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Essential Histories

The Peloponnesian War
431-404 BC

                      OSPREY
Philip de Souza       PUBLISHING
Essential Histories

The Peloponnesian War
431-404 BC

                      OSPREY
Philip de Souza       PUBLISHING
First published in Great Britain in 2002 by Osprey Publishing.        For a complete list of titles available from Osprey Publishing
Elms Court, Chapel Way. Botley, Oxford OX2 9LR UK.                    please contact:
Email: info@ospreypublishing.com
                                                                      Osprey Direct UK, PO Box 140,
© 2002 Osprey Publishing Limited                                      Wellingborough. Northants. NN8 2FA. UK.
                                                                      Email: info@ospreydirect,co.uk
All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose
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the Copyright, Design and Patents Act. 1988. no part of this          PO Box 1. 729 Prospect Ave,
publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or       Osceola, Wl 54020. USA,
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, electrical,      Email: info@ospreydirectusa.com
chemical, mechanical, optical, photocopying, recording or             www.ospreypublishing.com
otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright
owner Enquiries should be made to the Publishers.

Every attempt has been made by the publisher to secure the            Dedication
appropriate permissions for material reproduced in this book. If      For Debra
there has been any oversight we will be happy to rectify the
situation and written submission should be made to the                Author's Preface
Publishers,
                                                                      This book was written under exceptionally difficult
ISBN I 84176 357 8                                                    circumstances, I am enormously grateful to Rebecca Cullen for
                                                                      her understanding and patience. I am once more indebted to my
Editor: Rebecca Cullen                                                wife Debra for her love and support
Design: Ken Vail Graphic Design. Cambridge, UK
Cartography by The Map Studio
Index by Bob Munro
Picture research by Image Select International
Origination by Grasmere Digital Imaging. Leeds, UK
Printed and bound in China by L. Rex Printing Company Ltd,

02 03    04    05   06    10 9     8   7   6 5    4   3   2   I
Contents

                                      Introduction             7

                                      Chronology               9

                                      Background to war

                             The rise of Athens 11

                                           Warring sides

                             Athens and Sparta                19

                                                Outbreak
                  Fear and suspicion lead to war              28

                                             The fighting
                          The first twenty years              33

                                     Portrait of a soldier
                         A ship's captain at war              63

                                  The world around war
                             Politics and culture             73

                                     Portrait of a civilian
           Hipparete, an Athenian citizen woman               79

                                    How the war ended
                              The fall of Athens              85

                            Conclusion and consequences


                        The triumph of Sparta?                91

                                 Further reading              93

                                                 Index        94
Introduction

This book gives a concise account of one of           Thucydides' work is incomplete, tailing off
the key periods of Classical Greek history.       literally in mid sentence, just as he is
The Peloponnesian War, which lasted from          explaining what happened after an Athenian
431 to 404 BC, was a conflict between the         naval victory in 411. It is likely that he had
Greek city-states of Athens and Sparta. It was    either died, or at least stopped working on it
a confrontation between the leading land          by 396 because he does not seem to know
power of the time, Sparta, and the leading sea    about an eruption of Mount Etna on Sicily
power, Athens. In a wider sense it was also a     that occurred in this year. We do not know
clash between a cautious, traditional             whether he simply had not written any of
oligarchy and an ambitious, innovative            the remaining books which would have
democracy. It is called the Peloponnesian War     covered the period 410 to 404 (there were
because Sparta was the head of an alliance of     probably to be two more), or whether he had
Greek states from the Peloponnese, the            drafts or notes but no final versions.
southernmost peninsula of mainland Greece.            Another Athenian historian, Xenophon,
The stories of the Peloponnesian War feature      continued the story of the war from a point
some of the great personalities of the            just a few months after the latest events
Classical World, including the revered            recorded by Thucydides. This could imply
Athenian statesman Perikles, the bold and         that Xenophon had a version of Thucydides'
resourceful Spartans Brasidas and Gylippos,       work which was slightly longer than the one
the flamboyant Athenian general Alkibiades        which now survives, for it seems clear that he
and the Spartan leader Lysandros, who             intended his to be a continuation of
eventually achieved the decisive naval victory    Thucydides', although he is less detailed and
that the Spartans needed to win the war.          analytical than Thucydides. Xenophon called
    The enduring fame of the Peloponnesian        his work the Hellenika, meaning an account
War is due in no small way to its principal       of the doings of the Hellenes, which was the
 historian, Thucydides, an Athenian citizen       Greeks' name for themselves. We can
who took part in some of the early stages of      supplement these two main accounts from
the war as a naval commander. He was exiled       the works of many later classical writers, who
from Athens in 424 and he decided to write        provide biographical and historical details
a detailed account of the war because, in his     not mentioned by Thucydides or Xenophon,
view, it was such an important war that it        along with a small number of original
was more worthy of a written history than         documents from the time of the war, mostly
any previous conflict. He carefully gathered      decrees of the Athenians inscribed on stone.
as much information as possible, from                Thucydides was the first writer who, in
eye-witnesses and documents, so that he           explaining the origins of a war, made a clear
could offer as accurate and well considered       distinction between the immediate, publicly
an analysis of events as possible. He was         proclaimed reasons for the conflict and the
aware that this sort of history might not         longer-term, underlying causes of tension
appeal to those who preferred a more              between the two sides. This explanatory
romanticised and sensational account of the       scheme is still regularly employed by modern
past, but he observed in his introduction:        historians when they seek to account for the
'This is a possession for all time, rather than   outbreak of more recent wars. It is a
a prize piece that is read and then forgotten.'   testament to the fascination of Thucydides'
8    Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War



subject and the quality of his work that, even                   regularly study the events of the
in the twenty-first century, students of                         Peloponnesian War for the lessons it can
history, politics and warfare in universities                    teach them about politics, diplomacy,
and military academies across the world                          strategy, tactics and the writing of history.




 This helmet was worn by a Greek heavy infantry soldier, or hoplite in the sixth
century. By the start of the fifth century the city-states of Classical Greece had
already fought many small scale wars, mostly as the result of border disputes with
their neighbours.The Peloponnesian War was on a much grander scale than
anything the Greeks had previously seen. (Ancient Art and Architecture)
Chronology

478     Formation of the Delian League         433     Alliance of Athens and Corcyra; sea
465-64  Earthquake at Sparta; (Messenian)              battle of Sybota; Athens renews
        Helots revolt                                  treaties of alliance with Leontini
462     Spartans appeal for Athenian                   and Rhegion
        help against Messenians; Kimon's       432     Revolt of Poteidaia; Megarian
        forces sent away by Spartans;                  decrees
        reforms of Ephialtes; Athenians        431-404 Peloponnesian War
        form alliance with Megara, Argos       431     Thebans attack Plataia;
        and Thessaly                                   Peloponnesians invade Attika
461     Ostracism of Kimon                     430     Plague reaches Athens; Perikles'
459-54 Athenian expedition to Cyprus and               expedition to Peloponnese;
        Egypt                                          Perikles is deposed as general and
459     Athenians begin building their                 fined; Poteidaia surrenders to
        Long Walls                                     Athenians; Phormio's expedition
457     Battles of Tanagra and Oinophyta               to Naupaktos
456     Defeat of Messenians at Mt             429-27 Siege of Plataia
        Ithome; Tolmides' expedition           429     Death of Perikles
        around the Peloponnese                 428-27 Revolt of Mytilene; ebphora tax
c. 455   Thucydides the historian born                 levied in Athens
454     Delian League Treasury transferred     427-24 First Athenian expedition to Sicily
        to Athens (Tribute Lists begin)        425     Athenians fortify Pylos; Spartans
451     Perikles' law on Athenian                      captured on island of Sphakteria;
        citizenship; five-year truce between           Spartan peace offer refused by
        Athens and Sparta; 50 year peace               Athenians
        treaty between Sparta and Argos        424     Athenians take Kythera and launch
c. 450  Alkibiades born                                raids on Lakonian coast; Boiotians
449     Peace of Kallias between Athens                defeat Athenians at the battle of
        and Persia                                     Delion; Brasidas captures
447     Building of the Parthenon-begun                Amphipolis; Thucydides the
446     Athenians defeated at battle of                historian exiled
        Koroneia and driven out of Boiotia;    423     One year armistice between Athens
        Thirty Years' Peace agreed between             and Sparta; revolts of Skione and
        Athens and Sparta                              Mende; Dareios II (Ochos) becomes
c. 443   Athenians make treaties with                  king of Persia
        Sicilian cities of Leontini and        422     Kleon and Brasidas killed at
        Rhegion                                        Amphipolis
441-140 Revolt of Samos                        421     Peace of Nikias; 50-year alliance
c. 440   Hipparete born                                concluded between Athens and
439     Surrender of Samos                             Sparta
438     Dedication of the Parthenon            418     Battle of Mantinea
437/436 Foundation of Amphipolis               416     Athenians invade and capture
435     Conflict between Corinth and                   Melos
        Corcyra over Epidamnos begins          415     Egesta appeals to Athens for help
10   Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War



        against Selinous; Second Athenian          406     Athenians defeated at Notion;
        expedition to Sicily; Alkibiades                   Alkibiades goes into exile; Spartans
        recalled                                           defeated at battle of Arginousai;
414     Siege of Syracuse; death of                        trial of Athenian generals
        Lamachos; Spartans send Gylippos           405     Athenians defeated at battle of
        to Syracuse                                        Aigospotamoi
413     Athenians send reinforcements to           405-404 Siege of Athens; Death of Dareios
        Sicily; Spartans capture and fortify               II; Artaxerxes II becomes king of
        Dekeleia; defeat and surrender of                  Persia
        Athenians in Sicily                        404     Peace between Athens and Sparta;
412-11 Spartans and Persian king                           Athenian Long Walls partially
        negotiate treaty; revolts of                       destroyed
        Athenian allies                            404-403 Rule of Thirty Tyrants in Athens
411     Oligarchic revolution installs             401     Revolt of Kyros the Younger
        government of 400 in Athens;               387/6   King's Peace
        army and fleet at Samos remain
        loyal to democracy; Alkibiades
        takes command
410     Spartans defeated at Kyzikos;              [AUTHOR'S NOTE ON DATES: AH dates are
        restoration of full democracy in           BC. The official Athenian year, which was
        Athens                                     used by Thucydides and Xenophon as their
409     Messenians driven out of Pylos;            main dating device, began and ended in
        Spartans take control of Chios             midsummer. As a result some of the dates in
408-407 Kyros the Younger sent to take             this book are given in the form 416/15,
        control of Persia's western satrapies      which indicates the Athenian year that
407     Lysander takes control of Spartan          began in the summer of 416 and ended in
        fleet                                      the summer of 415]
Background to war

The rise of Athens


The origins of the Peloponnesian War lie in      This painted water jug was produced in Athens after the
the rise to power of its two protagonists, the   Peloponnesian Wat: It shows a Greek hoplite (heavy
                                                 infantryman) and an archer fighting a cavalryman who is
city states of Athens and Sparta and their
                                                 dressed as a Persian.The hoplite carries a large, round
political estrangement during the middle         shield on his left arm and uses a spear of between eight
part of the fifth century BC. Athens and         and 10 feet in length. Aside from his essential helmet he
Sparta had been the two leading states in the    wears no other armour (Ancient Art and Architecture)
alliance of Greek city-states formed to
combat the Persian king's invasion in 480.
Both could claim to have been instrumental
in saving the Greeks from conquest by the
Persians, since the Athenians had taken the
leading role in the naval victory over the
Persians at Salamis in 480, but the following
year the Spartans led the Greek army that
defeated King Xerxes' land forces and ended
the threat of Persian conquest.
    After the Persians had been driven out of
mainland Greece the alliance began to break
up. The Spartan regent Pausanias led a
victorious expedition to liberate Greek cities
in the Eastern Aegean from the Persians, but
he behaved with great arrogance and his
treatment of the Eastern Greeks angered
many of them. The Spartans recalled
Pausanias and withdrew from the war
against the Persians, leaving the alliance
bereft of leadership. The Athenians were
invited by several of the leading Greek
states, particularly the cities and islands of
Ionia, to lead them in a continuation of the
war against the Persians. In 477 they created        The Spartans already had their own
a new alliance to ravage the territory of the    alliance known as the Peloponnesian League.
Persian king in compensation for the             It was made up mainly of the small city-states
subjugation of the Ionians and the invasion      in the Peloponnese, but some larger ones,
of Greece. Each of the allies agreed to          such as Corinth, belonged, as did most of the
contribute men, ships or money to a              cities of Boiotia, the region to the north of
common pool of resources which was               Athens. They had far greater autonomy than
administered and commanded by the                the members of the Delian League and they
Athenians. This alliance is called the Delian    could vote on equal terms with the Spartans
League by modern historians because its          in the League conferences. It was essentially a
official treasury was established at the         defensive alliance that was only activated
sanctuary of Apollo on the tiny island of        when there was a clear threat to the security
Delos, in the centre of the Cyclades.            of one or more of its members.
12   Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War



                                                   A bronze statue of Athena, patron goddess of the
                                                   Athenians c. 450.The statue shows Athena wearing a
                                                   hoplrte's helmet. Her right arm originally held a spear
                                                   and on her left can be seen the remnant of a strap for
                                                   a large, round hoplite shield. The base bears an
                                                   inscription saying, Melisso dedicated this as a tithe to
                                                   Athena.' (Ancient Art and Architecture)


                                                   whole League force was lost. Kimon had
                                                   been exiled in 461 but he returned in 451 to
                                                   lead further campaigns, including an
                                                   invasion of the Persian held island of
                                                   Cyprus, where he died in 449. Later that year
                                                   the Athenians negotiated a formal peace
                                                   treaty with Persia, known as the Peace of
                                                   Kallias.
                                                       The Delian League had proven a
                                                   remarkably successful alliance in terms of its
                                                   victories over the Persians and the security
                                                   and prosperity it earned for its members, but
                                                   what had started out as a League of Greek
                                                   states under Athenian leadership gradually
                                                   took on the character of an Athenian
                                                   Empire. As early as 470 the Aegean island
                                                   state of Naxos tried to opt out of its
                                                   obligations, but was forced back into line.
                                                   Its contribution to the League was changed
                                                   from a certain number of ships for each
                                                   campaign to a fixed annual 'tribute' of
                                                   money, a process that was applied to more
                                                   and more states. In 465 the island of
                                                   Thasos tried to revolt; its citizens endured a
                                                   two-year siege but eventually capitulated.
                                                   They were reduced to tribute status and
                                                   made to pay an indemnity, collected by the
                                                   Athenians. In 454 the League's treasury was
                                                   transferred to Athens. This move has made
                                                   it possible for historians to study the
The Athenian Empire                                finances of the League in some detail,
                                                   because the Athenians gave one sixtieth of
The Delian League successfully waged war           the annual tribute to their patron goddess
against the Persians, culminating in a             Athena each year, recording the payments
magnificent victory under the command of           on stone slabs. Many of these so-called
the Athenian general Kimon at the                  'tribute lists' have survived and they show
Eurymedon river in 466. A Persian fleet of         both the widening extent and the increasing
200 ships was destroyed and with it the            wealth of the Athenian Empire. Allied
main threat to the security of the Greeks in       revolts were put down with considerable
the Aegean. In 459 the Delian League sent          ferocity and in some cases the Athenians
200 ships to the Nile Delta to assist in an        appropriated land from the recalcitrant allies
Egyptian revolt against the Persians, but four     and established colonies of Athenian
years later this revolt was crushed and the        citizens there, to act in part as garrisons.
Background to war   13



