Beyond the EU: DORA and NIS 2 Directive's Global Impact
Introduction to motivation and emotion
1. 1
Introduction to psychology:
Motivation & emotion
James Neill
Centre for Applied Psychology
University of Canberra
2015
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Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
2. 2
Reading
Burton, Westen & Kowalski (2012)
Chapter 10:
Motivation and emotion
Image source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Big_Book_blue.svg, Public domain
3. 3
Learning objectives
1.Distinguish among different
theoretical perspectives on motivation
2.Describe how eating is regulated
3.Describe how sexual motivation is
influenced by hormones and social and
cultural factors
4.Distinguish between the psychosocial
motives of agency and relatedness
5.Distinguish between different theories of
emotion
4. 4
Overview
Motivation
1. What is motivation?
2. Perspectives
1. Psychodynamic
2. Behaviourist
3. Cognitive
4. Humanistic
5. Evolutionary
3. Eating
4. Sexual
5. Psychosocial
Emotion
1. What is emotion?
2. Perspectives
1. Physiological
2. Subjective
3. Neural
5. 5
What is motivation?
Image source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_gemma_and_mehmet.jpg, GFDL
7. 7
What is motivation?
What made you
get out of bed
this morning?
What was the cause of this behaviour?
Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3ASteel_double_bed.svg, CC by-SA 3.0
8. 8
What is motivation?
Motivation is what makes us:
act the way we do
start, direct, maintain, and stop our
behaviours
Motivation is the:
needs, wants, interests, and desires that
energise & direct behaviour.
Motives reflect:
biological needs
psychosocial needs
9. 9
Two major origins of human motives:
Biological: Limited in range, but shared by
all; related to survival and reproduction –
e.g., need for oxygen, hydration, food,
comfortable temperature, excretion, sleep
Psychosocial: Wide variety between
individuals and across cultures –
e.g., autonomy, affiliation, dominance, exhibition,
order
Major origins of motives
10. 10
We are all “naive psychologists”
We are all “naive psychologists”
i.e., we are constantly trying to
figure out other people's motives
and to predict their behaviour
11. 11
1. Relate biology to behaviour
2. Account for behavioural variability
3. Infer private states from public acts
4. Assign responsibility for actions
5. Explain perseverance despite
adversity
Five functions of
motivational concepts
(Gerrig et al., 2008)
12. 12
1. Everything we do is rooted in biology
and shaped by culture and experience.
2.Thoughts provide the direction or goals
of a motive
3.Feelings provide the strength or force
behind motives
4.Both motivation and emotion work
together to influence behaviour
Summary: The nature and causes of
human motives and emotions
15. 15
Early theorists suggested behaviour was
governed by instincts: fixed patterns of
behaviour produced without learning
Motivational systems evolved independently
in response to particular evolutionary
pressures
Contemporary theorists argue that there are
multiple motivational systems related to:
Survival
Reproduction
Evolutionary perspective
16. 16
Emphasises biological basis of motivation,
reflecting evolutionary heritage
Freud argued that we are motivated by
internal tension states (drives) that build up
until satisfied
Two basic drives:
Sex (love, lust, intimacy)
Self-protection / Aggression (control, mastery)
Subsequent psychodynamic theorists argue
for:
Need for relatedness to others
Need for self-esteem
Psychodynamic perspective
17. 17
Freud argued that a person can be
unaware of their own motives for their
behaviour.
Motivation can be unconscious (implicit)
and conscious (explicit) at the same time.
Unconscious motivation can be assessed
using projective tests in which a person is
asked to describe a vague stimulus.
Unconscious motivation
18. Thematic Apperception Test
Tell a dramatic story
including what:
1. led up to the event
2. is happening at the moment
3. the characters are feeling & thinking, &
4. the outcome of the story was
Motives coded from TAT are highly predictive
of long-term behaviour patterns.
19. 19
Behaviours are governed by the
environment.
Needs reflect requirements such as food and
water.
Drives are states of arousal that accompany
an unfulfilled need (e.g., hunger, thirst).
Drive reduction theory argues that we
behave in order to satisfy needs and reduce
drives.
Drives can be primary (innate) or secondary
(learned).
Behaviourist perspective
20. 20
The aim of drive reduction is to restore
equilibrium or homeostasis.
Homeostasis: tendency to maintain a
balanced or constant internal state.
