Groundwater provides 65% of India's water needs. Dr Tushaar Shah is one of India's foremost researchers on groundwater. This is a presentation at a groundwater conference in Pune organized by ACWADAM and supported by Arghyam. This presentation belongs to Dr. Tushaar Shah. Any reuse requires his permission, you can write to t.shah@cgiar.org with a cc to portal@arghyam.org

1. Acwadam Groundwater Conference
May 21-22, 2009, Pune
Growing Role of Groundwater in
Indian Irrigation in Transition:
:
Needed Transition from
Surface to Aquifer Storage?
Tushaar Shah
International Water Management Institute
t.shah@cgiar.org www.iwmi.org

2. Evolution of Indian Irrigation:
Era of adaptive irrigation-upto 1830
• Community was the unit of irrigation management
% Contribution to aggregate
Farm output and incomes Rainfall and Soil moisture
Flow irrigation from tanks, canals, rivers
Lift irrigation from wells and surface sources
% of water consumptively used in agriculture

3. Evolution of Indian Irrigation:
Era of canal construction-1830-1970
• State emerged as the architect, builder, manager of irrigation
Soil moisture management
% Contribution to aggregate
Farm output and incomes Flow irrigation from tanks, canals, rivers
Lift irrigation from wells & surface sources
% water consumptively used in agriculture

4. Evolution of Indian Irrigation:
Era of atomistic pump irrigation-1970-todate
Individual farmer as the irrigation manager
% Contribution Soil moisture management
To Farm output &
incomes Flow irrigation
Pump irrigation from
groundwater
% of water consumptively used in agriculture

5. India is the world’s largest user
of groundwater in agriculture in the world.
300
250 India has over 20
c u b ic k m / y e a r
200 million irrigation
wells. We add 0.8
150 million/year.
100
50 Every fourth
cultivator owns an
0
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
irrigation well; non-
owners depend on
groundwater
US W.Europe Spain
Mexico China India markets.
Pakistan Bangladesh Sri Lanka
Vietnam Ghana South Africa
Tunisia

6. 5000.00
10000.00
15000.00
20000.00
25000.00
30000.00
0.00
Ae a n
z rb ija
0 0h
0 a
P ru
e
Np l
ea
Ey t
gp
P ilip in s
h p e
K re , D m e p 's
o a e P o le
Iraq
Su A a
o th fric
T n ia
u is
U b k ta
z e is n
a a h ta
Kz k s n
fg a is n
A h n ta
M ro c
o co
A e tin
rg n a
Cb
ua
Y mn
e e
other sources)
J pn
aa
B z
ra il
S ria A bR p b
y n ra e u lic
T rk y
u e
India also has the largest area
Su iA b
a d ra ia
Mx o
e ic
B n la e h
ag ds
under groundwater irrigation in the world.
Ira , Is m R po
n la ic e f
P k ta
a is n
Groundw ater irrigated area in countries w ith intensive
groundw ater use in agriculture (FAO Aquastat 2003 and
UA
S
C in
h a
In ia
d

7. Over half of India’s irrigation pumps
were installed after 1990..
1970
Pre-
-80
1970
India’s
Groundwater
Juggernaut is still
Accelerating!!!
1980-90 After
1990

8. Until 1970, canals dominated irrigated agriculture; since then,
tube wells have emerged as engines of agricultural growth.
60
1970-73
% A i uuaGP
o g c l rl D
40
f r t
20
0
1 21 41 61 81 101 121 141 161 181 201 221 241
Districts
60
1990-93
Pre t g t Ar u ua GP
ec na e o gi l r l D
40
ct
20
0
1 21 41 61 81 101 121 141 161 181 201 221 241
Districts
% contribution of SWI to Agricultural GDP % contribution of GWI to Agricultural GDP

9. India’s groundwater story
Unique, as are its drivers.
We need to invent our own GW use moves inversely
Solutions. With resource endowments
Long-term average
groundwater recharge
The only region
where humid areas
India is the only country depend heavily on
where hardrock aquifers groundwater.
are exploited on such a
large scale
Source: Döll, P., Lehner, B., Kaspar, F. (2002): Global modeling of
groundwater recharge. In Schmitz, G.H. (ed.): Proceedings of Third
International Conference on Water Resources and the Environment Research,
Technical University of Dresden, Germany, ISBN 3-934253-17-2, Vol. I, 27-31