Inscribed records of decisions of the                In the fifth century BC, the Greeks felt
Athenian Assembly routinely refer to the         that going to war in order to resolve a
allies as 'the cities which the Athenians        dispute or assert a claim to something was a
rule'. Athens dominated the economic life        right and proper thing to do. This certainly
of her subject allies, particularly their        did not mean that they always resorted to
maritime trade. Some of the profits of the       violence in order to settle arguments, but the
Empire were spent on the Athenian navy, on       attempt to decide matters by armed force
pay for Athenian citizens who carried out        was accepted as a normal way of behaving
public offices and, it was rumoured among        for communities and states. If a state was felt
the other Greeks, the magnificent public         to deserve punishment, it was not unusual
buildings which adorned the city of Athens       for the inhabitants to be sold into slavery; in
from the 440s onwards.                           extreme cases the men might all be executed.
                                                 Given the small size of most individual
                                                 states, it was natural that treaties for mutual
The 'First' Peloponnesian War                    defence against third parties were regularly
                                                 made, with each side promising to come to
The major turning point in relations             the aid of the other in the event of an attack.
between the Athenians and the Spartans           A common formula for such alliances was
came in 462 BC. Two years earlier an             that both parties agreed to have the same
earthquake had devastated Sparta, killing        friends and enemies.
thousands. It sparked off a major revolt             One of the first things the Athenians did
among the Helots of Lakonia and Messenia,        to vent their anger against the Spartans,
who were servile populations under direct        therefore, was to make an alliance in 460
Spartan rule. Some of the Messenians             with Argos, Sparta's most powerful neighbour
successfully resisted Spartan attempts to        in the Peloponnese and her long-standing
bring them to heel and established               enemy. They also took advantage of a border
themselves on Mount Ithome in Messenia.          dispute between their western neighbour,
In 462, in response to a Spartan appeal to all   Megara, and her neighbour Corinth to detach
her allies for help, Kimon persuaded the         Megara from the Peloponnesian League. To
Athenians that he should lead a small army       make Megara more secure from attack the
to assist them. Kimon and his force had not      Athenians built fortifications which linked
been in Messenia for very long when they,        the port of Nisaia to the city of Megara
alone of all the allies whom the Spartans had    proper. The Athenians were acting out of
invited to help them, were dismissed. The        self-interest in strengthening Megara. A
reason for this seems to have been a growing     Peloponnesian attack on their own territory
sympathy for the Messenians' cause among         would probably have to come through the
the Athenians.                                   Megarians' territory, known as the Megarid;
   Kimon was exiled on his return by the         an Athenian garrison was established in
Athenians, who felt humiliated and insulted      Megara. In 459 the Athenians began building
by the Spartans' actions. From 460 to 446        their own fortifications, known as the Long
there was constant political tension between     Walls, to link the city of Athens to its main
the two sides, with both Athens and Sparta       port at Peiraieus.
forming alliances with each other's enemies.         Another Athenian alliance, with the
In some cases the tension resulted in a series   Thessalians, improved both their military and
of military conflicts which exacerbated the      strategic position. The extensive open plains of
rivalry. These conflicts are sometimes called    Thessaly were ideal country for breeding and
the First Peloponnesian War, although to         training horses, so the Thessalians were among
some extent they lack the continuity and         the best cavalrymen in the Greek world,
coherence which is characteristic of a           whereas mountainous Attika did not suit the
single war.                                      breeding of horses and produced few
14   Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War



cavalrymen. The Thessalians were also the          territory, then headed north into the
northern neighbours of the Boiotians, whose        Corinthian Gulf, capturing the Corinthian-
southern borders with the Athenians were the       held city of Chalkis on the northern shore of
subject of several disputes. In Thessaly and       the narrow entrance to the Gulf. This
Megara the Athenians saw opportunities to          expedition demonstrated the strategic
weaken the Spartans by putting pressure on         advantage of Athens' massive fleet. A more
their allies.                                      significant outcome, however, was the
   In 457 the first major clash between the        capture of the small city of Naupaktos, also
two sides occurred. The Peloponnesians             on the northern shore of the Gulf of
bypassed Megara by taking their army by            Corinth. Here the Athenians established a
sea across the Gulf of Corinth. They               large group of Messenians who had been
encountered an Athenian army at Tanagra            allowed to leave by the Spartans as the only
in Boiotia. The ranks of the Athenians were        way of ending the Messenian revolt. They
swelled to over 14,000 men by their allies,        were to play a major role in the future
including 1,000 Argives, a large contingent        confrontations between Athens and Sparta.
from the Ionian states of the Delian League        The Athenians made more sorties north to
and a force of Thessalian cavalry. The             punish the Thessalians for their treachery at
Spartans and their allies numbered less than       Tanagra and in 454 they sailed into the
12,000, but after two days of heavy fighting,      Corinthian Gulf once more to discourage
during which the Thessalians changed sides,        naval activity by the Corinthians and harry
the Spartans won a prestigious victory. Once       their allies and friends in Western Greece.
they had returned to the Peloponnese,              But the destruction of the Athenian
however, the Athenians defeated the                expedition to Egypt, increasing difficulties in
Boiotians in a separate battle at nearby
Oinophyta, gaining control over much of            This model shows an Athenian trireme at rest in one
central Greece as a result.                        of the specially constructed ship-sheds around the
   In 456 the Athenian general Tolmides            Peiraieus. As well as the ships and their crews a Greek
                                                   city needed to invest in substantial facilities in order Lo
took a force of 50 ships and, stopping at
                                                   maintain an effective navy. For many of the cities in
Gytheion on the coast of Lakonia, burnt the        the Delian League the cost was too great, so they
Spartan's dockyard facilities. The Athenians       contributed money rather than ships to the League's
also ravaged some of the surrounding               war efforts, (J F Coates)
Background to war   15




A sixth-century black-figure Athenian painted vase showing two warriors
fighting. Although Greek armies regularly consisted of several thousand
men, artists preferred to paint scenes of individual duels in the tradition of
the Greek heroes of the Homeric epic the Iliad. (Ashmolean Museum)
16   Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War




Scenes of parting like this one are quite common on        structure was created by the Boiotians, with
Athenian painted pottery from the fifth century. Athens    their largest city, Thebes, taking a leading
and her allies were at war with Persia or their fellow
                                                           role. This move inspired the island of Euboia
Greeks almost continually from the Persian invasion of
480 to the conclusion of the Thirty Years' peace in 446.
                                                           to revolt from Athens. While the Athenians
(Ancient Art and Architecture)                             were trying to suppress the Euboians, the
                                                           Megarians, encouraged by Corinth and
controlling the Athenian Empire, and the                   Sikyon, also revolted, killing their Athenian
reluctance of the Spartans to venture out of               garrisons, and the young Spartan king
the Peloponnese reduced the belligerence of                Pleistoanax led the army of the
both sides. A five-year truce was agreed in                Peloponnesian League into the Megarid to
451, as well as a Thirty Years' Peace between              consolidate the revolt of Megara. The
Sparta and Argos.                                          Athenian general Perikles rushed his forces
   In 446 the Boiotians began to agitate                   back from Euboia to confront Pleistoanax,
against Athenian domination and a punitive                 who had reached Eleusis. The Spartan king
expedition led by Tolmides was defeated at                 withdrew without any attempt at battle,
Koroneia, with many Athenians taken                        leaving Perikles free to return to Euboia and
captive. In order to secure their safe return              suppress the revolt. There were accusations
Athens abandoned all of Boiotia except the                 that he had bribed the Spartan king and
southern city of Plataia. A federal political              Pleistoanax's senior adviser, Kleandridas, was
Background to war   17




This photograph shows an impression taken from one of the huge stones on which
the Athenians recorded the dedication of '/so of their annual tribute to the goddess
Athena. By studying the details of these 'tribute lists' histonans have discovered how
some of the cities that revolted from the Delian League were punished through loss
of territory and the imposition of colonies of Athenian settlers, which resulted in
their payments being reduced. (Archive of Squeezes. Oxford)
18   Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War




 Athens and Peiraeus during the war




condemned to death for treason and forced          suspicion which had caused the 'First'
into exile to avoid execution. He eventually       Peloponnesian War was not dispelled by the
settled in Thurii, an Athenian colony in           Thirty Years' Peace, however, and both sides
Southern Italy, where he became a leading          continued to look for ways to disadvantage
military commander and was influential in          each other. When the island of Samos in the
bringing the city into an alliance with the        Eastern Aegean revolted against Athens with
Peloponnesians in 435. Pleistoanax himself         Persian help in 441, the Spartans tried to
was tried and acquitted, but he nevertheless       take advantage of this and go to war with
went into exile as well.                           Athens, but at a meeting in 440 they could
    In 446 the Athenians agreed a peace            not persuade a majority of members of
treaty with the Spartans, to last for 30 years.    Peloponnesian League to vote with them.
Its terms were that each side should retain its    Nevertheless there was a growing sense
territory and alliances. Athens gave up any        among the Greeks that a decisive
claim over Boiotia and agreed to stop trying       confrontation between Athens and Sparta
to expand her empire at the expense of the         was looming. In the historian Thucydides'
Peloponnesian states, but she kept control of      view, although there were several short-term
Naupaktos. An important clause in the treaty       justifications for the main Peloponnesian
provided for independent arbitration of any        War, it was 'the increasing magnitude of
disputes that might arise over the observance      Athenian power and the fear this caused to
of its terms. The mutual dislike and               the Spartans that forced them into war.'
Warring sides

Athens and Sparta

In the fifth century BC Greece was divided         territory. Although there were many
into hundreds of independent city-states; the      differences in the ways that each state was
Greek word for this type of state was polis        organised and governed, broadly speaking
(plural poleis). The size of these states varied   they came in two types: either a democracy,
considerably, but most comprised an urban          where decision making was in 'the hands of
centre, where much of the population lived,        the majority of the citizens, or an oligarchy,
and where the principal public buildings           in which effective control of decision making
were located, plus a surrounding rural             was limited to a minority of the citizens.


 Greece in the Peloponnesian War 431-404
20   Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War



Athens                                             practice meetings tended to be dominated
                                                   by a handful of individuals. These
Athens was a relatively large state comprising     politicians were often men of aristocratic
the peninsula of Attika, with the city of          birth, whose wealth, education, family
Athens as its political and religious centre.      connections and military experience
The Athenians had a very broadly based,            commanded respect among the ordinary
democratic constitution. The major decisions       citizens. Kimon, the leader of several
were taken by the Assembly, attendance at          successful Delian League expeditions
which was open to all adult male citizens.         against the Persian Empire was one such
The Assembly met regularly to debate               figure, but the most influential politician
proposals on important issues put before it by     in the mid-fifth century was Perikles, the
a committee, but anyone who wanted to              son of Xanthippos. As well as being rich,
could speak out in a debate, or make their         well bred and a good military commander,
own proposal, as long as it was not contrary       Perikles was an excellent orator. He was
to one that had already been voted into law.       able to persuade the citizens in the
The Assembly could not meet every day, so          Assembly to elect him as a general year
mundane financial and administrative               after year and to vote in favour of his
matters and the day-to-day running of the          proposals for using the political power
state's affairs were in the hands of several       and financial resources of the Athenian
smaller committees. The most important of          Empire for the benefit of the poorer
these was the Council, consisting of 500 men       citizens. After Perikles' death in 429 many
who were selected by lot from citizens over        other politicians competed for popularity
the age of 30. It was the Council that             and influence over the Athenians, but none
prepared the agenda for meetings of the            ever managed to attain such a dominant
Assembly. A sub-committee of 50 members of         position again.
the Council was permanently on duty each
month, living in a special building next to
the Council chamber. Membership of the              A photograph of the remains of the Athenian
                                                   Acropolis. The rocky outcrop in the middle of Athens
Council and the other committees changed
                                                   had been a citadel and a sanctuary for many centuries
every year, which meant that there were            and had several temples, Around 447 Pericles persuaded
plenty of opportunities for ordinary citizens      the Athenians to transform it by building a monumental
to participate in government.                      set of marble buildings which were to be the most
                                                   magnificent in the Greek world,They served as potent
  Although in theory any Athenian citizen          symbols of the wealth, power and pride of the
was entitled to speak out in the Assembly, in      Athenians. (Ancient Art and Architecture)
Warring sides   21



Sparta                                             rigours of warfare, but still in full possession
                                                   of their mental faculties. The main function
Sparta was the name of the city in the             of the members of the gerousia was to oversee
centre of the fertile territory of Lakonia (also   observance of Sparta's laws and customs,
called Lakedaimon). Unlike Athens Sparta           particularly in relation to the upbringing and
had few monumental buildings and it was            discipline of citizens. They could act as a
essentially a loose amalgamation of five           consultative body for the kings and the
villages. The Spartans had gradually evolved       ephors on major public decisions, although
a system that combined monarchical and             there is no clear evidence as to their role in
democratic elements within an oligarchy.           determining foreign policy. They discussed
Over the preceding centuries most of the           and prepared proposals which were put
Greek states had expelled their kings, or          before the assembly of Spartan citizens, and
reduced them to purely ceremonial                  they acted as a court for political trials, or
functions, but the Spartans retained two           inquests into the conduct of kings and other
kings who acted as leaders in warfare and          leading Spartans. The two kings were also
religious matters. In most respects, however,      members of the gerousia. They could exercise
Sparta was a typical oligarchy, with its           a leading role in its deliberations through
public business in the hands of a few men.         informal ties of patronage and friendship
Major decisions were referred to an assembly       with its members.
of adult male citizens, but there was little or        An interesting difference in the way the
no chance for the ordinary citizens to             citizen assemblies of Athens and Sparta
discuss or debate them. They were simply           operated was that, whereas the Athenians
expected to indicate their agreement or            assessed the size of a majority by counting
disagreement with what their leaders               raised hands, the Spartans judged decisions
suggested. Debates on important issues were        on the basis of how loudly the assembled
restricted to smaller groups of elected            citizens shouted in favour of a proposal, or a
officials. Every year the Spartans elected a       candidate for election. Such a method was
board of five overseers or ephors, who had         less precise and the outcome could be more
wide ranging executive, disciplinary and           easily manipulated by the presiding
judicial powers over all the people of             magistrates. It is indicative of a strong
Lakonia, including the two kings. Although         reluctance among the members of the ruling
they were not subject to any written laws          oligarchy to allow the citizen body to have
and they had the authority to prosecute any        true sovereignty over public affairs. This
Spartan citizen, regardless of their official      antipathy towards full democracy, as
status, the ephors were only in power for a        practised by the Athenians and many of
year and they could not be re-elected at           their allies, was one of the fundamental
any time.                                          causes of tension between the two sides.
   The Spartans did not have a deliberative
council that routinely discussed all public
business, as the Athenian Council of 500 did.      Military hierarchies
Instead they had a council of senior citizens,
called the gerousia, whose 28 members were         The command structures of the two sides also
elected by their fellow citizens for life, but     reveal a lot about their different political and
they normally did not achieve this status          social systems. Athenian armies were usually
until they were over 60 years of age. This         commanded by one or more members of a
high age limit is not particularly surprising      board of 10 generals, who were elected
given the ancient Greeks' traditional respect      annually by the citizens. Successful generals,
for age and experience. Men who had                like Kimon or Perikles, were often re-elected
reached 60 were considered to be in physical       and they exploited their popularity and
decline, and so no longer suited for the           prestige to play a leading role in Athenian
22    Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War



politics, whereas unsuccessful, or unpopular                    them. Even the great Perikles suffered the
generals would not be re-elected. The                           humiliation of being deposed and fined early
generals could be held to account for their                     on in the war because the Athenians did not
actions by the Assembly, which sometimes                        regard his strategy as being successful. The
acted as a court sitting in judgment over                       ultimate sovereignty of the Athenian citizens
                                                                over their generals tended to have an
The two men on this Spartan relief are probably citizens.       inhibiting effect on their actions.
The Spartans prided themselves on their constant                   The full Spartan army could only be
readiness to light for their crty.They were expected to
                                                                commanded by one of the kings, or a
value their city and their comrades above themselves and
their families. Until the age of 30 they did not even live in   regent if the kings were unable to take
their own homes, but stayed in their mess halls and visited     command in person. The kings were
their wives occasionally. (Ancient Art and Architecture)        accompanied on campaign by two ephors,
Warring sides   23




A Roman bust of Perikles based on an Athenian original.     active service. The ephors could, however,
Perikles was so good at persuading the Athenians to         prosecute the kings before a court
vote for his proposals that the historian Thucydides felt
                                                            consisting of themselves and the gerowia, if
that although the Athens of his time was called a
democracy, in fact it was ruled by its leading citizen.     they considered that they had acted
(Ancient Art and Architecture)                              inappropriately while in command of the
                                                            army. During the Peloponnesian War the
                                                            full Spartan army rarely took the field.
but the kings seem to have exercised                        Instead one of the kings led armies
complete authority while the army was on                    consisting of a small proportion of Spartan
24    Essential Histories -The Peloponnesian War




