantitatively. Either method is safe and could be a quick and easily accessible means to reduce chlorine residual in households. Therefore, boiling tap water and adding ascorbic acid to tap water were systematically tested and compared in this investigation. 1647 | P a g e
  • 2. Liuqing Albert Zhang Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Application ISSN : 2248-9622, Vol. 3, Issue 5, Sep-Oct 2013, pp.1647-1651 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS 2.2 Removal of Chlorine Residual in Tap Water by Boiling A fresh tap water sample was collected locally. The chlorine residual in it was measured immediately using the DPD ferrous titration method [8]. As shown in Results and Discussion, the chlorine residual in the tap water sample was mainly free chlorine. Two L of the tap water was heated on a magnetic stirring heater with temperature monitoring. A series of 100-mL aliquots of water were sampled at the temperature of 40, 60, 70, 80, 90, and 100 °C, and cooled with an iced water bath. The chlorine residual in each aliquot was measured once it was cooled to room temperature [8]. To better observe the effect of boiling on chlorine removal, free chlorine was added to two L of the tap water at ~4 mg/L as Cl2 (to simulate the maximum chlorine residual level that is allowed in the distribution system). The measured chlorine residual was 4.01 mg/L as Cl2. Then the tap water with added free chlorine was heated to boiling. A series of aliquots (~110 mL each) of the boiled water were sampled at the boiling time of 0 (the moment when the water reached 100 °C), 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 60 min, and cooled with an iced water bath. Once an aliquot was cooled to room temperature, the chlorine residual in it was measured using the DPD ferrous titration method [8]. To investigate the effect of boiling on monochloramine removal, monochloramine was added to two L of the tap water at ~4 mg/L as Cl2. The measured chlorine residual was 3.98 mg/L as Cl2. The above experiment was repeated except that a series of aliquots were sampled at the boiling time of 0, 5, 10, 20, 30, 45, and 60 min. 2.3 Removal of Chlorine Residual in Tap Water by Adding Ascorbic Acid Tikkanen et al. [9] reported that ascorbic acid could complete reduce free chlorine rapidly at a mole ratio of 1:1. However, there is rare research on using ascorbic acid to remove monochloramine. Thus, the purpose of this experiment is to determine the www.ijera.com stoichiometric amount of ascorbic acid and the optimal reaction time for removing monochloramine in tap water. To better observe the effect of ascorbic acid on monochloramine removal, monochloramine was added to five 2-L tap water samples at ~4 mg/L as Cl2. The measured chlorine residuals in the samples were in the range of 3.98−4.31 mg/L as Cl2. Then the five samples were added with ascorbic acid at the chlorine to ascorbic acid mole ratio of 1:1.00, 1:1.37, 1:1.50, 1:2.00, and 1:2.50. The addition of ascorbic acid did not significantly change the pH of the five samples. For each sample, after the addition of ascorbic acid, a series of aliquots (100 mL each) were sampled after a reaction time of 0 (without the addition of ascorbic acid), 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 45, and 60 min, and the chlorine residual in each aliquot was measured immediately [8]. III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Reduction of Chlorine Residual in Tap Water with Temperature Figure 1 shows the reduction of chlorine residual in the tap water with heating temperature. The temperature in this experiment was directly proportional to the heating time. The magnetic stirring heater was kept at a constant stirring speed and a constant heating rate. This means that the reduction of chlorine residual was not simply due to longer heating time. 0.70 Total chlorine as Cl2 (mg/L) II. 2.1 Chemicals and Reagents All chemicals used were of analytical grade. All solutions used were prepared with ultrapure water (18.2 MΩcm) supplied by a NANOpure system (Barnstead). Ascorbic acid was purchased from Sigma, and a stock solution (17600 mg/L) was freshly prepared before use. A free chlorine stock solution (NaOCl, ~2000 mg/L as Cl2) was prepared by diluting a commercial sodium hypochlorite solution (15% active chlorine, Allied Signal) and standardized using the N,N-diethyl-p-phenylene diamine (DPD) ferrous titration method [8] prior to use. An monochloramine stock solution was prepared just before use by adding the free chlorine stock solution to an ammonium chloride solution at a chlorine to ammonia mole ratio of 0.8:1.0. www.ijera.com 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 20 40 60 80 Temperature (°C) 100 Figure 1. Reduction of chlorine residual in the tap water with heating temperature. As shown in Figure 1, the chlorine residual decreased faster at higher temperatures. At room temperature (24 °C), the chlorine residual was 0.60 mg/L as Cl2. At the boiling temperature of water (100 °C), the chlorine residual fell to 0.02 mg/L as Cl2. 