Drives and homeostasis
Useful for survival behaviours;
less useful for “higher” behaviours
Image source:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:William-Adolphe_Bouguereau_(1825-1905)_-_Thirst_(1886).jpg, Public domain
21. 21
Expectancy-value theory:
motivation is a function of the:
value people place on an outcome
likelihood that they can achieve it.
Goals are established through social
learning.
Conscious goals regulate much of
human behaviour.
Cognitive perspective
22. 22
Intrinsic motivation refers to the enjoyment of
and interest in a behaviour for its own sake.
Self-determination theory: 3 innate needs:
competence
autonomy
relatedness
fulfillment of these needs increases intrinsic
motivation
Implicit motives are those which are
activated and expressed outside of
conscious awareness.
Cognitive perspective
23. 23
Abraham Maslow (1970)
suggested that human
needs can be organised
hierarchically.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Physiological needs (e.g.,
breathing, hunger) come first
Then psychological needs
(e.g., self-esteem) are pursued.
Image source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Abraham_maslow.jpg, GFDL
24. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Lower level needs
must be fulfilled first
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25. 25
Motivation of
hunger and eatingImage source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-J15764,_Italien,_Verpflegung_f%C3%BCr_Fallschirmj%C3%A4ger.jpg, CC-SA
26. 26
Eating is a behaviour which involves
consumption of food.
Food ingestion leads to metabolic
reaction. There are two phases:
Absorption. Food energy is extracted
and stored as either glycogen or fat.
Fasting. Energy stores are converted
to glucose for use by the body.
Eating
27. 27
Regulating food intake is a complex
system that equips organisms with
mechanisms that:
Monitor & detect internal food need
Initiate & organise eating behaviour
Monitor quantity & quality of food eaten
Detect when sufficient food has been
eaten & stop eating
Regulation of food intake
28. 28
Eating is part of a complex homeostatic process
with:
Set points: Biologically optimal level system
tries to maintain
Feedback mechanisms: e.g., receptors to
monitor level of sugar in blood
Corrective mechanisms: these restore the
system back to set point when needed
Regulation of food intake
29. 29
Physiological hunger is caused by
dropping levels of glucose and
lipids in the bloodstream (detected
by brain and liver)
Hypothalamus plays a central role:
Lateral (outside edge) plays role
in switching ‘on’ eating behaviour
Ventromedial (bottom, middle)
plays role in switching ‘off’ eating
What turns hunger on?
Image source:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hypothalamus_small.gif
CC-by-SA
30. 30
What turns hunger on?
Mice with damage to the
ventromedial hypothalamus can
become obese.
Image source: https://pantherfile.uwm.edu/plenz/www/introFilesF07/chapter10.html
31. 31
Food palatability: tasty foods can motivate
eating.
Food variety: exposure to the same food
day after day can reduce intake.
Time of day: if eating is at same time each
day then conditioning can occur.
Presence of others: meal size increases
as the group size increases.
Memory of last meal: people with short-
term memory loss (e.g., dementia) eat
more often
External cues in eating
32. 32
Defined as >= 15% ideal body weight for
one’s height and age
Prevalent in industrialised cultures
(~25% of Australian population)
Consequences:
Physical: Heart disease, diabetes or
stroke, early mortality
Psychological: Negative stereotypes,
discrimination, difficulty in relationships,
low self-esteem
Obesity
33. 33
Anorexia Nervosa: < 85% of expected
weight, yet feels fat and continues to
starve. (~5% of Australian population)
Bulimia Nervosa: Binges - periods of
intense, out-of-control eating followed by
excessive exercise, vomiting, fasting or
laxative use. (~5% of Australian
population)
Various contributing factors have been
identified:
Genes, familial influences, low self-
Eating disorders & body image
37. 37
The psychology of sex
External stimuli (e.g., sexually explicit
materials) can trigger sexual arousal in
both men and women.
Imagined stimuli can influence sexual
arousal and desire.
People who have a spinal cord injury and
experience no genital stimulation can still
experience sexual desire (Willmuth, 1987).
Dreams are also associated with sexual arousal.
38. 38
Masters and Johnson
(1966, 1970)
Men and women have similar patterns of sexual
response:
Excitement: Genitals become engorged with blood. Vagina expands,
secretes lubricant. Penis enlarges.
Plateau: Excitement peaks as breathing, pulse and blood pressure continue to
increase.
Orgasm: Contractions all over the body. Further increase in breathing, pulse
and blood pressure. Sexual release.