This Athenian vase depicts a soldier taking leave of his family as he goes off
to war It was part of the public duty of an Athenian citizen to fight when
called upon. Normally it was only the fairly prosperous citizens who could
afford the equipment of a hoplite.The poorer citizens were more likely to
serve as oarsmen or sailors in the fleet. (Ancient Art and Architecture)
Warring sides   25



citizens, along with the combined forces of    allies, principally the large and populous
their Peloponnesian League allies on           island of Chios. It is unlikely that the
campaigns in Southern and Central Greece.      allies regularly contributed as many as
For expeditions further afield they sent       half of the soldiers involved in all the
much smaller Spartan detachments, led by       military undertakings of the Peloponnesian
specially appointed Spartan officers. These    War. Athens despatched troops to many
men were allowed a great deal of latitude in   parts of the Greek world during the war
deciding how to conduct their operations,      and often there will have been only a few
but internal rivalries and jealousies were     allied soldiers involved, mostly serving
commonplace among the Spartans. At             as mercenaries.
several points during the war successful           Naval manpower requirements were on
commanders were refused reinforcements or      a far larger scale. Few cities, even one a
prevented from carrying on their               populous as Athens, had the necessary
achievements because other Spartans did        resources to man a large fleet, since a
not want them to gain too much prestige.       trireme normally required 150-170 oarsmen,
                                               plus skilled sailors and steersmen, who were
                                               especially hard to find. In 433, for example,
Athenian manpower                              when the Corinthians were preparing a
                                               major expedition against Corcyra, they
It has been estimated that the total number    offered very generous rates of pay to
of adult male Athenian citizens in 431 was     potential rowers from all over the Greek
around 40,000. Of these about 1,000 were       world in a desperate attempt to recruit
wealthy enough to serve as cavalrymen,         enough oarsmen to man their ships.
which involved maintaining their own           Similarly, it was vital for the Athenians
horses. Of the rest as many as 20,000 may      to be able to recruit from as wide a pool of
have been eligible to serve as hoplites, the   naval manpower as possible and they had to
heavily armed infantrymen who usually          pay recruits well enough to prevent them
formed the core of a Greek citizen army, but   from deserting to the other side, or
less than half of them would be called upon    returning home.
to fight at any one time. In practice the
forces that Athens mobilised during the war
were composed of her own citizens and          Spartan manpower
those of her allies, supplemented by
mercenaries. Athens commanded fleets and       Male Spartan citizens (Spartiates in Greek)
armies drawn from her Delian League allies     were almost constantly in training as
many times during the fifth century but        hoplites. They did not have any other
only on a few occasions are we able to get a   occupation and their farmland was worked
clear idea of the proportions of Athenian to   for them by slaves. Their training began at a
allied forces involved in the campaigns of     very early age, usually five or six years and
the Peloponnesian War. The most detailed       continued through various stages until, at 18
breakdown is provided by Thucydides when       years' old, they were allowed to attend
he describes the forces sent on an             meetings of the citizen assembly and go
expedition to Sicily in 415. There were        abroad on military expeditions. At this age
5,100 hoplites, or heavy infantrymen, of       they were admitted to a mess group (the
whom 2,200 were Athenian citizens,             Greek word for which is syssition). Each mess
750 were mercenaries from the Peloponnese,     group was made up of about 15 Spartans
and the remaining 2,150 were supplied by       who trained, exercised, dined and fought
Athens' subject allies of the Delian League.   together. In theory they were all of equal
The fleet of 134 trireme warships was made     status and contributed food and other
up of 100 Athenian vessels and 34 from the     resources to a common stock of supplies. If
26   Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War



they could not afford to make their regular        Messenia. These slaves were called Helots
contributions they could be deprived of their      and they were the descendants of people
full citizen status.                               who were conquered and enslaved by the
    The total number of full Spartan citizens      Spartans in a series of wars from about
was never very large. Even when it was at          950 to 700 BC. The Messenians proved very
its greatest extent, towards the end of the        difficult to control and organised major
sixth century BC, it was probably less than        revolts against the Spartans on several
10,000, and by the start of the                    occasions. The Helots of Lakonia were less
Peloponnesian War there may have been              rebellious and substantial numbers of them
only half that number of adult male citizens       normally accompanied the Spartans to war,
available for military service. So from where      acting as baggage carriers and fighting as
did the Spartans obtain the manpower for           light armed soldiers. During the
their armies? To some extent they relied           Peloponnesian War they were used as
upon the non-Spartan population of                 oarsmen and sailors on Spartan naval
Lakonia, especially those men who lived in         vessels. In exceptional circumstances
the towns and villages around Sparta and           Helots were equipped and trained to fight
were called the Perioikoi, which means             as hoplites, on the understanding that
'dwellers around'. The Perioikoi lived in          they would be given their freedom at the
autonomous communities, some of which              end of the campaign for which they
were large towns or even small cities. Unlike      were recruited.
the Spartans they worked for a living, as              An important feature of the Spartan
farmers, traders and craftsmen. It was the         system for maintaining discipline and
Perioikoi who made the armour and                  obedience was the regular use of physical
weapons used by Spartans as well as                violence. From the start of their boyhood
day-to-day items like pottery, furniture and       training Spartans were beaten by their elders
cloth. Usually they fought as hoplites             and superiors. Spartan citizens were
alongside the Spartans themselves.                 especially encouraged to use violence
   When they needed to assemble a large            against the Helots. Each year the Spartan
army to take on another Greek state, like          ephors declared a ritual war on the Helots,
Athens or Argos, the Spartans called upon          thus justifying the killing of any
the allied states of the Peloponnesian             troublesome Helots and keeping the rest
League. The nearest of these were the cities       in a constant state of fear. Yet for all their
of Arkadia, the mountainous region to the          heavy-handed domination and control of
north and west of Lakonia. The main                the Helots, the Spartans could not do
Arkadian cities of Orchomenos, Tegea and           without them. It was the labour of the
Mantinea were not very large, but each             Helots that furnished the individual Spartan
of them could easily muster several                citizens with natural products for their
hundred soldiers. Larger contingents were          contributions to the communal messes.
contributed by more distant states like                Throughout the Classical period the
Corinth and Thebes. These allies probably          Spartans' main priority was always to keep
provided the majority of hoplites in any           their dominant position over the Helots,
Spartan army, especially when serving              who were so essential to their own way of
outside of the Peloponnese.                        life. But this was no easy task, even for men
                                                   who were constantly prepared for war. The
                                                   Messenian revolt of 462-456 showed how
The Helot curse                                    fragile the Spartans' control was, and the
                                                   abrupt dismissal of Kimon and his Athenian
The Spartans also made considerable use of         contingent indicates how sensitive Spartans
the large, publicly owned, slave population        were to any interference in their
of Lakonia and its neighbouring region,            relationship with the Messenians. The
Warring sides   27



 This bronze statuette of a hoplite was probably made in
Lakonia and dedicated by a Spartan citizen at the
sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia.The Spartans were famous
for their zealous observance of religious rituals. Many
similar offerings have been found in sanctuaries around
the Peloponnese and elsewhere in Greece. (Ancient Art
and Architecture)


continual need to subjugate this conquered
population was the main reason why the
Spartans were reluctant to commit large
numbers of citizens to campaigns outside
the Peloponnese. In the words of the
modern scholar Geoffrey de Sainte Croix,
who studied the history of the
Peloponnesian War in great detail: 'The
Helot danger was the curse Sparta had
brought upon herself, an admirable
illustration of the maxim that a people
which oppresses another cannot itself be
free.'
Outbreak

Fear and suspicion lead to war

The most immediate, short-term cause of the             The other Corinthian complaint was over
Peloponnesian War, according to Thucydides,         Athens' treatment of the city of Poteidaia.
was the judgment of the Spartans, endorsed          This city, located on the westernmost spur of
by their allies, that the Athenians had broken      the Chalkidike peninsula, had originally
the terms of the Thirty Years' Peace. A key         been founded by Corinthians and still
clause was a guarantee that no state would be       received its annual magistrates from Corinth.
deprived of its autonomy. This did not mean         It was a tribute-paying member of the Delian
that the Athenians could not demand tribute         League and of great strategic importance
from their subject allies, nor that the Spartans    because of its proximity to the territory of
had to relinquish control over the                  the Macedonian king, Perdikkas, who was a
Peloponnesian League. Rather it meant that          former ally of Athens. Perdikkas was now
no state should be deprived of the freedom to       encouraging the cities of Chalkidike to revolt
run its own affairs, insofar as it had done         from Athens. They had formed a league with
before the peace treaty was agreed. The             its political and economic centre at
Athenians were accused of failing to respect        Olynthos. The Poteidaians had been ordered
this clause by several of the Greek states.         by Athens to send their Corinthian
                                                    magistrates back home and dismantle their
                                                    fortifications. While they negotiated with
The case against Athens                             the Athenians they sent an embassy to the
                                                    Peloponnese and obtained an assurance from
The Spartans were under considerable pressure       Sparta that if the Athenians attacked
from their allies in the Peloponnesian League       Poteidaia, Sparta would invade Attika. The
to restrain the Athenians. In 432 they invited      Athenians were fearful that they might lose
all interested parties to put their case before a   control of this prosperous area, which
meeting of the Spartan Assembly. Prominent          provided some seven per cent of their tribute
among the states arguing for war was Corinth.       revenue, so they sent forces to lay siege to
There were two main Corinthian complaints.          the city, which had been reinforced by
One was the action of Athens on behalf of           troops from Corinth and mercenaries from
Coreyra (modern Corfu) against the                  the Peloponnese. The Corinthians
Corinthians. In 435 the Corinthian colony of        complained that Athens was breaking the
Corcyra was involved in a dispute with her          terms of the Peace and demanded that the
colony at Epidamnos, in modern Albania.             Spartans invade Attika.
This dispute escalated to involve the                   A further complaint against Athens was
Corinthians, on the side of Epidamnos, in a         made by the people of Megara, who
naval battle in 432 with the Athenians, who         complained that they had been excluded from
had made a defensive alliance with Corcyra in       access to the harbours'and market-place of
433. Corcyra had a large navy of her own and        Athens by a decree of the Athenian Assembly.
the Corinthians and other Peloponnesians            The purpose of what is known as the Megarian
feared that their alliance might make the           decree seems to have been to put pressure on
Athenians invincible at sea. They also saw the      the Megarians to abandon their alliance with
Athenians' involvement as unjustifiable             Sparta and the Peloponnesians and resume
interference in their affairs, contrary to the      their alliance with Athens, which they had
terms of the Thirty Years' Peace.                   abandoned in 446. The Megarians' territory
Outbreak   29




These sketches show reconstructions of typical Athenian houses based on
archeological remains.The walls were built of sun-dried clay bricks and the
roofs were covered with large pottery tiles.The windows had no glass, only
wooden shutters. Most houses were built around a small courtyard and those
of wealthier families would usually have an upper storey. (John Ellis Jones)
30   Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War



bordered on Attika in the east and provided        simply a set of religious sanctions imposed
potential access for a Peloponnesian army to       because the Megarians had cultivated some
attack Athens. The exclusions from Athenian        land which was supposed to be left
harbours and markets seem to have had a very       untouched as it was sacred to the gods, as
severe effect on Megarian trade. This is not       well as some disputed territory on the border
surprising as Athens was the largest city in       between Attika and the Megarid. They also
Greece and her commercial harbour at               accused the Megarians of sheltering runaway
Peiraieus was a major centre of maritime trade.    Athenian slaves.
    Representatives from the island state of
Aigina also complained that their autonomy
was being infringed by Athens. Aigina had          The Spartans and their allies
been part of the Athenian Empire since 458,        vote for war
but is not unlikely that the Athenians had
recently begun to behave more aggressively         Having heard the complaints and the
towards Aiginetans for similar reasons to those    counter-arguments of the Athenians, the
which were causing them to put pressure on         Spartans removed everyone except the full
Megara. The Athenians must have been               Spartan citizens from the assembly place so
conscious of the fact that Aigina provided a       that they could discuss the matter among
potential base for naval attacks on Athens and     themselves. The vast majority of the
her maritime trade. Autonomy was fine for          Spartans were angered by what they had
some of the more distant islands or cities in      heard. Their allies had convinced them that
the Aegean, but for places on their doorstep       the Athenians had broken the terms of the
the Athenians preferred the same kind of close     Thirty Years' Peace and were acting with
control as the Spartans exercised over their       unreasonable aggression. In consequence
Messenian neighbours. An Athenian garrison         there was great enthusiasm for immediately
was installed on the island by 432 and,            declaring war on Athens. At this point one
although the Aiginetan tribute payments were       of the two kings, Archidamos, introduced a
reduced by over half, this meant an effective      note of caution. He seems to have argued
end to the Aiginetans' right to govern             that it was premature of the Spartans to
themselves freely, again contrary to the key       rush into war a with Athens, whose
clause of the Thirty Years' Peace.                 extensive empire provided her with the
    The Athenians claimed that they had the        resources to fight a protracted war more
right to do as they pleased regarding their        easily than the Spartans. He pointed out
empire, which they had won for themselves          that Athens' chief strength lay in her naval
at considerable cost. They probably had not        power, while Sparta was essentially a land
expected their treatment of Aigina to become       power. He advised sending diplomatic
an issue, given the fact that in the case of       missions to try to seek negotiated
Samos in 440 the Corinthians themselves had        settlements of the various disputes, while at
upheld the right of Athens to police its own       the same time recruiting new allies,
empire. In the case of Corcyra they felt that      accumulating resources and preparing for a
they were doing no more than responding to         war in which expensive naval campaigns
a defensive request from an ally, although it      would be necessary to obtain victory. He
is unlikely that they entered into the alliance    had to put his arguments carefully, in order
without some expectation of clashing with          to avoid offending the Spartans' sense of
the Corinthians. They pointed out that             duty towards their allies and their great
Poteidaia was one of their tribute-paying          pride in their martial prowess, whilst at the
allies and had been encouraged to revolt by        same time pointing out to them the true
the Corinthians, who were openly fighting          size of the task that lay before them.
against them on the side of the Poteidaians.       Thucydides' version of a key part of his
The Megarian decree, they claimed, was             speech is as follows:
Outbreak   31



    No-one can call us cowards if, in spite of our   had broken the terms of the Thirty Years'
numbers, we seem in no hurry to attack a single      Peace.
city. Their allies are no less numerous than ours       Even now the Spartans were reluctant to
and theirs contribute money. And in war it is the    act. They sent an embassy to Athens to try
expenditure which enables the weapons to bring       to negotiate a settlement. The autonomy of
results, especially in a conflict between a land     Poteidaia and Aigina was raised in these
power and a sea power. Let us gather our             discussions, but the main sticking point
resources first and not get rushed into premature    seems to have been the Megarian decree,
action by the words of our allies. We shall have     which the Athenians refused to rescind.
to bear the brunt of it all, however things turn     Eventually a Spartan envoy delivered the
out. So let us consider the options in a calm        message, 'We want peace and we want the
fashion.                                             Athenians to let their allies be free.' Perikles
                                                     told the Athenian Assembly that the
   In response to Archidamos' sensible and           Spartans could not be trusted to stop at
cautious arguments the ephor Sthenelaidas            these demands, but would try to force them
appealed to the sense of outrage at the              to give up more and more in the name of
Athenians' high-handed behaviour and                 freedom for the Greeks. He encouraged the
exhorted the Spartans to take decisive action        Athenians to tell the Spartan envoys that
against them. Thucydides' version of his             they too should stop interfering in the
speech dismisses Archidamos' concerns over           affairs of their own allies, and submit the
resources and emphasises the need to                 problem of supposed infringements of the
respond decisively to the demands of                 Thirty Years' Peace to arbitration. At this
Sparta's allies:                                     point the Spartans abandoned the
                                                     negotiations. As Thucydides stressed, the
    For while the other side may have plenty of      underlying cause of the war was Athens'
money, ships and horses, we have good allies         growing power and the fear that caused
whom we cannot betray to the Athenians. Nor is       among the Spartans and their allies. No
this something to be decided by diplomacy and        amount of diplomacy would change the
negotiations; it's not through words that our        reality of that power or the fear that it
interests are being harmed. Our vengeance must       was generating.
be strong and swift... So vote as befits you
Spartans, for war! Do not allow the Athenians to
become stronger and do not utterly betray your       The Thebans strike first
allies! With the gods beside us let us challenge
the unrighteous!                                     The Boiotians also had grievances against
                                                     the Athenians going back nearly 30 years.
   In spite of the fervour of his rhetoric,          Plataia was the only Boiotian city which had
when Sthenelaidas, as the ephor presiding            not joined the Boiotian League, in which
over the Spartan assembly, put the matter to         the Thebans were the dominant force. It is
a vote, he claimed that he could not tell            not entirely surprising, therefore, that the
whether the shouts were louder for or                opening encounter of the Peloponnesian
against going to war. So he told the Spartans        War was not a Spartan led invasion of
to separate into two groups and then it was          Attika, but a pre-emptive strike on Plataia by
clear that the majority favoured war. All that       the Thebans, who were anxious to secure as
remained was for the Spartans to call a              much of their border with Attika as possible.
congress of the Peloponnesian League to get          They were acting in concert with a group of
their allies' approval for a war against the         Plataians who were unhappy with their
Athenians. The vote was not unanimous,               city's long-standing alliance with Athens
but the Corinthians persuaded a majority of          and wanted to bring it over to the Spartan
the Peloponnesians to declare that Athens            side in line with most of the rest of Boiotia.
32   Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War



The majority of the Plataians were unaware         morning and they withdrew after being
of this plot and they were taken completely        promised that the prisoners would not be
by surprise. When an advance force of              harmed. The Athenians were told about the
around 300 Theban hoplites entered the city        attack and sent a herald to urge the
and told the Plataians that they should join       Plataians not to act rashly. By the time this
the League of Boiotian cities, they were           message arrived, however, the Plataians had
initially cowed, but once they realised that       gathered all their property into the city and
the rest of the Theban army had been               executed their Theban prisoners. There was
delayed by heavy rain their anti-Theban and        now no doubt that the Thirty Years' Peace
pro-Athenian feelings reasserted themselves.       was over and Plataia was reinforced by the
After a vicious struggle at night, in the          Athenians, who evacuated the women,
pouring rain, which involved not just the          children and men who were too old to fight.
Plataian citizens but many of their women          The attack on Plataia provided an early
and slaves, 120 Thebans were dead and the          indication of the level of bloodshed which
rest surrendered. The main strength of the         was to become commonplace in the Greek
Thebans did not arrive until later the next        world over the next three decades.
The fighting

The first twenty years

The Archidamian War                                whose name is given by modern historians to
                                                   this part of the war.
The first 10 years of conflict between Athens         The Athenians also doubted their ability to
and Sparta were considered by many of the          defeat Sparta and her allies in a major hoplite
Greeks to have constituted a separate war. At      confrontation, so, at the urging of Perikles,
the start of the war the Peloponnesian strategy    they retreated behind their fortifications and
was to invade the territory of Attika by land,     waited for the Peloponnesians to give up and
damaging crops and buildings and forcing the       go home. They struck back by using their
Athenians to come out of their city and settle     superior naval forces to attack the territory of
the war in a decisive pitched battle. The
Peloponnesians were confident that they would      The young man featured on this Athenian wine jug of
win such a battle. If no such confrontation was    about 430 BC is equipped with the typical large round
achieved, the Peloponnesians hoped that the        shield, long spear and short sword of the hoplite. He
Athenian citizens would soon grow weary of         wears no body armour, only a heavy tunic and a
                                                   headband to ease the fit of his bronze helmet.The lion
the attacks and look for a settlement on terms
                                                   device on his shield is a personal one. At the start of the
favourable to their opponents. For the first few   Peloponnesian War most Greek cities did not have
years the Peloponnesian army was led by the        standardised symbols for their soldiers, which sometimes
only available Spartan king, Archidamos,           caused confusion in battle. (Boston Museum of Fine Arts)
34   Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War