10. Growth in Population Density around
he world (people/km2) , 1700 – 1990

11. Expanding Cropland 1700-1990
Fraction of grid cell in croplands

12. Drivers of Atomistic Irrigation:
Ghettoization of India’s Agriculture
Shrinking of operated farm holdings in India
Small-holders add most to groundwater irrigation
(Source: NSS reports)
(Source: Agri. Census
3
450
2.63
ir rig a t e d a re a s : 1 9 7 0 - 7 1 = 1 0 0
2.5 400
% g ro w t h in g r o u n d w a t e r
2.2 350
India’s groundwater boom is
2 300
1970-71
1.67 250 1976-77
1.5
ha
1
in some respects a response to
1.34
1.06
200
150
1980-81
0.5 Disguized unemployment in agriculture. 100
50
1985-86
1990-91
0 0 1995-96
1960-61 1970-71 1981-82 1991-92 2002-03 Marginal (<1 Small (1-2 ha) Medium (2-10 Large (>10
ha) ha) ha)=
(17th) (26th) (37th) (48th) (59th)
Farm holdings
The compelling advantage of pump irrigation is that it enables
water-scavenging at will. Instead of adapting agriculture to
Irrigation system, it adapts irrigation to farming system.

13. Our irrigation planning is preoccupied with food grains;
Indian farmer is diversifying in a hurry.
Figure Changing structure of Indian agricultural Canal and tank irrigated
production areas condemned to low-
value crops unresponsive to
100% 3
precision irrigation.
4 4 6 7
90% 11 10 13
% of value of agricultural output
16 19 Much diversification is
80%
21 21 Occurring outside
70% 21
21 Command areas (IFPRI).
60% 28
50% Much diversification
40% Requires small dozes of
30% 65 66 62 Year-round, on-demand
57
46 Irrigation.
20%
10%
Value added farming
0% Will expand with
1961-62 1971-72 1981-82 1991-92 2000-01 Waste-water irrigation and
Field crops, sugar, fibres High value crops Milk Other livestock
Groundwater.

14. Classes of Irrigators in India
Rented diesel pump
Own diesel pump
Gross revenue & Own and
Electric pump
Irrigation cost/ha rented gen-
Own electric pumps
sets
purchase
15-18 million
canals & tanks
Marginal farmers
7-8 and share
cropper families
mha
10-12 12-15
mha mha
30-32 mha
20-22 mha
Million ha of irrigated area

15. Consequences of
Groundwater Boom
The problem is:
We neither manage
The supply side nor
The demand side.
•Groundwater depletion and decline in drought resilience
•Quality degradation and public health hazard
•High energy costs and unsustainable farming
•4% of India’s GHG by pumping
•Challenge of adapting to Climate Change

16. Rethinking Storage
India’s Water Challenge
India has built some 270 billion m3 of surface storage which is
proving a dead-weight. It irrigates only 15-16 m ha while the
same amount of groundwater irrigates 4 times more.
No matter how much we invest in surface storage, India’s
dependence on aquifer storage will continue to increase.
RWH, Groundwater Recharge and Conjunctive management of
rain, surface and groundwater should be the
new mantra of water management.
Recharge projects should be done with
people’s participation but with strong science input.
Retrofitting canal systems as piped systems delivering
pressurized irrigation or recharge needs to be considered.

17. Figure Response of Monsoonal Recovery in Water Level to Pre-
monsoon Depth to Water Level
Figure 4: Aquifer Recovery and Pre-monsoon Water Level in 145 Districts
of India: Minor Irrigation Census 1993-94
700 1200
600
1000
500
800
400
Feet
feet
300 600
200 400
100 200
0 0
1 19 37 55 73 91 109 127 145 163 181 199 217 235 253 271
1 21 41 61 81 101 121 141
272 Sample Villages: IWMI Survey of India, Pakistan, Nepal
145 district in ascending order of Pre-monsoon water table
and Bangladesh
Pre-monsoon Water Level (feet) Monsoonal Rise in WL (ft)
Pre-monsoon Water Table Monsoonal Rise in Water Table (ft)
• What factors influence monsoonal recovery in groundwater levels
most?
• Pre-monsoon depth to the water level, regardless of rainfall pattern and hydro-geology.
• This was strongly supported by our survey data.
• It was also strongly supported by 1995 Minor Irrigation Census data.
• Implication?
• to a certain extent groundwater availability increases with resource development.

18. National Groundwater Recharge Master Plan
developed by the CGWB aims to recharge 36
BCM by investing Rs 25000 crore..BUT
Uncommitted surplus water
available for recharge
Low Distributed RWH High
and
groundwater recharge can be a big
Pressure on Low Neither needed in these
part of the solution possible but not
groundwater nor easy needed
areas. Saurashtra and Kachchh
resources are leading Gujarat’s agricultural
High Badly needed but possible
revolution. and
difficult without needed
reallocation of
water resources

19. Average Annual GrowthNever known Gross State Domestic Product
Rates of for vibrant
agriculture, Gujarat’s
(GSDP) and Gross State Domestic Product from Agriculture
agricultural GDP has grown @
(GSDPA): Major States and All India (%): 2000/01 to 2007/08
record 9.5%/year during
(Gulati, Shah and Sreedhar 2009)
2002-2007. Distributed
recharge is an important
contributor.

