Reconceptualising Design Research for Design Seeking and Scaling. Short position paper by Cook and Bannan, June 2013. **Critical comment and pointers to related literature invited** Contact: john2.cook@uwe.ac.uk

1. Reconceptualising Design Research for Design Seeking and Scaling
Short position paper by Cook and Bannan, June 2013
**Critical comment and pointers to related literature invited**
Contact: john2.cook@uwe.ac.uk
Figure 1 represents a model for Design Research that extends existing approaches so that they
take account of design creativity and scaling of design (the latter in terms of numbers of users
and the complexity of research projects). The model draws on some of Rogers’ (1983) notion
of diffusion of innovation, particularly his ‘model of stages in the innovation-decision
process’ (p 163) and the ‘five stages in the innovation process in the organization’ (p. 392).
However, the experience of the authors and other research have led to the model; we
particularly draw on experiences of Learning Layers1
for scaling in workplace learning and
part of the Learning Layers Design Team PANDORA, which is exploring collaborative
support for maturing local living documents and the building personal and professional
learning networks using mobile and social media (Cook, 2013). Phase one (Prior
conditions) and five (Diffusion at scale) are the focus of this position paper as they
provide an innovative perspective on the potential of collaborative technologies that are
embedded in workplace practices, and which contribute to and help to scale learning on the
individual, group or organizational levels; specifically, this paper contributes conceptual and
methodological work (Design Seeking and Scaling model) and original technology design
(PANDORA Design Team case study).
Figure 1
1
Learning Layers is a 7th Framework Large-scale integrating project co-funded by the European Commission;
Grant Agreement Number 318209; http://learning-layers.eu/; Cook is a work package leader in this project.

2. Starting from the top left of the diagram and moving clockwise we have five related phases:
Prior conditions, Persuasion, Design decisions, Research Process and Diffusion at scale; these
are now described in turn below.
The Prior conditions (Rogers, 1983, 163) phase recognizes the need to look at previous
practice, felt needs/problems, innovativeness and the norms of the social system. We extend
this notion prior conditions and ‘agenda-setting’ (Rogers, 1983, p. 392) by making an explicit
link to ideas surrounding design creativity and the question ‘how do design ideas arise’?
Design seeking is a key concern here, and this draws on the concept of problem seeking
(Cook, 2000) rather than mere problem solving. In the early design process we can say that
“knowledge is essentially problematical: it is not just a question of solving a problem, it is
more a question of seeking out the nature of the problem and then devising an approach to
solving it” (Cook, 2000). A related notion that of the ‘Problem frame’ (Jackson, 2001), which
provides a set of concepts used when gathering requirements through a process of parallel,
as opposed to hierarchical, decomposition of user requirements (which could then be used for
creating specifications for computer software).
The ‘learning theory’ in part of the PANDORA Design Team (e.g. see Cook, 2013) involves
the objective of designing to support the construction of locally trusted Personal Learning
Networks (Cook and Pachler, 2013; this has appeared in the Learning Layers Project
‘Scaffolding Model’ (Ley, Cook et al., 2013)). As a worker’s or group’s connections and
confidence grow, they build what we are calling a Professional Learning Network. First stage
of scaling is the building, maintaining and activating Personal Learning Networks.
Second stage is where professionals move from local trusted personal networks out into
wider networks that can potentially include anyone. This is what we are calling Professional
Learning Networks (Cook, 2013).
‘Designing for scale’ needs to be considered at this early stage, there are three key aspects to
this: diffusion of innovation, systemic pain points and Clusters. ‘Diffusion of innovation’,
(Rogers, 1983) is a theory that seeks to explain how, why, and at what rate new ideas and
technology spread through cultures. A key notion for us is that for Technology Enhanced
Learning (TEL) to be adopted on a large-scale it needs to address an empirically based
‘systemic pain points’ that, if addressed, have the potential to attract significant take up by
other groups of professionals who face the same problem (see Cook, 2013 for an example
taken from UK Health Service). This notion of solving ‘systemic pain points’ for scaling
links closely to but extends phase of ‘Informed Exploration’ (Bannan-Ritland, 2009). Scaling
through ‘Clusters’ involves a “geographically proximate group of interconnected companies
and associated institutions in a particular field, linked by commonalities and
complementarities (external economies)” (Porter, 2008). It is important to distinguish
managed Clusters from unmanaged clusters or agglomerations/lumps with no organisation or
team working on behalf of the cluster members to get them to move in the same direction.
The Learning Layers project is working with clusters in Healthcare and construction by
building sustainability beyond project horizon by promoting a network of Education
Innovation Clusters (see Figure 2) to serve other clusters with services and technologies to