Sparta and her allies, hoping to make them           arrived in Attika early in the summer, when
lose their enthusiasm for the conflict. This         the crops were still a long way from ripening
strategy could not win them the war, but it          and the weather was very stormy. This made it
could prolong the stalemate and might                difficult for the Spartans to feed themselves
discourage enough of the enemy to force              while they were camped on Athenian territory
them to make peace. The strategists on both          and the troops began to complain. Then news
sides probably thought that there would be           arrived of a serious Athenian incursion at
only a few years of fighting before a                Pylos on the western coast of the Peloponnese
settlement was reached.                              and the whole army was withdrawn, having
    In fact the annual invasions of the              stayed in Attika for only 15 days.
Archidamian War, of which there were five                A devastating plague struck Athens in 430,
between 431 and 425, did not always last very        with further outbreaks in 429 and 426. The
long, nor, indeed, did they succeed in doing         second year it killed Perikles himself, but even
much damage. Athenian cavalry harried the            this misery did not convince the Athenians to
light troops on the Peloponnesian side and           seek peace. If anything it probably made them
even the longest invasion, lasting 40 days in        keener to cause harm to their enemies in
430, failed to cause much harm. Athens could         return and the scale and range of naval
import much of its food, particularly grain,         counter-strikes was stepped up after Perikles'
via the shipping routes secured by Athens'           death. The Peloponnesians themselves made
maritime empire and powerful navy. In any            limited use of their naval forces, which were
case it proved difficult to assemble the             principally furnished by the Corinthians. A
Peloponnesian forces at the right time to            grandiose scheme was hatched to involve the
strike against Attika's agricultural resources, in   Western Greeks of Sicily and Southern Italy in
part probably because many of the soldiers           the war and create a huge fleet of 500
wanted to be at home on their own farmland.          triremes, but this came to nothing and the
In 429 the Peloponnesians were persuaded by          Athenians took the initiative in the west by
the Thebans to make a determined attempt to          sending expeditions to Sicily. They went at
overcome the resistance of Plataia. The              the invitation of an old ally, the city of
Spartan king Archidamos, conscious of the            Leontini, which asked for their help against
historical significance of Plataia as the site of    the larger city of Syracuse. Two small
Sparta's great victory over the Persians in 479,     Athenian fleets were sent to Sicily in 427 and
tried to negotiate a surrender, but assurances       425, partly with the aim of disrupting grain
from the Athenians that they would not               supplies from the island to the Peloponnese,
abandon the Plataians convinced those still          but also with an eye towards adding as much
inside the city walls to hold out. The Spartans      of the island as they could to the Athenian
built a circuit of wooden siege fortifications to    Empire. In 424, however, the Sicilian cities
prevent any forces from getting in to relieve        came to an understanding among themselves
the 600 or so remaining people. A breakout           and the Athenians returned home without
was achieved during a winter storm by about          anything to show for their efforts.
200 men, who climbed over the walls using
ladders, but they could not persuade the
Athenians to send a force to relieve the siege.      The revolt of Mytilene and the
   In the summer of 426 the new Spartan              end of Plataia
king, Agis, son of Archidamos, was leading
another expedition of Peloponnesian forces           The next major setback of the war for the
into the Isthmus of Corinth on their way to          Athenians was a revolt in 428 on the island
Attika when there was an earthquake, which           of Lesbos, led by the largest city, Mytilene.
forced them to turn back before they had even        The cities of Lesbos had been founders of the
reached Athenian territory. In the following         Delian League and their contributions to its
year a similar expedition, also led by Agis,         resources were crucial to the Athenian war
The fighting   35



effort. With the exception of Methymna they        saved, but Mytilene was deprived of her fleet
had oligarchic governments and they decided        and much of her territory.
that in her severely weakened state Athens             At about the same time the small garrison
would not be able to respond effectively to        of Plataia finally succumbed to starvation
an attempt to break away from her control.         and surrendered to the Spartans. They were
The Athenians despatched a small army and          treated very harshly on the insistence of
a fleet to blockade Mytilene, which was            their neighbours the Thebans. All of the 225
dependent on reinforcements and food               surviving men were subjected to a 'trial' by
supplies from overseas. The Mytileneans            the Spartans, at which they were each asked:
asked Sparta and the Peloponncsian League          'Have you done anything of benefit to the
for help and a relief force was slowly             Lakedaimonians (i.e. the Spartans) and their
assembled under the command of the                 allies in the current war?' As none of the
Spartan Alkidas. The Athenians moved faster,       defenders could answer yes to this question,
however, sending a second fleet of 100 ships       the Spartans decided that they were justified
early in 427, in spite of the losses caused by     in executing all of them. The 110 women
the plague. The oligarchic regime at Mytilene      who had stayed behind were sold as slaves.
distributed weapons to the mass of the
population to stiffen their defences, but this
plan backfired and the newly empowered             Naval warfare
citizens demanded a general distribution of
grain to feed the starving population. When        At sea the war was fought almost entirely
this did not materialise they surrendered the      between fleets of triremes. These were
city to the Athenian commander Paches, who         warships rowed by up to 170 oarsmen and
sent the leaders of the revolt back to Athens.     manned by 30 or more sailors and soldiers.
    A debate ensued in the Athenian Assembly       The number of rowers could be varied so that
about the appropriate punishment for the           a trireme could carry enough troops to act as
Mytilenean rebels. The politician Kleon            an assault ship for small forces, or it could be
persuaded the citizens that an example had to      used to tow and escort troop carriers if a
be made of the people of Mytilene in order to      larger army needed to be transported. When
discourage further revolts. He proposed that       fully crewed the ships were dangerous
all the adult male citizens should be executed     offensive weapons in themselves, each
and the women and children sold into               sporting a heavy bronze ram on its prow,
slavery. The Assembly voted in favour of this      which could damage an enemy vessel's hull if
and despatched a ship to tell Paches to carry      it impacted with enough force. Consequently
out this brutal decree. The next day, however,     the best naval tactics involved manoeuvring
many people realised the injustice of the          behind or to the side of an enemy ship and
decision. A second meeting of the Assembly         rowing hard enough to smash the ram
was called and the citizens voted to rescind       against its hull and rupture it. Another, more
their decree and only to punish those who          dangerous, tactic was for the helmsman to
were guilty of leading the revolt. A second        steer close into the enemy on one side and
trireme was sent out with the revised orders.      break off their oars, having signalled his own
Its crew rowed in shifts, not putting in to land   rowers to ship their oars just before the
at night, as was normal on such a voyage.          vessels made contact. The triremes were
Ambassadors from Mytilene supplied them            lightweight vessels that did not easily sink
with food and drink while they rowed and           when they were holed, but instead they
promised great rewards if they could make up       would often remain afloat, or perhaps
the 24 hours start that the previous ship had      partially submerged, and they could be towed
on them. Eventually they reached Mytilene          away by whichever side was the victor. The
just as Paches was reading the orders delivered    crews of damaged ships were very vulnerable,
by the first ship. The mass of the citizens were   however, and unless their own ships came
36   Essential Histories ' T h e Peloponnesian War



quickly to their rescue they might be captured,      manoeuvrability of the Athenians. After
or if the ship was completely awash with water       initially losing nine ships to this
they could easily drown. Surprisingly few            overwhelming force, Phormio and his
Greeks were strong swimmers, since they did          remaining commanders broke away and
not swim for pleasure. Even if there was an          retreated towards Naupaktos. The
accessible coastline close by it might be held       Peloponnesians pursued, but their lead ships
by enemy troops who could kill or capture            became too spread out to support each other.
those men who did make it ashore.                    As the final Athenian ship reached Naupaktos
                                                     it went behind a merchant ship at anchor in
                                                     the bay and turned on the foremost of the
Athenian naval superiority                           pursuing vessels, ramming it amidships and
                                                     causing the rest to stop rowing and wait for
In 429 the Peloponnesians sent out a fleet           their comrades. This decision left them sitting
under the command of the Spartan Knemon              in the water and vulnerable to the swift
to challenge the Athenian squadron under the         counter-attacks of the Athenians, who now
command of Phormio based at Naupaktos.               rowed out and rejoined the battle. Because
This naval base was strategically located to         they were now very close to the shore some of
intercept Peloponnesian fleets sailing to and        the Peloponnesians ran aground, or came
from Corinth, the Northern Peloponnese and           close enough for the Messenians who were
Eastern Boiotia. Phormio had only 20 ships,          based at Naupaktos to swim out, some in
whereas Knemon had a total of 47, drawn              their armour and swarm aboard some of the
from Corinth and Sikyon. Nevertheless                ships. The Athenians recaptured most of their
Phormio attacked and succeeded in putting            own ships, which the Peloponnesians had
the Peloponnesians on the defensive. They            been towing behind them. They also took six
formed most of their ships into a circle with        Peloponnesian vessels, on one of which was a
the prows facing outwards, their aim being to        Spartan commander called Timokrates, who
prevent the Athenians from getting behind            killed himself rather than be captured by the
any of them. Five of the best ships were             Athenians. From this point onwards the
stationed in the centre of the circle to attack      Peloponnesians generally avoided naval
any Athenian vessel that managed to get              confrontations with the Athenians until the
inside the formation. Phormio's response to          Athenian navy had been seriously weakened
this tactic was to tell the commanders of his        by the Sicilian Expedition. In 425, when the
own ships to sail around the fringes of this         Peloponnesian fleet sent to Corcyra was
circle, getting gradually closer to the              recalled to assist in removing Demosthenes'
Peloponnesians and forcing them to back in           forces from Pylos, they chose to drag their
towards each other. Eventually, with the help        ships over the narrow isthmus of Leukas
of a strong early morning wind, the circle of        rather than risk a meeting with the Athenian
ships became too tightly packed and were             fleet, which was heading for Corcyra.
unable to maintain their formation without               Nevertheless the Athenians did not have
colliding with each other. When it was clear         things entirely their own way at sea. In 429
that the Peloponnesians had lost all semblance       the Spartans with Knemon were invited by
of order Phormio attacked, sinking several of        the Megarians to transfer their surviving
the enemy and capturing 12 ships.                    crews to 40 ships docked at Niasia, the
    The superior seamanship and tactics of the       Megarian port nearest to Athens. These ships
Athenians were rewarded with another                 could then be used to make a surprise attack
success soon afterwards when a larger force of       on the Athenian port of Peiraieus, which was
77 Peloponnesian ships drove Phormio into            not well guarded. Strong winds and, in
the narrow stretch of water at Rhion, hoping         Thucydides' view, a lack of courage, caused
to trap them against the northern shoreline,         them to abandon the idea of attacking
thus negating the greater speed and                  Peiraieus and to strike at the island of
The fighting 37




 A sketch showing how the Athenian harbour at               confrontation on land. Meanwhile, the
Mounychia in Peiraieus may have looked in the fourth        Athenian generals Eurymedon and Sophokles
century. Early on in the Peloponnesian War a daring
                                                            were taking 40 ships to Sicily, via Corcyra.
attempt by the Spartans to attack the harbour showed
the Athenians that they needed to fortify it.The entrance   They made a detour into the area of Pylos on
is narrow and there is a chain stretched across it to       the western coast of the Peloponnese to
prevent unauthorised ships from getting in. (J F Coates)    attempt a scheme devised by the general-elect
                                                            Demosthenes who was travelling with them.
Salamis instead. They captured three                           Demosthenes' plan was to turn Pylos into
Athenian ships on the north of the island                   a fortified post for a detachment of the
and did a considerable amount of damage                     Messenian exiles from Naupaktos to use as a
before the arrival of an Athenian fleet and                 base for conducting raids against
concerns over the state of their ships                      Peloponnesian territory. From Pylos they
forced them to withdraw. The episode had                    could easily penetrate Messenia and, with
demonstrated that Athenian territory was                    their ability to speak the local dialect, their
also vulnerable to seaborne attack and steps                knowledge of the land and their kinship
were taken to close off the harbour entrances               with the Messenians, they could stir up
at Peiraieus and station more ships on guard                trouble for the Spartans in their own back
duty in the future.                                         yard. Demosthenes seems to have had some
                                                            difficulty convincing the two current
                                                            generals to carry out his plan, but eventually
Spartan defeat at Pylos                                     an improvised set of fortifications was built
                                                            and Demosthenes was left there with five
In the spring of 425 the Peloponnesian army,                ships while the rest of the fleet sailed on
led by the young Spartan king Agis, again                   towards Corcyra.
invaded Attika. They settled down to spend                     Initially the Spartans, did not see any
the summer devastating as much Athenian                     serious threat from this Athenian foothold
territory as possible and to try, once more, to             on their territory, but when King Agis and
force the Athenians into a major                            his advisers heard the news they abandoned
38    Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War




This bronze hoplites helmet is in the style known as          their invasion of Attika and hurried to
Corinthian. Such helmets afforded good protection to the      Pylos, gathering forces for a strike against
wearer, but they severely restricted vision and hearing,
                                                              Demosthenes. A Peloponnesian fleet that
making the hoplites heavily dependent on the coherence of
their formation. This example is inscribed with the name      had been on its way to Corcyra was recalled
Dendas, perhaps the person who dedicated it in a sanctuary.   to assist them, Demosthenes also sent for
Many men preferred simpler helmets such as those seen in      help and the Athenian fleet turned round at
the illustration on page 86. (Ancient Art and Architecture)
                                                              Zakynthos and headed back to Pylos.
The fighting   39




This fifth-century sculpture from the temple of Aphaia on      Spartan attacks. The Spartans' efforts took on a
Aigina shows the hero Herakles. recognisable by his lionskin   frantic edge, with one of their trireme
headress. He is in the act of shooting an arrow from a         commanders, Brasidas, putting his ship and
kneeling position. Archers were often carried on warships
                                                               his own life at risk by running his ship
and would target the officers, steersmen, sailors and
soldiers on enemy ships. (Ancient Art and Architecture)        aground inside the area fortified by the
                                                               Athenians and trying to force his way onto the
   The Spartans were determined to remove                      land. He was badly wounded and lost his
the enemy before their reinforcements could                    shield, but his bravery earned him much
arrive. They attacked the Athenian position                    praise. The next day the Athenian fleet arrived,
from the land and the sea for two days. They                   now numbering 50 vessels with the addition
landed a small force of hoplites on the island                 of ships from Naupaktos and four allied
of Sphakteria as part of the attempt to                        triremes from Chios.
blockade the fort by land and sea. The                             The character of the confrontation changed
Spartans were wary of the advantage that the                   dramatically once the Athenians had a strong
Athenians had over them in naval                               naval force at their disposal. They easily drove
confrontations, and seem to have decided that                  the 43 Spartan ships away from the
occupying the island would restrict Athenian                   promontory of Pylos and onto the beaches in
access to the bay behind and prevent them                      the bay, disabling some and capturing others.
from putting forces in the rear of the Spartans'               The blockade of the fort was lifted and the
own positions on land. Demosthenes beached                     Spartans were left camped on the mainland
his few remaining ships and deployed their                     watching helplessly as the Athenians sailed
crews as makeshift infantry. He and his men                    around Sphakteria unopposed. The most
held out resolutely against almost continuous                  unfortunate result of this reversal of fortune
40   Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War



was that 420 Peloponnesian hoplites and                More Athenian forces came to Pylos and a
their Helot attendants were left stranded on       stalemate ensued. The conditions for the
the island.                                        Athenians were not easy, as despite being
   The Spartans immediately sent a                 masters of the sea, they did not control
delegation from the gerousia and the               much of the coastline. Their fort was still
ephorate to assess the situation. Their            under attack from the Spartan army on the
appraisal was an honest but bleak one. The         mainland and Demosthenes had less than
situation was untenable for the men on             1,000 soldiers to defend it. The Spartans
Sphakteria because they could not be rescued       offered cash rewards to anyone who was
and the Athenians could put their own              prepared to dodge the Athenian triremes
soldiers on the island and eventually              patrolling around the island and bring food
overwhelm them with sheer numbers. Even            to the men there, either by swimming or in
that might not be necessary, however, as           small boats. Enough Helots and Messenian
there was virtually no food on the island, so      fishermen volunteered to maintain the food
they might easily be starved into surrender.       supply. Eventually the Athenians began to
The official delegation went straight to the       feel the difficulty of supplying their own
Athenians and negotiated a truce, which            forces at such a great distance and in a
allowed them to get provisions to their men        confined space with nowhere to beach their
and halted Athenian attacks. In return the         ships in safety.
Spartans surrendered what remained of their            Back in Athens, Kleon's arrogant handling
fleet and all the other triremes that they had     of the Spartan peace envoys put the onus on
back in Lakonia (a total of 60 ships), and         him to find a solution. He tried to deflect it
sent an embassy to Athens to discuss a full        by blaming the lack of progress on the board
peace treaty.                                      of generals. They should make a determined
   These negotiations could have ended the         assault on the island and kill or capture the
war, but instead they came to nothing. The         men there, he said. He would have done so
Spartan envoys were prepared to make huge          already, if he were a general. One of the
concessions to recover their men, but they         current generals, Nikias, took him at his
refused to do so in front of a full session of     word and invited him to select whatever
the Athenian Assembly, which was what the          forces he required and show them how to do
Athenians insisted upon. Such a public             it. The mass of citizens cheered this
display of weakness and humility was simply        suggestion and shouted for Kleon to take up
too much for the proud Spartans, accustomed        the challenge. Kleon was trapped by the kind
as they were to having their most important        of crowd-pleasing rhetoric that he normally
decisions settled by a small group of senior       used against others. He obtained a mixed
citizens in a private meeting. There was a         force of tough, experienced hoplites from the
substantial body of opinion in Athens that         Athenian citizen colonies of Lemnos and
favoured coming to terms now, but the more         Imbros, and plenty of light infantry, both
belligerent and arrogant feelings of Kleon and     peltasts (light infantryman armed with
his supporters carried the day. When Kleon         javelins) and archers. He promised to destroy
accused them of lacking sincerity the              or capture the Spartans in 20 days.
Spartans gave up and returned home. The
truce was over and the Spartans requested the
return of their ships, but the Athenians held      The most amazing thing
on to them claiming that some of the details
of the agreement had not been adhered to by        Kleon's boast that he could resolve the
the Spartans. Thus they were able to bring an      situation in 20 days, coming from a man
end to Spartan naval activity for the time         who had never previously held any military
being and increase the pressure on the men         command, was probably a piece of sheer
trapped on Sphakteria.                             arrogance. However, he did have enough
The fighting   41