3.2 Reduction of Free Chlorine and Monochloramine in Tap Water through Boiling Heating the water from room temperature (about 24 °C) to 98 °C required about 30 min. A small portion of the water (less than 5%), including its chlorine residual content, was vaporized in this period. Therefore, the starting concentration of free chlorine 1648 | P a g e
  • 3. Liuqing Albert Zhang Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Application ISSN : 2248-9622, Vol. 3, Issue 5, Sep-Oct 2013, pp.1647-1651 or monochloramine was lower than the original “elevated” concentration. With added chlorine With added monochloramine 3.0 2.5 completely remove free chlorine was about 33 min, and the boiling time required to completely remove monochloramine was about 44 min. The decomposition of free chlorine through boiling is most likely due to the following reaction [10]: 3OCl− → ClO3− + 2Cl− 2.0 1.0 The decomposition of monochloramine through boiling is most likely due to the following reaction: 0.5 3NH2Cl + 3H2O → ClO3− + 3NH4+ + 2Cl− 1.5 0.0 0 20 40 Time (min) 60 Figure 2. Reduction with boiling time of free chlorine and monochloramine in the tap water with elevated free chlorine and monochloramine. Figure 2 shows the reduction with boiling time of free chlorine and monochloramine in the tap water with elevated free chlorine and monochloramine. In the set of data for boiling the tap water with elevated free chlorine, the chlorine residual refers predominantly to free chlorine. In the set of data for boiling the tap water with elevated monochloramine, the chlorine residual refers predominantly to monochloramine. However, there was a small concentration of free chlorine in the tap water with elevated monochloramine and of monochloramine in the tap water with elevated free chlorine owing to the presence of free chlorine and monochloramine in tap water itself. As shown in Figure 2, both residuals of free chlorine and monochloramine decreased with boiling time, and the residual of free chlorine decreased slightly faster than that of monochloramine. A second degree polynomial was used to model the curve of best fit for each set of data. For the tap water with elevated free chlorine, the best fit equation of chlorine residual (mg/L as Cl2) versus boiling time (t, min) can be expressed as Free Cl2 residual = 0.000843t2 – 0.09881t + 2.5414 For the tap water with elevated monochloramine, the best fit equation of chlorine residual (mg/L as Cl2) versus boiling time (t, min) can be expressed as 2 NH2Cl residual = 0.000522t – 0.08656t + 3.3282 According to the equations, when the concentration of chlorine residual was 2.00 mg/L as Cl2, the reduction rates of free chlorine and monochloramine were 0.0891 and 0.0687 mg/L-min, respectively. Also, when the chlorine residual was 2.00 mg/L as Cl2, the boiling time required to www.ijera.com 3.3 Effect of Ascorbic Acid on Free Chlorine and Monochloramine Ascorbic acid added in a molar ratio of 1:1 (free chlorine to ascorbic acid) completely eliminated free chlorine. The DPD indicator did not produce a red color when added within 1 min after the addition of ascorbic acid. Reduction of free chlorine by ascorbic acid can be expressed as follows: C6H8O6 + HOCl → C6H6O6 + HCl + H2O Ascorbic acid (C6H8O6) is oxidized to dehydroascorbic acid (C6H6O6) (Bedner et al., 2004). Simultaneously, free chlorine (HOCl) is reduced to chloride ions (HCl). Five tap water samples with added monochloramine were tested for the effect of ascorbic acid. Each sample was conducted with a different molar ratio of monochloramine to ascorbic acid. Monochloramine was completely eliminated in a short period of time after the addition of ascorbic acid. However, 2 min later, the concentration of monochloramine partially rebounded in 4 of the 5 samples (Figure 3). Monochloramine as Cl2 (mg/L) Chlorine residual as Cl2 (mg/L) 3.5 www.ijera.com 5.0 1:1.00 1:1.37 1:1.50 4.0 3.0 1:2.00 1:2.50 2.0 1.0 0.0 0 10 20 30 40 Time (min) 50 60 Figure 3. Change with time of monochloramine in the tap water with elevated monochloramine when different monochloramine to ascorbic acid mole ratios were used. 1649 | P a g e