20. Economics of Rainfed Farming in Saurashtra
Value formation on rainfed farm:
Value form ation on rainfed farm :
Early mNormal Monsoon al
onsoon w ithdraw
250 1000
200 400 800
3000
m m rain fall
Rs/acre
150 300 600
R s/acre
2000
100 200 400
1000
50 100 200
0 0
0 0
O ct
M ar
Aug e
Febn
F eb
Sept
Septly
Dec v
Janc
Apr r
Octg
June
Mar
July
Nov
J un
No
De
Ja
Ap
Ju
Au
Precipitation mm
Expected cumulative value formation/acre
Precipitation Expected cumulative value formation/acre

21. Economics of Rainfed Farming in Saurashtra:
With Distributed Groundwater Recharge
Rainfed Farming with Distributed Recharge:
Rainfed Farming with Distributed Recharge: Early
Normal Monsoon
Withdrawal of Monsoon
350 8000
250 5000
300 7000 4500
6000 200 4000
250
3500
mm rainfall
5000 150 3000
Rs/acre
Rs/acre
200
mm
4000 2500
150 100 2000
3000
1500
100
2000 50 1000
50 1000 500
0 0
0 0
Nov
June
Jan
July
Mar
Apr
Aug
Feb
Sept
Oct
Dec
May
June
Jan
Feb
Oct
Mar
July
Nov
Dec
May
Sept
Aug
Apr
Precipitation Expected cumulative value formation/acre Precipitation Expected cumulative value formation/acre

22. Rethinking Storage
India’s Water Challenge
Western and Southern India have 11 million
Dugwells. Many are out of use but are
Excellent recharge structures.
100 over-exploited
Hardrock districts already
Have 7-7.5 million open wells
That can be readily
used.

23. There is also dire need
For big-ticket
Solutions to groundwater
Demand management
That can act quickly. Gujarat’s
Jyotigram scheme is an
Example.

24. Rural Gujarat Rewired under
Jyotirgram Yojana
Figure 1 a Electricity Network Before Figure 1 b Electricity Network after

25. Rural power supply environment :
before and after JGS
• Before • After
• Tubewells get 12-13 hours of 3- • Farmers get 8 hours/day of high
phase power supply of variable voltage uninterrupted power at
voltage, with frequent tripping, at fixed schedules; night in one week,
unknown times mostly during nights day-time the next
• Flat tariff: Rs 350-500/hp/year • Flat tariff Rs 850/hp/year
• Massive use of capacitors to • Capacitors out; impossible
convert 1 and 2 phase power to
run tubewells
• Non-farm users get 24-hour non-
stop single phase power
• Non-farm users de-electrified
because of capacitors
• Motor burn out at the minimum
• Motor burn-out and rewinding the
most important part of
maintenance cost • New connections allowed at high
costs; now rationed;
• New connections not available.

26. Electricity Utilities;
Rural Electrification
Corporation
Energy-
Groundwater
Nexus
Irrigation Deptts;
Conj. Mgt. of Groundwater Recharge
Watershed
Rain, surface Participatory Master Plan; CGWB;
Managers;
And ground Groundwater GW Deptts; NGOs;
Rainfed Authority
water Spheres of Recharge
Groundwater
Governance
Adaptation to
Irrigation
Micro- Groundwater Water Supply agencies;
Equipment Co’s;
Quality Public Health Agencies;
MI Subsidy; irrigation
decline NGO’s; technology
MI SPVs (e.g. GGRC)
providers

27. Highlights
• History of Indian irrigation: Three Phases and a Turning Point.
• Since 1975, Indian agriculture has emerged as the world’s largest user of
groundwater to grow food and fibre.
• The groundwater boom is fired by population pressure on land and demands of
intensive diversification of farming.
• Despite growing investments, canal and tank commands are shrinking. Tubewells
are canibalizing flow irrigation.
• India’s irrigation challenge today is one of managing its sub-continental aquifer
systems, a vast reservoir we have left unmanaged.
• Intensive groundwater use may be easier to manage in hard rock than in alluvial
aquifers.
• RWH and groundwater recharge need to be India’s new mantra. Hydro-
geologists have to take a lead..
• To govern groundwater wisely, we need to master its demand side as much as
its supply side.

28. Thank You.