This photo shows the bronze covering of a hoplite shield;       sentries completely by surprise. Once
the wooden core has long perished. It is pierced with letters   bridgeheads were established they flooded
that tell us it was booty taken from the Spartans at Pylos in
                                                                the island with the Messenians from the fort
425 by the AtheniansThe taking and dedicating of trophies
was a key part of Greek warfare.They served as physical
                                                                at Pylos, plus archers, peltasts and several
reminders of a god-given victory over the enemy (American       thousand ordinary rowers from the fleet,
School of Classical Studies at Athens: Agora Excavations)       whose only offensive weapons were sling
                                                                stones and rocks. By holding the hoplites
understanding of warfare to choose                              back from a direct engagement with the
Demosthenes, the energetic commander                            superior Spartan troops, and using the rest of
whose plan had started the whole affair, as                     his force to harry the enemy with missiles
his chief adviser. Between them they came                       Demosthenes forced the Spartans to retreat
up with a tactically sound approach. They                       rather than be gradually picked off where
landed 800 hoplites on the island from both                     they stood. If they could have achieved
sides at dawn and caught the weary Spartan                      close-quarter combat with the enemy the
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the peloponnesian war 431

  • 1. Essential Histories The Peloponnesian War 431-404 BC OSPREY Philip de Souza PUBLISHING
  • 2. Essential Histories The Peloponnesian War 431-404 BC OSPREY Philip de Souza PUBLISHING
  • 3. First published in Great Britain in 2002 by Osprey Publishing. For a complete list of titles available from Osprey Publishing Elms Court, Chapel Way. Botley, Oxford OX2 9LR UK. please contact: Email: info@ospreypublishing.com Osprey Direct UK, PO Box 140, © 2002 Osprey Publishing Limited Wellingborough. Northants. NN8 2FA. UK. Email: info@ospreydirect,co.uk All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under Osprey Direct USA, c/o MBI Publishing, the Copyright, Design and Patents Act. 1988. no part of this PO Box 1. 729 Prospect Ave, publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or Osceola, Wl 54020. USA, transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, electrical, Email: info@ospreydirectusa.com chemical, mechanical, optical, photocopying, recording or www.ospreypublishing.com otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner Enquiries should be made to the Publishers. Every attempt has been made by the publisher to secure the Dedication appropriate permissions for material reproduced in this book. If For Debra there has been any oversight we will be happy to rectify the situation and written submission should be made to the Author's Preface Publishers, This book was written under exceptionally difficult ISBN I 84176 357 8 circumstances, I am enormously grateful to Rebecca Cullen for her understanding and patience. I am once more indebted to my Editor: Rebecca Cullen wife Debra for her love and support Design: Ken Vail Graphic Design. Cambridge, UK Cartography by The Map Studio Index by Bob Munro Picture research by Image Select International Origination by Grasmere Digital Imaging. Leeds, UK Printed and bound in China by L. Rex Printing Company Ltd, 02 03 04 05 06 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I
  • 4. Contents Introduction 7 Chronology 9 Background to war The rise of Athens 11 Warring sides Athens and Sparta 19 Outbreak Fear and suspicion lead to war 28 The fighting The first twenty years 33 Portrait of a soldier A ship's captain at war 63 The world around war Politics and culture 73 Portrait of a civilian Hipparete, an Athenian citizen woman 79 How the war ended The fall of Athens 85 Conclusion and consequences The triumph of Sparta? 91 Further reading 93 Index 94
  • 5. Introduction This book gives a concise account of one of Thucydides' work is incomplete, tailing off the key periods of Classical Greek history. literally in mid sentence, just as he is The Peloponnesian War, which lasted from explaining what happened after an Athenian 431 to 404 BC, was a conflict between the naval victory in 411. It is likely that he had Greek city-states of Athens and Sparta. It was either died, or at least stopped working on it a confrontation between the leading land by 396 because he does not seem to know power of the time, Sparta, and the leading sea about an eruption of Mount Etna on Sicily power, Athens. In a wider sense it was also a that occurred in this year. We do not know clash between a cautious, traditional whether he simply had not written any of oligarchy and an ambitious, innovative the remaining books which would have democracy. It is called the Peloponnesian War covered the period 410 to 404 (there were because Sparta was the head of an alliance of probably to be two more), or whether he had Greek states from the Peloponnese, the drafts or notes but no final versions. southernmost peninsula of mainland Greece. Another Athenian historian, Xenophon, The stories of the Peloponnesian War feature continued the story of the war from a point some of the great personalities of the just a few months after the latest events Classical World, including the revered recorded by Thucydides. This could imply Athenian statesman Perikles, the bold and that Xenophon had a version of Thucydides' resourceful Spartans Brasidas and Gylippos, work which was slightly longer than the one the flamboyant Athenian general Alkibiades which now survives, for it seems clear that he and the Spartan leader Lysandros, who intended his to be a continuation of eventually achieved the decisive naval victory Thucydides', although he is less detailed and that the Spartans needed to win the war. analytical than Thucydides. Xenophon called The enduring fame of the Peloponnesian his work the Hellenika, meaning an account War is due in no small way to its principal of the doings of the Hellenes, which was the historian, Thucydides, an Athenian citizen Greeks' name for themselves. We can who took part in some of the early stages of supplement these two main accounts from the war as a naval commander. He was exiled the works of many later classical writers, who from Athens in 424 and he decided to write provide biographical and historical details a detailed account of the war because, in his not mentioned by Thucydides or Xenophon, view, it was such an important war that it along with a small number of original was more worthy of a written history than documents from the time of the war, mostly any previous conflict. He carefully gathered decrees of the Athenians inscribed on stone. as much information as possible, from Thucydides was the first writer who, in eye-witnesses and documents, so that he explaining the origins of a war, made a clear could offer as accurate and well considered distinction between the immediate, publicly an analysis of events as possible. He was proclaimed reasons for the conflict and the aware that this sort of history might not longer-term, underlying causes of tension appeal to those who preferred a more between the two sides. This explanatory romanticised and sensational account of the scheme is still regularly employed by modern past, but he observed in his introduction: historians when they seek to account for the 'This is a possession for all time, rather than outbreak of more recent wars. It is a a prize piece that is read and then forgotten.' testament to the fascination of Thucydides'
  • 6. 8 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War subject and the quality of his work that, even regularly study the events of the in the twenty-first century, students of Peloponnesian War for the lessons it can history, politics and warfare in universities teach them about politics, diplomacy, and military academies across the world strategy, tactics and the writing of history. This helmet was worn by a Greek heavy infantry soldier, or hoplite in the sixth century. By the start of the fifth century the city-states of Classical Greece had already fought many small scale wars, mostly as the result of border disputes with their neighbours.The Peloponnesian War was on a much grander scale than anything the Greeks had previously seen. (Ancient Art and Architecture)
  • 7. Chronology 478 Formation of the Delian League 433 Alliance of Athens and Corcyra; sea 465-64 Earthquake at Sparta; (Messenian) battle of Sybota; Athens renews Helots revolt treaties of alliance with Leontini 462 Spartans appeal for Athenian and Rhegion help against Messenians; Kimon's 432 Revolt of Poteidaia; Megarian forces sent away by Spartans; decrees reforms of Ephialtes; Athenians 431-404 Peloponnesian War form alliance with Megara, Argos 431 Thebans attack Plataia; and Thessaly Peloponnesians invade Attika 461 Ostracism of Kimon 430 Plague reaches Athens; Perikles' 459-54 Athenian expedition to Cyprus and expedition to Peloponnese; Egypt Perikles is deposed as general and 459 Athenians begin building their fined; Poteidaia surrenders to Long Walls Athenians; Phormio's expedition 457 Battles of Tanagra and Oinophyta to Naupaktos 456 Defeat of Messenians at Mt 429-27 Siege of Plataia Ithome; Tolmides' expedition 429 Death of Perikles around the Peloponnese 428-27 Revolt of Mytilene; ebphora tax c. 455 Thucydides the historian born levied in Athens 454 Delian League Treasury transferred 427-24 First Athenian expedition to Sicily to Athens (Tribute Lists begin) 425 Athenians fortify Pylos; Spartans 451 Perikles' law on Athenian captured on island of Sphakteria; citizenship; five-year truce between Spartan peace offer refused by Athens and Sparta; 50 year peace Athenians treaty between Sparta and Argos 424 Athenians take Kythera and launch c. 450 Alkibiades born raids on Lakonian coast; Boiotians 449 Peace of Kallias between Athens defeat Athenians at the battle of and Persia Delion; Brasidas captures 447 Building of the Parthenon-begun Amphipolis; Thucydides the 446 Athenians defeated at battle of historian exiled Koroneia and driven out of Boiotia; 423 One year armistice between Athens Thirty Years' Peace agreed between and Sparta; revolts of Skione and Athens and Sparta Mende; Dareios II (Ochos) becomes c. 443 Athenians make treaties with king of Persia Sicilian cities of Leontini and 422 Kleon and Brasidas killed at Rhegion Amphipolis 441-140 Revolt of Samos 421 Peace of Nikias; 50-year alliance c. 440 Hipparete born concluded between Athens and 439 Surrender of Samos Sparta 438 Dedication of the Parthenon 418 Battle of Mantinea 437/436 Foundation of Amphipolis 416 Athenians invade and capture 435 Conflict between Corinth and Melos Corcyra over Epidamnos begins 415 Egesta appeals to Athens for help
  • 8. 10 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War against Selinous; Second Athenian 406 Athenians defeated at Notion; expedition to Sicily; Alkibiades Alkibiades goes into exile; Spartans recalled defeated at battle of Arginousai; 414 Siege of Syracuse; death of trial of Athenian generals Lamachos; Spartans send Gylippos 405 Athenians defeated at battle of to Syracuse Aigospotamoi 413 Athenians send reinforcements to 405-404 Siege of Athens; Death of Dareios Sicily; Spartans capture and fortify II; Artaxerxes II becomes king of Dekeleia; defeat and surrender of Persia Athenians in Sicily 404 Peace between Athens and Sparta; 412-11 Spartans and Persian king Athenian Long Walls partially negotiate treaty; revolts of destroyed Athenian allies 404-403 Rule of Thirty Tyrants in Athens 411 Oligarchic revolution installs 401 Revolt of Kyros the Younger government of 400 in Athens; 387/6 King's Peace army and fleet at Samos remain loyal to democracy; Alkibiades takes command 410 Spartans defeated at Kyzikos; [AUTHOR'S NOTE ON DATES: AH dates are restoration of full democracy in BC. The official Athenian year, which was Athens used by Thucydides and Xenophon as their 409 Messenians driven out of Pylos; main dating device, began and ended in Spartans take control of Chios midsummer. As a result some of the dates in 408-407 Kyros the Younger sent to take this book are given in the form 416/15, control of Persia's western satrapies which indicates the Athenian year that 407 Lysander takes control of Spartan began in the summer of 416 and ended in fleet the summer of 415]
  • 9. Background to war The rise of Athens The origins of the Peloponnesian War lie in This painted water jug was produced in Athens after the the rise to power of its two protagonists, the Peloponnesian Wat: It shows a Greek hoplite (heavy infantryman) and an archer fighting a cavalryman who is city states of Athens and Sparta and their dressed as a Persian.The hoplite carries a large, round political estrangement during the middle shield on his left arm and uses a spear of between eight part of the fifth century BC. Athens and and 10 feet in length. Aside from his essential helmet he Sparta had been the two leading states in the wears no other armour (Ancient Art and Architecture) alliance of Greek city-states formed to combat the Persian king's invasion in 480. Both could claim to have been instrumental in saving the Greeks from conquest by the Persians, since the Athenians had taken the leading role in the naval victory over the Persians at Salamis in 480, but the following year the Spartans led the Greek army that defeated King Xerxes' land forces and ended the threat of Persian conquest. After the Persians had been driven out of mainland Greece the alliance began to break up. The Spartan regent Pausanias led a victorious expedition to liberate Greek cities in the Eastern Aegean from the Persians, but he behaved with great arrogance and his treatment of the Eastern Greeks angered many of them. The Spartans recalled Pausanias and withdrew from the war against the Persians, leaving the alliance bereft of leadership. The Athenians were invited by several of the leading Greek states, particularly the cities and islands of Ionia, to lead them in a continuation of the war against the Persians. In 477 they created The Spartans already had their own a new alliance to ravage the territory of the alliance known as the Peloponnesian League. Persian king in compensation for the It was made up mainly of the small city-states subjugation of the Ionians and the invasion in the Peloponnese, but some larger ones, of Greece. Each of the allies agreed to such as Corinth, belonged, as did most of the contribute men, ships or money to a cities of Boiotia, the region to the north of common pool of resources which was Athens. They had far greater autonomy than administered and commanded by the the members of the Delian League and they Athenians. This alliance is called the Delian could vote on equal terms with the Spartans League by modern historians because its in the League conferences. It was essentially a official treasury was established at the defensive alliance that was only activated sanctuary of Apollo on the tiny island of when there was a clear threat to the security Delos, in the centre of the Cyclades. of one or more of its members.
  • 10. 12 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War A bronze statue of Athena, patron goddess of the Athenians c. 450.The statue shows Athena wearing a hoplrte's helmet. Her right arm originally held a spear and on her left can be seen the remnant of a strap for a large, round hoplite shield. The base bears an inscription saying, Melisso dedicated this as a tithe to Athena.' (Ancient Art and Architecture) whole League force was lost. Kimon had been exiled in 461 but he returned in 451 to lead further campaigns, including an invasion of the Persian held island of Cyprus, where he died in 449. Later that year the Athenians negotiated a formal peace treaty with Persia, known as the Peace of Kallias. The Delian League had proven a remarkably successful alliance in terms of its victories over the Persians and the security and prosperity it earned for its members, but what had started out as a League of Greek states under Athenian leadership gradually took on the character of an Athenian Empire. As early as 470 the Aegean island state of Naxos tried to opt out of its obligations, but was forced back into line. Its contribution to the League was changed from a certain number of ships for each campaign to a fixed annual 'tribute' of money, a process that was applied to more and more states. In 465 the island of Thasos tried to revolt; its citizens endured a two-year siege but eventually capitulated. They were reduced to tribute status and made to pay an indemnity, collected by the Athenians. In 454 the League's treasury was transferred to Athens. This move has made it possible for historians to study the The Athenian Empire finances of the League in some detail, because the Athenians gave one sixtieth of The Delian League successfully waged war the annual tribute to their patron goddess against the Persians, culminating in a Athena each year, recording the payments magnificent victory under the command of on stone slabs. Many of these so-called the Athenian general Kimon at the 'tribute lists' have survived and they show Eurymedon river in 466. A Persian fleet of both the widening extent and the increasing 200 ships was destroyed and with it the wealth of the Athenian Empire. Allied main threat to the security of the Greeks in revolts were put down with considerable the Aegean. In 459 the Delian League sent ferocity and in some cases the Athenians 200 ships to the Nile Delta to assist in an appropriated land from the recalcitrant allies Egyptian revolt against the Persians, but four and established colonies of Athenian years later this revolt was crushed and the citizens there, to act in part as garrisons.
  • 11. Background to war 13 Inscribed records of decisions of the In the fifth century BC, the Greeks felt Athenian Assembly routinely refer to the that going to war in order to resolve a allies as 'the cities which the Athenians dispute or assert a claim to something was a rule'. Athens dominated the economic life right and proper thing to do. This certainly of her subject allies, particularly their did not mean that they always resorted to maritime trade. Some of the profits of the violence in order to settle arguments, but the Empire were spent on the Athenian navy, on attempt to decide matters by armed force pay for Athenian citizens who carried out was accepted as a normal way of behaving public offices and, it was rumoured among for communities and states. If a state was felt the other Greeks, the magnificent public to deserve punishment, it was not unusual buildings which adorned the city of Athens for the inhabitants to be sold into slavery; in from the 440s onwards. extreme cases the men might all be executed. Given the small size of most individual states, it was natural that treaties for mutual The 'First' Peloponnesian War defence against third parties were regularly made, with each side promising to come to The major turning point in relations the aid of the other in the event of an attack. between the Athenians and the Spartans A common formula for such alliances was came in 462 BC. Two years earlier an that both parties agreed to have the same earthquake had devastated Sparta, killing friends and enemies. thousands. It sparked off a major revolt One of the first things the Athenians did among the Helots of Lakonia and Messenia, to vent their anger against the Spartans, who were servile populations under direct therefore, was to make an alliance in 460 Spartan rule. Some of the Messenians with Argos, Sparta's most powerful neighbour successfully resisted Spartan attempts to in the Peloponnese and her long-standing bring them to heel and established enemy. They also took advantage of a border themselves on Mount Ithome in Messenia. dispute between their western neighbour, In 462, in response to a Spartan appeal to all Megara, and her neighbour Corinth to detach her allies for help, Kimon persuaded the Megara from the Peloponnesian League. To Athenians that he should lead a small army make Megara more secure from attack the to assist them. Kimon and his force had not Athenians built fortifications which linked been in Messenia for very long when they, the port of Nisaia to the city of Megara alone of all the allies whom the Spartans had proper. The Athenians were acting out of invited to help them, were dismissed. The self-interest in strengthening Megara. A reason for this seems to have been a growing Peloponnesian attack on their own territory sympathy for the Messenians' cause among would probably have to come through the the Athenians. Megarians' territory, known as the Megarid; Kimon was exiled on his return by the an Athenian garrison was established in Athenians, who felt humiliated and insulted Megara. In 459 the Athenians began building by the Spartans' actions. From 460 to 446 their own fortifications, known as the Long there was constant political tension between Walls, to link the city of Athens to its main the two sides, with both Athens and Sparta port at Peiraieus. forming alliances with each other's enemies. Another Athenian alliance, with the In some cases the tension resulted in a series Thessalians, improved both their military and of military conflicts which exacerbated the strategic position. The extensive open plains of rivalry. These conflicts are sometimes called Thessaly were ideal country for breeding and the First Peloponnesian War, although to training horses, so the Thessalians were among some extent they lack the continuity and the best cavalrymen in the Greek world, coherence which is characteristic of a whereas mountainous Attika did not suit the single war. breeding of horses and produced few