3. speed uptake of new learning methods and technology. Key additional concepts (which link
this phase in a double headed arrow to the fifth phase) are organisational cultures and
contexts; this work is pertinent here in terms of drivers and barriers.
Figure 2: Education Innovation Cluster2
Our second phase is called Persuasion (Rogers, 1983, p. 163) and this relates to the
perceived characteristics of the innovation as well as the need to keep large project teams ‘on
board’. ‘Redefining’ (Rogers, 1983, p. 392) is a key notion here, whereby the “innovation is
modified and reinvented to fit the organization, and the organizational structures are altered”.
Other key concepts for us based on our experience are:
 ‘Co-design’, e.g. working with Health Professionals in NE England.
 ‘Team negotiation’ in larger projects, the need for shared theoretical concept.
 ‘Interdisciplinarity’ and different cultures are an issue in larger projects – we are
evolving the notion of the use of artifacts as tools for design discourse (e.g. to engage
wider community and assist scaling via an innovative Open Design Library: Cook,
2013).
 ‘First cut innovation decision’, the innovation is modified to fit the organization. The
PANDORA Design Team emerged from the Open Design conference in Feb 2013. In
the UK, health sector national guidelines are published by NICE
(http://www.nice.org.uk/) in three areas. Guidelines are interpreted locally by General
Practitioners (GPs) and used in local Health Practices. Focus groups (Feb 2013), part
of Layers Ethnographic Study (WP1), and Expert interviews has confirmed that
communicating these ‘local living guidelines’ can be a problem (it represents a
systemic pain point).
Research Process is the third phase where we are ‘clarifying’ (Rogers, 1983, p. 392), this
refers to the “relationship between the organisation and the innovation” in that “the
innovation is defined more clearly”; this relates to design seeking. Other key concepts for us
based on our experience are:
2
Thanks to Tor-Arne Bellika for letting me reuse this slide (taken from a US Office for Educational Technology
report http://goo.gl/yTHRr), and providing me with insights and references on Clusters.

4.  ‘Theory check’. A core issue is one of how to embed theory into the design process; at
the moment this is the biggest challenge for Learning Layers. We need to keep
reminding ourselves that this is about testing theory not just coming up with some
solutions to user problems; theory provides an explanatory frame that facilitates an
analysis of what works and what does not work across multiple contexts that are
complex and different.
 ‘Users’ are of course all important and their involvement cannot be underestimated.
 ‘Technology’ - The Network section of the MoLE app3
is provided by Layers partner
Tribal; this provides the possibility to create a set of relevant contacts to assist an
individual during the ‘building, maintaining and activating Personal and Professional
Learning Networks’.
 ‘Multi-layered project’ (see Cook, 2013 and diagram below, from Learning Layers)
 ‘Learning’ – the adapted MoLE app could provide the possibility to create a set of
relevant contacts to assist an individual during the ‘building, maintaining and
activating Personal and Professional Learning Networks.
In the fourth phase Design decisions are made, particularly in terms of ‘Routinizing’
(Rogers, 1983, p. 392), whereby the “innovation becomes an ongoing element in the
organization’s activities, and loses its identity”. Other key concepts for us based on our
experience are:
 Co-design
 Empirical work
 Theory Check
 Design artefacts
 Prototypes
Our fifth and final phase is Diffusion at scale. ‘Generalizing’ is a process whereby design
seeking takes place to ascertain whether a solution to a systemic pain point in one sector
3
http://www.tribalgroup.com/aboutus/news/Pages/TribalSmartphoneAppaimstoenhanceinternationalreliefefforts.aspx
Figure 3:

5. could be used for the other sectors, e.g. in construction where parallel systemic pain points
appear to exist. Other key concepts for us based on our experience are:
 ‘Clusters’ (see Figure 4, from Learning Layers) and discussion above.
 ‘Evaluation’ (for example see Bannan-Ritland, 2009).
Figure 4: Scaling through Clusters
The double headed arrow coming out of our phase five in our model (Figure 1) back to phase
one allows us to check our assumptions. The arrow to phase four is iterative feedback loop to
inform scaling. The arrow to phase three is a feedback loop to inform theory.
Keys research questions
 If scaling is to work, does the model drive us to think about how to engage and build
up trust and relationships?
 Does the model represent the non-sequential nature of design seeking and scaling?
 Please add …
Next step
Please contact: john2.cook@uwe.ac.uk with comments and etc
References
Bannan-Ritland, B. (2009). The Integrative Learning Design Framework: An Illustrated
Example from the Domain of Instructional Technology. In T. Plomp & N. Nieveen (Eds.),
An Introduction to Educational Design Research. Enschede, Netherlands; SLO Netherlands
Institute for Curriculum Development.
Cook, J. (2000). Cooperative Problem-Seeking Dialogues in Learning. In Gauthier, G.,
Frasson, C. and VanLehn, K. (Eds.) Intelligent Tutoring Systems: 5th International
Conference, ITS 2000 Montréal, Canada, June 2000 Proceedings, p. 615–624. Berlin
Heidelberg New York: Springer-Verlag.
Available: http://www.academia.edu/attachments/30950194/download_file

6. Cook, J. (2013). Reshaping workplace design to facilitate better learning, Invited talk 24th
April, Division of Learning Technologies, George Mason University, USA. Slides are
available: http://t.co/K1DkaEE2s1
Cook, J. and Pachler, N. (2012). Online People Tagging: Social (Mobile) Network(ing)
Services and Work-based Learning. British Journal of Education Technology, 43(5), 711–
725. Link to paper http://tinyurl.com/8ktmuau
Jackson, M. (2001). Problem Frames: Analysing and Structuring Software Development
Problems. Addison-Wesley.
Ley, T., Cook, J., Dennerlein, S., Kravcik, M., Kunzmann, ., Laanpere, M., Pata, K., Purma,
J., Sandars, J., Santos, P. and Schmidt, A. (2013). Scaling Technologies for Informal
Learning: A Multilevel Theoretical Analysis of Scaffolding at the Workplace. Short paper to
be presented at EC-TEL (European Conference on Technology Enhanced Learning), 18-20
September, Cyprus.
Porter, M. E. (2008). Clusters, Innovation, and Competitiveness: New Findings and
Implications for Policy. Institute for Strategy and Competitiveness Harvard Business School.
Presentation Stockholm, Sweden.
Rogers, E. M. (1983). Diffusion of Innovations. New York: Free Press.