  • 4. Liuqing Albert Zhang Int. Journal of Engineering Research and Application ISSN : 2248-9622, Vol. 3, Issue 5, Sep-Oct 2013, pp.1647-1651 In each sample, the concentration of monochloramine fell to zero within 2 min after the addition of ascorbic acid. The only exception was the sample with 1:1.00 monochloramine to ascorbic acid, but this may have been due to a rebound in the concentration of monochloramine before the withdrawal of the aliquot at 2 min. Also, the concentration of monochloramine did not rebound at all within 60 min in the repeat with 1:2.50 monochloramine to ascorbic acid. The rebound in the concentration of monochloramine can be explained in terms of chemical equilibrium. The reduction of monochloramine by ascorbic acid can be expressed as: C6H8O6 + NH2Cl ⇌ C6H6O6 + NH4Cl Ascorbic acid (C6H8O6) is oxidized to dehydroascorbic acid (C6H6O6) [11]. Simultaneously, monochloramine (NH2Cl) is reduced to ammonium chloride (NH4Cl). When ascorbic acid was added in excess, the equilibrium position shifted to the right and monochloramine was initially completely reduced by ascorbic acid to ammonium chloride. The concentration of ascorbic acid then gradually fell as it was oxidized by oxygen dissolved in the solution and present in the air: 2C6H8O6 + O2 ⇌ 2C6H6O6 + 2H2O As a result of the decrease in the concentration of ascorbic acid, the equilibrium position of the first reaction shifted to the left and monochloramine was reformed. This occurred until both of the reactions were in equilibrium. For a larger excess of ascorbic acid, the time required for ascorbic acid to be oxidized by air was longer, and thus there was a delay before the rebound in the concentration of monochloramine. In the repeat with 1:2.00 monochloramine to ascorbic acid, the rebound did not occur until 30 min after the addition of ascorbic acid. In the repeat with 1:2.50, the rebound did not occur at all in 60 min after the addition of ascorbic acid; this may have been due to the ascorbic acid being sufficiently in excess to shift the equilibrium position in each reaction to the right. In contrast, the concentration of free chlorine did not rebound. This is because free chlorine is a much stronger oxidant than monochloramine. The equilibrium constant for the reduction of free chlorine by ascorbic acid is therefore much larger and the equilibrium position lies far to the right of the reaction. IV. www.ijera.com concentration in the United States [7], it was determined that 10 mg of ascorbic acid is required to treat 1 L of tap water. A common vitamin C tablet weighs 500 mg and is commercially available in bottles of 300 for US $21. Potentially, this is enough to treat 15 m3 of tap water. For lower concentrations of free chlorine (about 0.5 mg/L as Cl2), heating the tap water from room temperature to boiling temperature eliminated nearly all of the chlorine residual. For higher concentrations of free chlorine (about 4.0 mg/L as Cl2), heating the tap water from room temperature to boiling temperature plus additional an boiling time of 30 min eliminated about 95% of the chlorine residual. The latter case is not recommended due to its high energy cost. Monochloramine is more difficult to treat. A 44-min boiling was required to eliminate 3.33 mg/L of monochloramine. The concentration of monochloramine did not rebound. A molar ratio of 1:2.50 monochloramine to ascorbic acid was required to eliminate monochloramine as well as inhibit its reformation. For tap water containing 4 mg/L of monochloramine as Cl2, which is the maximum concentration in the United States, it was determined that 25 mg of ascorbic acid is required to treat 1 L of tap water. The same bottle of vitamin C tablets treats 6 m3 of tap water. In comparison to boiling tap water, adding ascorbic acid to tap water is still quicker, requiring less than 2 min to eliminate 4 mg/L of monochloramine. This investigation has demonstrated that heating and boiling is effective in reducing of chlorine residual in tap water when the concentration of chlorine residual is relatively low; adding ascorbic acid, on the other hand, affords a much quicker reduction of chlorine residual in tap water when its concentration is relatively high. Both methods are simpler, less expensive and more effective in obtaining palatable drinking water than purchasing bottled water or delivered water. V. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is grateful to Mr. Gary Horner of King George V School, and Drs. Jiaqi Liu and Xiangru Zhang of Hong Kong University of Science & Technology for their guidance in the experimental design and their suggestions in improving the manuscript. REFERENCES [1] IV. 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