  • 12. 14 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War cavalrymen. The Thessalians were also the territory, then headed north into the northern neighbours of the Boiotians, whose Corinthian Gulf, capturing the Corinthian- southern borders with the Athenians were the held city of Chalkis on the northern shore of subject of several disputes. In Thessaly and the narrow entrance to the Gulf. This Megara the Athenians saw opportunities to expedition demonstrated the strategic weaken the Spartans by putting pressure on advantage of Athens' massive fleet. A more their allies. significant outcome, however, was the In 457 the first major clash between the capture of the small city of Naupaktos, also two sides occurred. The Peloponnesians on the northern shore of the Gulf of bypassed Megara by taking their army by Corinth. Here the Athenians established a sea across the Gulf of Corinth. They large group of Messenians who had been encountered an Athenian army at Tanagra allowed to leave by the Spartans as the only in Boiotia. The ranks of the Athenians were way of ending the Messenian revolt. They swelled to over 14,000 men by their allies, were to play a major role in the future including 1,000 Argives, a large contingent confrontations between Athens and Sparta. from the Ionian states of the Delian League The Athenians made more sorties north to and a force of Thessalian cavalry. The punish the Thessalians for their treachery at Spartans and their allies numbered less than Tanagra and in 454 they sailed into the 12,000, but after two days of heavy fighting, Corinthian Gulf once more to discourage during which the Thessalians changed sides, naval activity by the Corinthians and harry the Spartans won a prestigious victory. Once their allies and friends in Western Greece. they had returned to the Peloponnese, But the destruction of the Athenian however, the Athenians defeated the expedition to Egypt, increasing difficulties in Boiotians in a separate battle at nearby Oinophyta, gaining control over much of This model shows an Athenian trireme at rest in one central Greece as a result. of the specially constructed ship-sheds around the In 456 the Athenian general Tolmides Peiraieus. As well as the ships and their crews a Greek city needed to invest in substantial facilities in order Lo took a force of 50 ships and, stopping at maintain an effective navy. For many of the cities in Gytheion on the coast of Lakonia, burnt the the Delian League the cost was too great, so they Spartan's dockyard facilities. The Athenians contributed money rather than ships to the League's also ravaged some of the surrounding war efforts, (J F Coates)
  • 13. Background to war 15 A sixth-century black-figure Athenian painted vase showing two warriors fighting. Although Greek armies regularly consisted of several thousand men, artists preferred to paint scenes of individual duels in the tradition of the Greek heroes of the Homeric epic the Iliad. (Ashmolean Museum)
  • 14. 16 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War Scenes of parting like this one are quite common on structure was created by the Boiotians, with Athenian painted pottery from the fifth century. Athens their largest city, Thebes, taking a leading and her allies were at war with Persia or their fellow role. This move inspired the island of Euboia Greeks almost continually from the Persian invasion of 480 to the conclusion of the Thirty Years' peace in 446. to revolt from Athens. While the Athenians (Ancient Art and Architecture) were trying to suppress the Euboians, the Megarians, encouraged by Corinth and controlling the Athenian Empire, and the Sikyon, also revolted, killing their Athenian reluctance of the Spartans to venture out of garrisons, and the young Spartan king the Peloponnese reduced the belligerence of Pleistoanax led the army of the both sides. A five-year truce was agreed in Peloponnesian League into the Megarid to 451, as well as a Thirty Years' Peace between consolidate the revolt of Megara. The Sparta and Argos. Athenian general Perikles rushed his forces In 446 the Boiotians began to agitate back from Euboia to confront Pleistoanax, against Athenian domination and a punitive who had reached Eleusis. The Spartan king expedition led by Tolmides was defeated at withdrew without any attempt at battle, Koroneia, with many Athenians taken leaving Perikles free to return to Euboia and captive. In order to secure their safe return suppress the revolt. There were accusations Athens abandoned all of Boiotia except the that he had bribed the Spartan king and southern city of Plataia. A federal political Pleistoanax's senior adviser, Kleandridas, was
  • 15. Background to war 17 This photograph shows an impression taken from one of the huge stones on which the Athenians recorded the dedication of '/so of their annual tribute to the goddess Athena. By studying the details of these 'tribute lists' histonans have discovered how some of the cities that revolted from the Delian League were punished through loss of territory and the imposition of colonies of Athenian settlers, which resulted in their payments being reduced. (Archive of Squeezes. Oxford)
  • 16. 18 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War Athens and Peiraeus during the war condemned to death for treason and forced suspicion which had caused the 'First' into exile to avoid execution. He eventually Peloponnesian War was not dispelled by the settled in Thurii, an Athenian colony in Thirty Years' Peace, however, and both sides Southern Italy, where he became a leading continued to look for ways to disadvantage military commander and was influential in each other. When the island of Samos in the bringing the city into an alliance with the Eastern Aegean revolted against Athens with Peloponnesians in 435. Pleistoanax himself Persian help in 441, the Spartans tried to was tried and acquitted, but he nevertheless take advantage of this and go to war with went into exile as well. Athens, but at a meeting in 440 they could In 446 the Athenians agreed a peace not persuade a majority of members of treaty with the Spartans, to last for 30 years. Peloponnesian League to vote with them. Its terms were that each side should retain its Nevertheless there was a growing sense territory and alliances. Athens gave up any among the Greeks that a decisive claim over Boiotia and agreed to stop trying confrontation between Athens and Sparta to expand her empire at the expense of the was looming. In the historian Thucydides' Peloponnesian states, but she kept control of view, although there were several short-term Naupaktos. An important clause in the treaty justifications for the main Peloponnesian provided for independent arbitration of any War, it was 'the increasing magnitude of disputes that might arise over the observance Athenian power and the fear this caused to of its terms. The mutual dislike and the Spartans that forced them into war.'
  • 17. Warring sides Athens and Sparta In the fifth century BC Greece was divided territory. Although there were many into hundreds of independent city-states; the differences in the ways that each state was Greek word for this type of state was polis organised and governed, broadly speaking (plural poleis). The size of these states varied they came in two types: either a democracy, considerably, but most comprised an urban where decision making was in 'the hands of centre, where much of the population lived, the majority of the citizens, or an oligarchy, and where the principal public buildings in which effective control of decision making were located, plus a surrounding rural was limited to a minority of the citizens. Greece in the Peloponnesian War 431-404
  • 18. 20 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War Athens practice meetings tended to be dominated by a handful of individuals. These Athens was a relatively large state comprising politicians were often men of aristocratic the peninsula of Attika, with the city of birth, whose wealth, education, family Athens as its political and religious centre. connections and military experience The Athenians had a very broadly based, commanded respect among the ordinary democratic constitution. The major decisions citizens. Kimon, the leader of several were taken by the Assembly, attendance at successful Delian League expeditions which was open to all adult male citizens. against the Persian Empire was one such The Assembly met regularly to debate figure, but the most influential politician proposals on important issues put before it by in the mid-fifth century was Perikles, the a committee, but anyone who wanted to son of Xanthippos. As well as being rich, could speak out in a debate, or make their well bred and a good military commander, own proposal, as long as it was not contrary Perikles was an excellent orator. He was to one that had already been voted into law. able to persuade the citizens in the The Assembly could not meet every day, so Assembly to elect him as a general year mundane financial and administrative after year and to vote in favour of his matters and the day-to-day running of the proposals for using the political power state's affairs were in the hands of several and financial resources of the Athenian smaller committees. The most important of Empire for the benefit of the poorer these was the Council, consisting of 500 men citizens. After Perikles' death in 429 many who were selected by lot from citizens over other politicians competed for popularity the age of 30. It was the Council that and influence over the Athenians, but none prepared the agenda for meetings of the ever managed to attain such a dominant Assembly. A sub-committee of 50 members of position again. the Council was permanently on duty each month, living in a special building next to the Council chamber. Membership of the A photograph of the remains of the Athenian Acropolis. The rocky outcrop in the middle of Athens Council and the other committees changed had been a citadel and a sanctuary for many centuries every year, which meant that there were and had several temples, Around 447 Pericles persuaded plenty of opportunities for ordinary citizens the Athenians to transform it by building a monumental to participate in government. set of marble buildings which were to be the most magnificent in the Greek world,They served as potent Although in theory any Athenian citizen symbols of the wealth, power and pride of the was entitled to speak out in the Assembly, in Athenians. (Ancient Art and Architecture)
  • 19. Warring sides 21 Sparta rigours of warfare, but still in full possession of their mental faculties. The main function Sparta was the name of the city in the of the members of the gerousia was to oversee centre of the fertile territory of Lakonia (also observance of Sparta's laws and customs, called Lakedaimon). Unlike Athens Sparta particularly in relation to the upbringing and had few monumental buildings and it was discipline of citizens. They could act as a essentially a loose amalgamation of five consultative body for the kings and the villages. The Spartans had gradually evolved ephors on major public decisions, although a system that combined monarchical and there is no clear evidence as to their role in democratic elements within an oligarchy. determining foreign policy. They discussed Over the preceding centuries most of the and prepared proposals which were put Greek states had expelled their kings, or before the assembly of Spartan citizens, and reduced them to purely ceremonial they acted as a court for political trials, or functions, but the Spartans retained two inquests into the conduct of kings and other kings who acted as leaders in warfare and leading Spartans. The two kings were also religious matters. In most respects, however, members of the gerousia. They could exercise Sparta was a typical oligarchy, with its a leading role in its deliberations through public business in the hands of a few men. informal ties of patronage and friendship Major decisions were referred to an assembly with its members. of adult male citizens, but there was little or An interesting difference in the way the no chance for the ordinary citizens to citizen assemblies of Athens and Sparta discuss or debate them. They were simply operated was that, whereas the Athenians expected to indicate their agreement or assessed the size of a majority by counting disagreement with what their leaders raised hands, the Spartans judged decisions suggested. Debates on important issues were on the basis of how loudly the assembled restricted to smaller groups of elected citizens shouted in favour of a proposal, or a officials. Every year the Spartans elected a candidate for election. Such a method was board of five overseers or ephors, who had less precise and the outcome could be more wide ranging executive, disciplinary and easily manipulated by the presiding judicial powers over all the people of magistrates. It is indicative of a strong Lakonia, including the two kings. Although reluctance among the members of the ruling they were not subject to any written laws oligarchy to allow the citizen body to have and they had the authority to prosecute any true sovereignty over public affairs. This Spartan citizen, regardless of their official antipathy towards full democracy, as status, the ephors were only in power for a practised by the Athenians and many of year and they could not be re-elected at their allies, was one of the fundamental any time. causes of tension between the two sides. The Spartans did not have a deliberative council that routinely discussed all public business, as the Athenian Council of 500 did. Military hierarchies Instead they had a council of senior citizens, called the gerousia, whose 28 members were The command structures of the two sides also elected by their fellow citizens for life, but reveal a lot about their different political and they normally did not achieve this status social systems. Athenian armies were usually until they were over 60 years of age. This commanded by one or more members of a high age limit is not particularly surprising board of 10 generals, who were elected given the ancient Greeks' traditional respect annually by the citizens. Successful generals, for age and experience. Men who had like Kimon or Perikles, were often re-elected reached 60 were considered to be in physical and they exploited their popularity and decline, and so no longer suited for the prestige to play a leading role in Athenian
  • 20. 22 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War politics, whereas unsuccessful, or unpopular them. Even the great Perikles suffered the generals would not be re-elected. The humiliation of being deposed and fined early generals could be held to account for their on in the war because the Athenians did not actions by the Assembly, which sometimes regard his strategy as being successful. The acted as a court sitting in judgment over ultimate sovereignty of the Athenian citizens over their generals tended to have an The two men on this Spartan relief are probably citizens. inhibiting effect on their actions. The Spartans prided themselves on their constant The full Spartan army could only be readiness to light for their crty.They were expected to commanded by one of the kings, or a value their city and their comrades above themselves and their families. Until the age of 30 they did not even live in regent if the kings were unable to take their own homes, but stayed in their mess halls and visited command in person. The kings were their wives occasionally. (Ancient Art and Architecture) accompanied on campaign by two ephors,
  • 21. Warring sides 23 A Roman bust of Perikles based on an Athenian original. active service. The ephors could, however, Perikles was so good at persuading the Athenians to prosecute the kings before a court vote for his proposals that the historian Thucydides felt consisting of themselves and the gerowia, if that although the Athens of his time was called a democracy, in fact it was ruled by its leading citizen. they considered that they had acted (Ancient Art and Architecture) inappropriately while in command of the army. During the Peloponnesian War the full Spartan army rarely took the field. but the kings seem to have exercised Instead one of the kings led armies complete authority while the army was on consisting of a small proportion of Spartan
  • 22. 24 Essential Histories -The Peloponnesian War This Athenian vase depicts a soldier taking leave of his family as he goes off to war It was part of the public duty of an Athenian citizen to fight when called upon. Normally it was only the fairly prosperous citizens who could afford the equipment of a hoplite.The poorer citizens were more likely to serve as oarsmen or sailors in the fleet. (Ancient Art and Architecture)
  • 23. Warring sides 25 citizens, along with the combined forces of allies, principally the large and populous their Peloponnesian League allies on island of Chios. It is unlikely that the campaigns in Southern and Central Greece. allies regularly contributed as many as For expeditions further afield they sent half of the soldiers involved in all the much smaller Spartan detachments, led by military undertakings of the Peloponnesian specially appointed Spartan officers. These War. Athens despatched troops to many men were allowed a great deal of latitude in parts of the Greek world during the war deciding how to conduct their operations, and often there will have been only a few but internal rivalries and jealousies were allied soldiers involved, mostly serving commonplace among the Spartans. At as mercenaries. several points during the war successful Naval manpower requirements were on commanders were refused reinforcements or a far larger scale. Few cities, even one a prevented from carrying on their populous as Athens, had the necessary achievements because other Spartans did resources to man a large fleet, since a not want them to gain too much prestige. trireme normally required 150-170 oarsmen, plus skilled sailors and steersmen, who were especially hard to find. In 433, for example, Athenian manpower when the Corinthians were preparing a major expedition against Corcyra, they It has been estimated that the total number offered very generous rates of pay to of adult male Athenian citizens in 431 was potential rowers from all over the Greek around 40,000. Of these about 1,000 were world in a desperate attempt to recruit wealthy enough to serve as cavalrymen, enough oarsmen to man their ships. which involved maintaining their own Similarly, it was vital for the Athenians horses. Of the rest as many as 20,000 may to be able to recruit from as wide a pool of have been eligible to serve as hoplites, the naval manpower as possible and they had to heavily armed infantrymen who usually pay recruits well enough to prevent them formed the core of a Greek citizen army, but from deserting to the other side, or less than half of them would be called upon returning home. to fight at any one time. In practice the forces that Athens mobilised during the war were composed of her own citizens and Spartan manpower those of her allies, supplemented by mercenaries. Athens commanded fleets and Male Spartan citizens (Spartiates in Greek) armies drawn from her Delian League allies were almost constantly in training as many times during the fifth century but hoplites. They did not have any other only on a few occasions are we able to get a occupation and their farmland was worked clear idea of the proportions of Athenian to for them by slaves. Their training began at a allied forces involved in the campaigns of very early age, usually five or six years and the Peloponnesian War. The most detailed continued through various stages until, at 18 breakdown is provided by Thucydides when years' old, they were allowed to attend he describes the forces sent on an meetings of the citizen assembly and go expedition to Sicily in 415. There were abroad on military expeditions. At this age 5,100 hoplites, or heavy infantrymen, of they were admitted to a mess group (the whom 2,200 were Athenian citizens, Greek word for which is syssition). Each mess 750 were mercenaries from the Peloponnese, group was made up of about 15 Spartans and the remaining 2,150 were supplied by who trained, exercised, dined and fought Athens' subject allies of the Delian League. together. In theory they were all of equal The fleet of 134 trireme warships was made status and contributed food and other up of 100 Athenian vessels and 34 from the resources to a common stock of supplies. If
