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PSYC 1113 Chapter 5
- 2. Learning Processes • Classical conditioning • Behaviorism • Operant conditioning
- 3. Adaptation to the Environment • Learning—any process through which experience at one time can alter an individual’s behavior at a future time
- 4. Adaptation to the Environment • Conditioning—the process of learning the associations between environmental events and behavioral responses
- 5. Behaviorism • The attempt to understand observable activity in terms of observable stimuli and observable responses • John B. Watson (1913) • B. F. Skinner (1938)
- 7. Pavlov’s Dogs • Digestive reflexes and salivation • Psychic secretion
- 8. Neutral Stimulus—Bell • Does not normally elicit a response or reflex action by itself –a bell ringing –a color –a furry object
- 9. Unconditioned Stimulus—Food • Always elicits a reflex action: an unconditioned response –food –blast of air –noise
- 10. Unconditioned Response— Salivation • A response to an unconditioned stimulus— naturally occurring –Salivation at smell of food –Eye blinks at blast of air –Startle reaction in babies
- 11. Conditioned Stimulus—Bell • The stimulus that was originally neutral becomes conditioned after it has been paired with the unconditioned stimulus • Will eventually elicit the unconditioned response by itself
- 12. Conditioned Response • The original unconditioned response becomes conditioned after it has been elicited by the neutral stimulus
- 14. Classical Conditioning Phenomenon • Extinction • Spontaneous recovery • Stimulus generalization • Discrimination training
- 15. John B. Watson and Little Albert • Conditioned emotional responses • Generalization • Extinction
- 18. Classical Conditioning and Drug Use • Regular use may produce “placebo response” where user associates sight, smell, taste with the drug effect • Conditioned compensatory response (CCR) —classically conditioned response in which stimuli that reliably precede the administration of a drug elicit physiological reaction that is opposite to the drug’s effects. May be one explanation for the characteristics of withdrawal and tolerance.
- 19. Cognitive Aspects of Classical Conditioning • Reliable and unreliable signals • Actively process information • Robert Rescorla
- 20. Evolutionary Perspective • Conditioned taste aversions • Internal stimuli—associate better with taste • External stimuli—associate better with pain • Biological preparedness • John Garcia—not all neutral stimuli can become conditioned stimuli.
- 21. Early Operant Conditioning • E. L. Thorndike (1898) • Puzzle boxes and cats Scratch at bars Push at ceiling Dig at floor Situation: stimuli inside of puzzle box Howl Etc. Etc. Press lever First Trial in Box Scratch at bars Push at ceiling Dig at floor Situation: stimuli inside of puzzle box Howl Etc. Etc. Press lever After Many Trials in Box
- 22. Edward L. Thorndike ( 1874–1949)
- 23. B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)
- 24. B. F. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning • Did not like Thorndike’s term “satisfying state of affairs” • Interested in emitted behaviors • Operant—voluntary response that acts on the environment to produce consequences
- 25. Reinforcement—the occurrence of a stimulus following a response that increases the likelihood of the response being repeated Operant Conditioning
- 27. Reinforcers • Primary—a stimulus that is inherently reinforcing for a species (biological necessities) • Conditioned—a stimulus that has acquired reinforcing value by being associated with a primary reinforcer
- 28. Punishment Presentation of a stimulus following a behavior that acts to decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated
- 29. Problems with Punishment • Does not teach or promote alternative, acceptable behavior • May produce undesirable results such as hostility, passivity, fear • Likely to be temporary • May model aggression
- 31. Operant Conditioning Terms • Shaping • Extinction • Spontaneous recovery • Discriminative stimuli • Schedules of reinforcement
- 32. Discriminative Stimuli Environmental cues that tell us when a particular response is likely to be reinforced
- 33. Reinforcement Schedules • Continuous—every correct response is reinforced; good way to get a low- frequency behavior to occur • Partial—only some correct responses are reinforced; good way to make a behavior resistant to extinction
- 34. Partial Schedules—Ratio • Ratio schedules are based on number of responses emitted • Fixed ratio (FR)—a reinforcer is delivered after a certain (fixed) number of correct responses • Variable ratio (VR)—a reinforcer is delivered after an average number of responses, but varies from trial to trial
- 36. Partial Schedules—Interval • Interval schedules are based on time. • Fixed interval (FI)—reinforcer is delivered for the first response after a fixed period of time has elapsed • Variable interval (VI)—reinforcer is delivered for the first response after an average time has elapsed, differs between trials
- 37. Cognitive Aspects of Operant Conditioning • Cognitive map—term for a mental representation of the layout of a familiar environment • Latent learning—learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement, but is not demonstrated until a reinforcer is available • Learned helplessness—phenomenon in which exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable aversive events produces passive behavior
- 38. Biological Predispositions • Animal training issues • Instinctive drift—naturally occurring behaviors that interfere with operant responses
- 39. Classical Conditioning Versus Operant Conditioning
- 40. Observation Learning • Observation • Modeling • Imitation • Albert Bandura and the Bobo doll study
- 42. Do as I say, not as I do. This will teach you to hit your brother! Why do you do that? You know you get in trouble for it. Famous Last Words???
Notas del editor
- Extinction- lack of reinforcement of the response and the resulting decline in response rate -an operantly conditioned response declines in rate and eventually disappears if it no longer results in a reinforcer ex: rats quit pressing levers if food pellets no longer appear Extinction is not true “unlearning” of the response but rather a learned inhibition of responding The mere passage of time following extinction can partially renew the conditioned reflex; called spontaneous recovery Generalization- phenomenon in which , after conditioning, stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus will elicit the conditioned response even though they themselves were never paired with the unconditioned response. Discrimination training can abolish generalization between two stimuli. By not linking the unconditioned stimulus to the neutral stimulus that has been generalized to, the animal will discriminate.
- Thorndike put cats into puzzle boxes and made them find the solution to their quandary. Thorndike did not elicit a response as Pavlov had, he had to wait for the animal to emit the proper response, learn from it and do it again. The trial and error process through which the animals learned the way to trip the latch was what Thorndike called his law of effect. Responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation. Instrumental responses - actions which function as tools to work some change in the environment; also called operant responses. Ex: flipping a switch to light a room; rats pushing a lever to receive food Operant conditioning- learning process by which the consequence of an operant response affects the likelihood that the response will occur in the future.
- We are pulled as well as pushed by events in our environment. We do not just react to stimuli; we also behave in ways to produce or obtain certain environmental changes or stimuli. Shaping- process in which successively closer approximations to the desired response are reinforced until the response finally occurs Consequences- what happens after a response positive reinforcement - the arrival of some stimulus following a response which makes the response more likely to occur; stimulus called a positive reinforcer negative reinforcement- the removal of some stimulus following a response which makes the response more likely to occur; stimulus called a negative reinforcer punishment- opposite of reinforcement; the consequence of a response decreases the likelihood that the response will occur