  • 24. 26 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War they could not afford to make their regular Messenia. These slaves were called Helots contributions they could be deprived of their and they were the descendants of people full citizen status. who were conquered and enslaved by the The total number of full Spartan citizens Spartans in a series of wars from about was never very large. Even when it was at 950 to 700 BC. The Messenians proved very its greatest extent, towards the end of the difficult to control and organised major sixth century BC, it was probably less than revolts against the Spartans on several 10,000, and by the start of the occasions. The Helots of Lakonia were less Peloponnesian War there may have been rebellious and substantial numbers of them only half that number of adult male citizens normally accompanied the Spartans to war, available for military service. So from where acting as baggage carriers and fighting as did the Spartans obtain the manpower for light armed soldiers. During the their armies? To some extent they relied Peloponnesian War they were used as upon the non-Spartan population of oarsmen and sailors on Spartan naval Lakonia, especially those men who lived in vessels. In exceptional circumstances the towns and villages around Sparta and Helots were equipped and trained to fight were called the Perioikoi, which means as hoplites, on the understanding that 'dwellers around'. The Perioikoi lived in they would be given their freedom at the autonomous communities, some of which end of the campaign for which they were large towns or even small cities. Unlike were recruited. the Spartans they worked for a living, as An important feature of the Spartan farmers, traders and craftsmen. It was the system for maintaining discipline and Perioikoi who made the armour and obedience was the regular use of physical weapons used by Spartans as well as violence. From the start of their boyhood day-to-day items like pottery, furniture and training Spartans were beaten by their elders cloth. Usually they fought as hoplites and superiors. Spartan citizens were alongside the Spartans themselves. especially encouraged to use violence When they needed to assemble a large against the Helots. Each year the Spartan army to take on another Greek state, like ephors declared a ritual war on the Helots, Athens or Argos, the Spartans called upon thus justifying the killing of any the allied states of the Peloponnesian troublesome Helots and keeping the rest League. The nearest of these were the cities in a constant state of fear. Yet for all their of Arkadia, the mountainous region to the heavy-handed domination and control of north and west of Lakonia. The main the Helots, the Spartans could not do Arkadian cities of Orchomenos, Tegea and without them. It was the labour of the Mantinea were not very large, but each Helots that furnished the individual Spartan of them could easily muster several citizens with natural products for their hundred soldiers. Larger contingents were contributions to the communal messes. contributed by more distant states like Throughout the Classical period the Corinth and Thebes. These allies probably Spartans' main priority was always to keep provided the majority of hoplites in any their dominant position over the Helots, Spartan army, especially when serving who were so essential to their own way of outside of the Peloponnese. life. But this was no easy task, even for men who were constantly prepared for war. The Messenian revolt of 462-456 showed how The Helot curse fragile the Spartans' control was, and the abrupt dismissal of Kimon and his Athenian The Spartans also made considerable use of contingent indicates how sensitive Spartans the large, publicly owned, slave population were to any interference in their of Lakonia and its neighbouring region, relationship with the Messenians. The
  • 25. Warring sides 27 This bronze statuette of a hoplite was probably made in Lakonia and dedicated by a Spartan citizen at the sanctuary of Zeus in Olympia.The Spartans were famous for their zealous observance of religious rituals. Many similar offerings have been found in sanctuaries around the Peloponnese and elsewhere in Greece. (Ancient Art and Architecture) continual need to subjugate this conquered population was the main reason why the Spartans were reluctant to commit large numbers of citizens to campaigns outside the Peloponnese. In the words of the modern scholar Geoffrey de Sainte Croix, who studied the history of the Peloponnesian War in great detail: 'The Helot danger was the curse Sparta had brought upon herself, an admirable illustration of the maxim that a people which oppresses another cannot itself be free.'
  • 26. Outbreak Fear and suspicion lead to war The most immediate, short-term cause of the The other Corinthian complaint was over Peloponnesian War, according to Thucydides, Athens' treatment of the city of Poteidaia. was the judgment of the Spartans, endorsed This city, located on the westernmost spur of by their allies, that the Athenians had broken the Chalkidike peninsula, had originally the terms of the Thirty Years' Peace. A key been founded by Corinthians and still clause was a guarantee that no state would be received its annual magistrates from Corinth. deprived of its autonomy. This did not mean It was a tribute-paying member of the Delian that the Athenians could not demand tribute League and of great strategic importance from their subject allies, nor that the Spartans because of its proximity to the territory of had to relinquish control over the the Macedonian king, Perdikkas, who was a Peloponnesian League. Rather it meant that former ally of Athens. Perdikkas was now no state should be deprived of the freedom to encouraging the cities of Chalkidike to revolt run its own affairs, insofar as it had done from Athens. They had formed a league with before the peace treaty was agreed. The its political and economic centre at Athenians were accused of failing to respect Olynthos. The Poteidaians had been ordered this clause by several of the Greek states. by Athens to send their Corinthian magistrates back home and dismantle their fortifications. While they negotiated with The case against Athens the Athenians they sent an embassy to the Peloponnese and obtained an assurance from The Spartans were under considerable pressure Sparta that if the Athenians attacked from their allies in the Peloponnesian League Poteidaia, Sparta would invade Attika. The to restrain the Athenians. In 432 they invited Athenians were fearful that they might lose all interested parties to put their case before a control of this prosperous area, which meeting of the Spartan Assembly. Prominent provided some seven per cent of their tribute among the states arguing for war was Corinth. revenue, so they sent forces to lay siege to There were two main Corinthian complaints. the city, which had been reinforced by One was the action of Athens on behalf of troops from Corinth and mercenaries from Coreyra (modern Corfu) against the the Peloponnese. The Corinthians Corinthians. In 435 the Corinthian colony of complained that Athens was breaking the Corcyra was involved in a dispute with her terms of the Peace and demanded that the colony at Epidamnos, in modern Albania. Spartans invade Attika. This dispute escalated to involve the A further complaint against Athens was Corinthians, on the side of Epidamnos, in a made by the people of Megara, who naval battle in 432 with the Athenians, who complained that they had been excluded from had made a defensive alliance with Corcyra in access to the harbours'and market-place of 433. Corcyra had a large navy of her own and Athens by a decree of the Athenian Assembly. the Corinthians and other Peloponnesians The purpose of what is known as the Megarian feared that their alliance might make the decree seems to have been to put pressure on Athenians invincible at sea. They also saw the the Megarians to abandon their alliance with Athenians' involvement as unjustifiable Sparta and the Peloponnesians and resume interference in their affairs, contrary to the their alliance with Athens, which they had terms of the Thirty Years' Peace. abandoned in 446. The Megarians' territory
  • 27. Outbreak 29 These sketches show reconstructions of typical Athenian houses based on archeological remains.The walls were built of sun-dried clay bricks and the roofs were covered with large pottery tiles.The windows had no glass, only wooden shutters. Most houses were built around a small courtyard and those of wealthier families would usually have an upper storey. (John Ellis Jones)
  • 28. 30 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War bordered on Attika in the east and provided simply a set of religious sanctions imposed potential access for a Peloponnesian army to because the Megarians had cultivated some attack Athens. The exclusions from Athenian land which was supposed to be left harbours and markets seem to have had a very untouched as it was sacred to the gods, as severe effect on Megarian trade. This is not well as some disputed territory on the border surprising as Athens was the largest city in between Attika and the Megarid. They also Greece and her commercial harbour at accused the Megarians of sheltering runaway Peiraieus was a major centre of maritime trade. Athenian slaves. Representatives from the island state of Aigina also complained that their autonomy was being infringed by Athens. Aigina had The Spartans and their allies been part of the Athenian Empire since 458, vote for war but is not unlikely that the Athenians had recently begun to behave more aggressively Having heard the complaints and the towards Aiginetans for similar reasons to those counter-arguments of the Athenians, the which were causing them to put pressure on Spartans removed everyone except the full Megara. The Athenians must have been Spartan citizens from the assembly place so conscious of the fact that Aigina provided a that they could discuss the matter among potential base for naval attacks on Athens and themselves. The vast majority of the her maritime trade. Autonomy was fine for Spartans were angered by what they had some of the more distant islands or cities in heard. Their allies had convinced them that the Aegean, but for places on their doorstep the Athenians had broken the terms of the the Athenians preferred the same kind of close Thirty Years' Peace and were acting with control as the Spartans exercised over their unreasonable aggression. In consequence Messenian neighbours. An Athenian garrison there was great enthusiasm for immediately was installed on the island by 432 and, declaring war on Athens. At this point one although the Aiginetan tribute payments were of the two kings, Archidamos, introduced a reduced by over half, this meant an effective note of caution. He seems to have argued end to the Aiginetans' right to govern that it was premature of the Spartans to themselves freely, again contrary to the key rush into war a with Athens, whose clause of the Thirty Years' Peace. extensive empire provided her with the The Athenians claimed that they had the resources to fight a protracted war more right to do as they pleased regarding their easily than the Spartans. He pointed out empire, which they had won for themselves that Athens' chief strength lay in her naval at considerable cost. They probably had not power, while Sparta was essentially a land expected their treatment of Aigina to become power. He advised sending diplomatic an issue, given the fact that in the case of missions to try to seek negotiated Samos in 440 the Corinthians themselves had settlements of the various disputes, while at upheld the right of Athens to police its own the same time recruiting new allies, empire. In the case of Corcyra they felt that accumulating resources and preparing for a they were doing no more than responding to war in which expensive naval campaigns a defensive request from an ally, although it would be necessary to obtain victory. He is unlikely that they entered into the alliance had to put his arguments carefully, in order without some expectation of clashing with to avoid offending the Spartans' sense of the Corinthians. They pointed out that duty towards their allies and their great Poteidaia was one of their tribute-paying pride in their martial prowess, whilst at the allies and had been encouraged to revolt by same time pointing out to them the true the Corinthians, who were openly fighting size of the task that lay before them. against them on the side of the Poteidaians. Thucydides' version of a key part of his The Megarian decree, they claimed, was speech is as follows:
  • 29. Outbreak 31 No-one can call us cowards if, in spite of our had broken the terms of the Thirty Years' numbers, we seem in no hurry to attack a single Peace. city. Their allies are no less numerous than ours Even now the Spartans were reluctant to and theirs contribute money. And in war it is the act. They sent an embassy to Athens to try expenditure which enables the weapons to bring to negotiate a settlement. The autonomy of results, especially in a conflict between a land Poteidaia and Aigina was raised in these power and a sea power. Let us gather our discussions, but the main sticking point resources first and not get rushed into premature seems to have been the Megarian decree, action by the words of our allies. We shall have which the Athenians refused to rescind. to bear the brunt of it all, however things turn Eventually a Spartan envoy delivered the out. So let us consider the options in a calm message, 'We want peace and we want the fashion. Athenians to let their allies be free.' Perikles told the Athenian Assembly that the In response to Archidamos' sensible and Spartans could not be trusted to stop at cautious arguments the ephor Sthenelaidas these demands, but would try to force them appealed to the sense of outrage at the to give up more and more in the name of Athenians' high-handed behaviour and freedom for the Greeks. He encouraged the exhorted the Spartans to take decisive action Athenians to tell the Spartan envoys that against them. Thucydides' version of his they too should stop interfering in the speech dismisses Archidamos' concerns over affairs of their own allies, and submit the resources and emphasises the need to problem of supposed infringements of the respond decisively to the demands of Thirty Years' Peace to arbitration. At this Sparta's allies: point the Spartans abandoned the negotiations. As Thucydides stressed, the For while the other side may have plenty of underlying cause of the war was Athens' money, ships and horses, we have good allies growing power and the fear that caused whom we cannot betray to the Athenians. Nor is among the Spartans and their allies. No this something to be decided by diplomacy and amount of diplomacy would change the negotiations; it's not through words that our reality of that power or the fear that it interests are being harmed. Our vengeance must was generating. be strong and swift... So vote as befits you Spartans, for war! Do not allow the Athenians to become stronger and do not utterly betray your The Thebans strike first allies! With the gods beside us let us challenge the unrighteous! The Boiotians also had grievances against the Athenians going back nearly 30 years. In spite of the fervour of his rhetoric, Plataia was the only Boiotian city which had when Sthenelaidas, as the ephor presiding not joined the Boiotian League, in which over the Spartan assembly, put the matter to the Thebans were the dominant force. It is a vote, he claimed that he could not tell not entirely surprising, therefore, that the whether the shouts were louder for or opening encounter of the Peloponnesian against going to war. So he told the Spartans War was not a Spartan led invasion of to separate into two groups and then it was Attika, but a pre-emptive strike on Plataia by clear that the majority favoured war. All that the Thebans, who were anxious to secure as remained was for the Spartans to call a much of their border with Attika as possible. congress of the Peloponnesian League to get They were acting in concert with a group of their allies' approval for a war against the Plataians who were unhappy with their Athenians. The vote was not unanimous, city's long-standing alliance with Athens but the Corinthians persuaded a majority of and wanted to bring it over to the Spartan the Peloponnesians to declare that Athens side in line with most of the rest of Boiotia.
  • 30. 32 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War The majority of the Plataians were unaware morning and they withdrew after being of this plot and they were taken completely promised that the prisoners would not be by surprise. When an advance force of harmed. The Athenians were told about the around 300 Theban hoplites entered the city attack and sent a herald to urge the and told the Plataians that they should join Plataians not to act rashly. By the time this the League of Boiotian cities, they were message arrived, however, the Plataians had initially cowed, but once they realised that gathered all their property into the city and the rest of the Theban army had been executed their Theban prisoners. There was delayed by heavy rain their anti-Theban and now no doubt that the Thirty Years' Peace pro-Athenian feelings reasserted themselves. was over and Plataia was reinforced by the After a vicious struggle at night, in the Athenians, who evacuated the women, pouring rain, which involved not just the children and men who were too old to fight. Plataian citizens but many of their women The attack on Plataia provided an early and slaves, 120 Thebans were dead and the indication of the level of bloodshed which rest surrendered. The main strength of the was to become commonplace in the Greek Thebans did not arrive until later the next world over the next three decades.
  • 31. The fighting The first twenty years The Archidamian War whose name is given by modern historians to this part of the war. The first 10 years of conflict between Athens The Athenians also doubted their ability to and Sparta were considered by many of the defeat Sparta and her allies in a major hoplite Greeks to have constituted a separate war. At confrontation, so, at the urging of Perikles, the start of the war the Peloponnesian strategy they retreated behind their fortifications and was to invade the territory of Attika by land, waited for the Peloponnesians to give up and damaging crops and buildings and forcing the go home. They struck back by using their Athenians to come out of their city and settle superior naval forces to attack the territory of the war in a decisive pitched battle. The Peloponnesians were confident that they would The young man featured on this Athenian wine jug of win such a battle. If no such confrontation was about 430 BC is equipped with the typical large round achieved, the Peloponnesians hoped that the shield, long spear and short sword of the hoplite. He Athenian citizens would soon grow weary of wears no body armour, only a heavy tunic and a headband to ease the fit of his bronze helmet.The lion the attacks and look for a settlement on terms device on his shield is a personal one. At the start of the favourable to their opponents. For the first few Peloponnesian War most Greek cities did not have years the Peloponnesian army was led by the standardised symbols for their soldiers, which sometimes only available Spartan king, Archidamos, caused confusion in battle. (Boston Museum of Fine Arts)
  • 32. 34 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War Sparta and her allies, hoping to make them arrived in Attika early in the summer, when lose their enthusiasm for the conflict. This the crops were still a long way from ripening strategy could not win them the war, but it and the weather was very stormy. This made it could prolong the stalemate and might difficult for the Spartans to feed themselves discourage enough of the enemy to force while they were camped on Athenian territory them to make peace. The strategists on both and the troops began to complain. Then news sides probably thought that there would be arrived of a serious Athenian incursion at only a few years of fighting before a Pylos on the western coast of the Peloponnese settlement was reached. and the whole army was withdrawn, having In fact the annual invasions of the stayed in Attika for only 15 days. Archidamian War, of which there were five A devastating plague struck Athens in 430, between 431 and 425, did not always last very with further outbreaks in 429 and 426. The long, nor, indeed, did they succeed in doing second year it killed Perikles himself, but even much damage. Athenian cavalry harried the this misery did not convince the Athenians to light troops on the Peloponnesian side and seek peace. If anything it probably made them even the longest invasion, lasting 40 days in keener to cause harm to their enemies in 430, failed to cause much harm. Athens could return and the scale and range of naval import much of its food, particularly grain, counter-strikes was stepped up after Perikles' via the shipping routes secured by Athens' death. The Peloponnesians themselves made maritime empire and powerful navy. In any limited use of their naval forces, which were case it proved difficult to assemble the principally furnished by the Corinthians. A Peloponnesian forces at the right time to grandiose scheme was hatched to involve the strike against Attika's agricultural resources, in Western Greeks of Sicily and Southern Italy in part probably because many of the soldiers the war and create a huge fleet of 500 wanted to be at home on their own farmland. triremes, but this came to nothing and the In 429 the Peloponnesians were persuaded by Athenians took the initiative in the west by the Thebans to make a determined attempt to sending expeditions to Sicily. They went at overcome the resistance of Plataia. The the invitation of an old ally, the city of Spartan king Archidamos, conscious of the Leontini, which asked for their help against historical significance of Plataia as the site of the larger city of Syracuse. Two small Sparta's great victory over the Persians in 479, Athenian fleets were sent to Sicily in 427 and tried to negotiate a surrender, but assurances 425, partly with the aim of disrupting grain from the Athenians that they would not supplies from the island to the Peloponnese, abandon the Plataians convinced those still but also with an eye towards adding as much inside the city walls to hold out. The Spartans of the island as they could to the Athenian built a circuit of wooden siege fortifications to Empire. In 424, however, the Sicilian cities prevent any forces from getting in to relieve came to an understanding among themselves the 600 or so remaining people. A breakout and the Athenians returned home without was achieved during a winter storm by about anything to show for their efforts. 200 men, who climbed over the walls using ladders, but they could not persuade the Athenians to send a force to relieve the siege. The revolt of Mytilene and the In the summer of 426 the new Spartan end of Plataia king, Agis, son of Archidamos, was leading another expedition of Peloponnesian forces The next major setback of the war for the into the Isthmus of Corinth on their way to Athenians was a revolt in 428 on the island Attika when there was an earthquake, which of Lesbos, led by the largest city, Mytilene. forced them to turn back before they had even The cities of Lesbos had been founders of the reached Athenian territory. In the following Delian League and their contributions to its year a similar expedition, also led by Agis, resources were crucial to the Athenian war
  • 33. The fighting 35 effort. With the exception of Methymna they saved, but Mytilene was deprived of her fleet had oligarchic governments and they decided and much of her territory. that in her severely weakened state Athens At about the same time the small garrison would not be able to respond effectively to of Plataia finally succumbed to starvation an attempt to break away from her control. and surrendered to the Spartans. They were The Athenians despatched a small army and treated very harshly on the insistence of a fleet to blockade Mytilene, which was their neighbours the Thebans. All of the 225 dependent on reinforcements and food surviving men were subjected to a 'trial' by supplies from overseas. The Mytileneans the Spartans, at which they were each asked: asked Sparta and the Peloponncsian League 'Have you done anything of benefit to the for help and a relief force was slowly Lakedaimonians (i.e. the Spartans) and their assembled under the command of the allies in the current war?' As none of the Spartan Alkidas. The Athenians moved faster, defenders could answer yes to this question, however, sending a second fleet of 100 ships the Spartans decided that they were justified early in 427, in spite of the losses caused by in executing all of them. The 110 women the plague. The oligarchic regime at Mytilene who had stayed behind were sold as slaves. distributed weapons to the mass of the population to stiffen their defences, but this plan backfired and the newly empowered Naval warfare citizens demanded a general distribution of grain to feed the starving population. When At sea the war was fought almost entirely this did not materialise they surrendered the between fleets of triremes. These were city to the Athenian commander Paches, who warships rowed by up to 170 oarsmen and sent the leaders of the revolt back to Athens. manned by 30 or more sailors and soldiers. A debate ensued in the Athenian Assembly The number of rowers could be varied so that about the appropriate punishment for the a trireme could carry enough troops to act as Mytilenean rebels. The politician Kleon an assault ship for small forces, or it could be persuaded the citizens that an example had to used to tow and escort troop carriers if a be made of the people of Mytilene in order to larger army needed to be transported. When discourage further revolts. He proposed that fully crewed the ships were dangerous all the adult male citizens should be executed offensive weapons in themselves, each and the women and children sold into sporting a heavy bronze ram on its prow, slavery. The Assembly voted in favour of this which could damage an enemy vessel's hull if and despatched a ship to tell Paches to carry it impacted with enough force. Consequently out this brutal decree. The next day, however, the best naval tactics involved manoeuvring many people realised the injustice of the behind or to the side of an enemy ship and decision. A second meeting of the Assembly rowing hard enough to smash the ram was called and the citizens voted to rescind against its hull and rupture it. Another, more their decree and only to punish those who dangerous, tactic was for the helmsman to were guilty of leading the revolt. A second steer close into the enemy on one side and trireme was sent out with the revised orders. break off their oars, having signalled his own Its crew rowed in shifts, not putting in to land rowers to ship their oars just before the at night, as was normal on such a voyage. vessels made contact. The triremes were Ambassadors from Mytilene supplied them lightweight vessels that did not easily sink with food and drink while they rowed and when they were holed, but instead they promised great rewards if they could make up would often remain afloat, or perhaps the 24 hours start that the previous ship had partially submerged, and they could be towed on them. Eventually they reached Mytilene away by whichever side was the victor. The just as Paches was reading the orders delivered crews of damaged ships were very vulnerable, by the first ship. The mass of the citizens were however, and unless their own ships came
  • 34. 36 Essential Histories ' T h e Peloponnesian War quickly to their rescue they might be captured, manoeuvrability of the Athenians. After or if the ship was completely awash with water initially losing nine ships to this they could easily drown. Surprisingly few overwhelming force, Phormio and his Greeks were strong swimmers, since they did remaining commanders broke away and not swim for pleasure. Even if there was an retreated towards Naupaktos. The accessible coastline close by it might be held Peloponnesians pursued, but their lead ships by enemy troops who could kill or capture became too spread out to support each other. those men who did make it ashore. As the final Athenian ship reached Naupaktos it went behind a merchant ship at anchor in the bay and turned on the foremost of the Athenian naval superiority pursuing vessels, ramming it amidships and causing the rest to stop rowing and wait for In 429 the Peloponnesians sent out a fleet their comrades. This decision left them sitting under the command of the Spartan Knemon in the water and vulnerable to the swift to challenge the Athenian squadron under the counter-attacks of the Athenians, who now command of Phormio based at Naupaktos. rowed out and rejoined the battle. Because This naval base was strategically located to they were now very close to the shore some of intercept Peloponnesian fleets sailing to and the Peloponnesians ran aground, or came from Corinth, the Northern Peloponnese and close enough for the Messenians who were Eastern Boiotia. Phormio had only 20 ships, based at Naupaktos to swim out, some in whereas Knemon had a total of 47, drawn their armour and swarm aboard some of the from Corinth and Sikyon. Nevertheless ships. The Athenians recaptured most of their Phormio attacked and succeeded in putting own ships, which the Peloponnesians had the Peloponnesians on the defensive. They been towing behind them. They also took six formed most of their ships into a circle with Peloponnesian vessels, on one of which was a the prows facing outwards, their aim being to Spartan commander called Timokrates, who prevent the Athenians from getting behind killed himself rather than be captured by the any of them. Five of the best ships were Athenians. From this point onwards the stationed in the centre of the circle to attack Peloponnesians generally avoided naval any Athenian vessel that managed to get confrontations with the Athenians until the inside the formation. Phormio's response to Athenian navy had been seriously weakened this tactic was to tell the commanders of his by the Sicilian Expedition. In 425, when the own ships to sail around the fringes of this Peloponnesian fleet sent to Corcyra was circle, getting gradually closer to the recalled to assist in removing Demosthenes' Peloponnesians and forcing them to back in forces from Pylos, they chose to drag their towards each other. Eventually, with the help ships over the narrow isthmus of Leukas of a strong early morning wind, the circle of rather than risk a meeting with the Athenian ships became too tightly packed and were fleet, which was heading for Corcyra. unable to maintain their formation without Nevertheless the Athenians did not have colliding with each other. When it was clear things entirely their own way at sea. In 429 that the Peloponnesians had lost all semblance the Spartans with Knemon were invited by of order Phormio attacked, sinking several of the Megarians to transfer their surviving the enemy and capturing 12 ships. crews to 40 ships docked at Niasia, the The superior seamanship and tactics of the Megarian port nearest to Athens. These ships Athenians were rewarded with another could then be used to make a surprise attack success soon afterwards when a larger force of on the Athenian port of Peiraieus, which was 77 Peloponnesian ships drove Phormio into not well guarded. Strong winds and, in the narrow stretch of water at Rhion, hoping Thucydides' view, a lack of courage, caused to trap them against the northern shoreline, them to abandon the idea of attacking thus negating the greater speed and Peiraieus and to strike at the island of
  • 35. The fighting 37 A sketch showing how the Athenian harbour at confrontation on land. Meanwhile, the Mounychia in Peiraieus may have looked in the fourth Athenian generals Eurymedon and Sophokles century. Early on in the Peloponnesian War a daring were taking 40 ships to Sicily, via Corcyra. attempt by the Spartans to attack the harbour showed the Athenians that they needed to fortify it.The entrance They made a detour into the area of Pylos on is narrow and there is a chain stretched across it to the western coast of the Peloponnese to prevent unauthorised ships from getting in. (J F Coates) attempt a scheme devised by the general-elect Demosthenes who was travelling with them. Salamis instead. They captured three Demosthenes' plan was to turn Pylos into Athenian ships on the north of the island a fortified post for a detachment of the and did a considerable amount of damage Messenian exiles from Naupaktos to use as a before the arrival of an Athenian fleet and base for conducting raids against concerns over the state of their ships Peloponnesian territory. From Pylos they forced them to withdraw. The episode had could easily penetrate Messenia and, with demonstrated that Athenian territory was their ability to speak the local dialect, their also vulnerable to seaborne attack and steps knowledge of the land and their kinship were taken to close off the harbour entrances with the Messenians, they could stir up at Peiraieus and station more ships on guard trouble for the Spartans in their own back duty in the future. yard. Demosthenes seems to have had some difficulty convincing the two current generals to carry out his plan, but eventually Spartan defeat at Pylos an improvised set of fortifications was built and Demosthenes was left there with five In the spring of 425 the Peloponnesian army, ships while the rest of the fleet sailed on led by the young Spartan king Agis, again towards Corcyra. invaded Attika. They settled down to spend Initially the Spartans, did not see any the summer devastating as much Athenian serious threat from this Athenian foothold territory as possible and to try, once more, to on their territory, but when King Agis and force the Athenians into a major his advisers heard the news they abandoned
  • 36. 38 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War This bronze hoplites helmet is in the style known as their invasion of Attika and hurried to Corinthian. Such helmets afforded good protection to the Pylos, gathering forces for a strike against wearer, but they severely restricted vision and hearing, Demosthenes. A Peloponnesian fleet that making the hoplites heavily dependent on the coherence of their formation. This example is inscribed with the name had been on its way to Corcyra was recalled Dendas, perhaps the person who dedicated it in a sanctuary. to assist them, Demosthenes also sent for Many men preferred simpler helmets such as those seen in help and the Athenian fleet turned round at the illustration on page 86. (Ancient Art and Architecture) Zakynthos and headed back to Pylos.
  • 37. The fighting 39 This fifth-century sculpture from the temple of Aphaia on Spartan attacks. The Spartans' efforts took on a Aigina shows the hero Herakles. recognisable by his lionskin frantic edge, with one of their trireme headress. He is in the act of shooting an arrow from a commanders, Brasidas, putting his ship and kneeling position. Archers were often carried on warships his own life at risk by running his ship and would target the officers, steersmen, sailors and soldiers on enemy ships. (Ancient Art and Architecture) aground inside the area fortified by the Athenians and trying to force his way onto the The Spartans were determined to remove land. He was badly wounded and lost his the enemy before their reinforcements could shield, but his bravery earned him much arrive. They attacked the Athenian position praise. The next day the Athenian fleet arrived, from the land and the sea for two days. They now numbering 50 vessels with the addition landed a small force of hoplites on the island of ships from Naupaktos and four allied of Sphakteria as part of the attempt to triremes from Chios. blockade the fort by land and sea. The The character of the confrontation changed Spartans were wary of the advantage that the dramatically once the Athenians had a strong Athenians had over them in naval naval force at their disposal. They easily drove confrontations, and seem to have decided that the 43 Spartan ships away from the occupying the island would restrict Athenian promontory of Pylos and onto the beaches in access to the bay behind and prevent them the bay, disabling some and capturing others. from putting forces in the rear of the Spartans' The blockade of the fort was lifted and the own positions on land. Demosthenes beached Spartans were left camped on the mainland his few remaining ships and deployed their watching helplessly as the Athenians sailed crews as makeshift infantry. He and his men around Sphakteria unopposed. The most held out resolutely against almost continuous unfortunate result of this reversal of fortune
  • 38. 40 Essential Histories • The Peloponnesian War was that 420 Peloponnesian hoplites and More Athenian forces came to Pylos and a their Helot attendants were left stranded on stalemate ensued. The conditions for the the island. Athenians were not easy, as despite being The Spartans immediately sent a masters of the sea, they did not control delegation from the gerousia and the much of the coastline. Their fort was still ephorate to assess the situation. Their under attack from the Spartan army on the appraisal was an honest but bleak one. The mainland and Demosthenes had less than situation was untenable for the men on 1,000 soldiers to defend it. The Spartans Sphakteria because they could not be rescued offered cash rewards to anyone who was and the Athenians could put their own prepared to dodge the Athenian triremes soldiers on the island and eventually patrolling around the island and bring food overwhelm them with sheer numbers. Even to the men there, either by swimming or in that might not be necessary, however, as small boats. Enough Helots and Messenian there was virtually no food on the island, so fishermen volunteered to maintain the food they might easily be starved into surrender. supply. Eventually the Athenians began to The official delegation went straight to the feel the difficulty of supplying their own Athenians and negotiated a truce, which forces at such a great distance and in a allowed them to get provisions to their men confined space with nowhere to beach their and halted Athenian attacks. In return the ships in safety. Spartans surrendered what remained of their Back in Athens, Kleon's arrogant handling fleet and all the other triremes that they had of the Spartan peace envoys put the onus on back in Lakonia (a total of 60 ships), and him to find a solution. He tried to deflect it sent an embassy to Athens to discuss a full by blaming the lack of progress on the board peace treaty. of generals. They should make a determined These negotiations could have ended the assault on the island and kill or capture the war, but instead they came to nothing. The men there, he said. He would have done so Spartan envoys were prepared to make huge already, if he were a general. One of the concessions to recover their men, but they current generals, Nikias, took him at his refused to do so in front of a full session of word and invited him to select whatever the Athenian Assembly, which was what the forces he required and show them how to do Athenians insisted upon. Such a public it. The mass of citizens cheered this display of weakness and humility was simply suggestion and shouted for Kleon to take up too much for the proud Spartans, accustomed the challenge. Kleon was trapped by the kind as they were to having their most important of crowd-pleasing rhetoric that he normally decisions settled by a small group of senior used against others. He obtained a mixed citizens in a private meeting. There was a force of tough, experienced hoplites from the substantial body of opinion in Athens that Athenian citizen colonies of Lemnos and favoured coming to terms now, but the more Imbros, and plenty of light infantry, both belligerent and arrogant feelings of Kleon and peltasts (light infantryman armed with his supporters carried the day. When Kleon javelins) and archers. He promised to destroy accused them of lacking sincerity the or capture the Spartans in 20 days. Spartans gave up and returned home. The truce was over and the Spartans requested the return of their ships, but the Athenians held The most amazing thing on to them claiming that some of the details of the agreement had not been adhered to by Kleon's boast that he could resolve the the Spartans. Thus they were able to bring an situation in 20 days, coming from a man end to Spartan naval activity for the time who had never previously held any military being and increase the pressure on the men command, was probably a piece of sheer trapped on Sphakteria. arrogance. However, he did have enough
  • 39. The fighting 41 This photo shows the bronze covering of a hoplite shield; sentries completely by surprise. Once the wooden core has long perished. It is pierced with letters bridgeheads were established they flooded that tell us it was booty taken from the Spartans at Pylos in the island with the Messenians from the fort 425 by the AtheniansThe taking and dedicating of trophies was a key part of Greek warfare.They served as physical at Pylos, plus archers, peltasts and several reminders of a god-given victory over the enemy (American thousand ordinary rowers from the fleet, School of Classical Studies at Athens: Agora Excavations) whose only offensive weapons were sling stones and rocks. By holding the hoplites understanding of warfare to choose back from a direct engagement with the Demosthenes, the energetic commander superior Spartan troops, and using the rest of whose plan had started the whole affair, as his force to harry the enemy with missiles his chief adviser. Between them they came Demosthenes forced the Spartans to retreat up with a tactically sound approach. They rather than be gradually picked off where landed 800 hoplites on the island from both they stood. If they could have achieved sides at dawn and caught the weary Spartan close-quarter combat with the enemy the