Resolution: Body returns to its unaroused state. Male goes through refractory
period.
Women are more variable, tending to respond
more slowly but often remaining aroused longer.
Many women can have multiple orgasms, while
men rarely do so in a comparable time period.
39. Human sexual response cycle
Masters and Johnson (1966)
Female sexual
response cycle
Male sexual
response cycle
Image source: Burton et al. (2012), Figure 10.6 Sexual response cycles. Original source: Masters and Johnson (1966, p. 5)
40. 40
Biology and sexual motivation
Hormones have two effects on the nervous
system and behaviour:
Organisational effects: prenatal exposure
to androgens alters the neural circuits in
brain and spinal cord
Activational effects: alteration of adult
levels of hormones can alter the intensity
of a behaviour that is modulated by that
hormone
41. 41
Culture and sexual motivation
Anthropological studies show wide cultural
variation in sexual norms and what
behaviour is considered appropriate.
For example, Western cultures view males
as having greater sexual needs whereas
other cultures hold the opposite view.
42. 42
Sexual orientation
Sexual orientation: Enduring direction of
attraction for a sexual partner on a
continuum (Kinsey):
Homosexual HeterosexualBisexual
Twin studies document a biological basis for
sexual orientation.
Hormonal responses differ between
homosexual and heterosexual men.
Image source: Gerrig et al. (2011)
43. 43
Biological theories of
homosexuality
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Percentage of Relatives with
Gay Sexual Orientation
40
Genetic
RelatednessRelationship
Identical
Twin
Fraternal
Twin
Adoptive
Sibling
100%
50% 50%
0%
Male
Female
Figure 10.18 Genetics and sexual orientation (Weiten, 2013)
Data from Bailey & Pillard, 1991; Bailey et. al. 1993
44. 44
Sexual disorders & therapy
Problems which consistently impair
sexual functioning, e.g.,
Erectile dysfunction (men)
Premature ejaculation (men)
Orgasmic disorders
Treatment includes behaviour therapy
which assumes that people learn and
can modify their sexual responses.
45. 45
Summary of influences on
sexual motivation
Biological: e.g., sexual maturation,
sex hormones, sexual orientation
Psychological: e.g., exposure to
stimulating conditions, sexual
fantasies
Social-cultural: e.g., family,
societal and personal values, religion,
cultural expectations
47. 47
Psychosocial motives
Personal and interpersonal motives
(e.g., achievement, intimacy, etc)
Less biological but rooted in evolution
Two major clusters of psychosocial
goals:
Agency: motives for self-oriented
goals
Relatedness: connectedness with
others
48. 48
Need for achievement
Achievement motivation refers to the
need to do well, to succeed, and to
avoid failure
Persons who have a high level of
need for achievement tend to:
Choose moderately difficult tasks
Enjoy being challenged
Work more persistently
Delay gratification
Pursue competitive careers
49. 49
Performance vs. mastery goals
Performance goals are motives to achieve
a particular outcome:
Performance-approach goals: motivated
to attain goal
Performance-avoidance goals:
motivated by fear of not attaining goal
Mastery goals are motives to increase
skills and competencies
These different types of goals predict
different outcomes
50. 50
Need for relatedness
Attachment motivation refers to the
desire for physical and psychological
proximity to another (comfort and
pleasure).
Intimacy is closeness characterised
by self-disclosure, warmth and mutual
caring (adult relationships).
Affiliation is interaction with friends or
acquaintances (communication and
support).
52. 52
What is emotion?
An evaluative response to a situation
that typically involves:
Cognition: Subjective, conscious
experience
Physiology: Bodily arousal
Behaviour: Overt expression
Can be a “positive” or “negative”
feeling or response
53. 53
Theories of emotion
James-Lange theory
Conscious experience of
emotion results from one's
perception of automatic arousal
Cannon-Bard theory
Thalamus sends simultaneous
signals to the cortex (conscious
experience) and the autonomic
nervous system (visceral
arousal).
Image source: Burton et al. (2012), Figure 10.10 The James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion.
54. 54
Schacter-Singer theory of emotion
Emotion involves two factors:
physiological arousal
cognitive interpretation
A cognitive judgement or attribution is
crucial to emotional experience.
Image source: Burton et al. (2012), Figure
55. 55
Emotion as attribution of arousal
Misattribution of arousal can occur when people
misinterpret their autonomic arousal.
Dutton and Aron (1974) conducted a study
where they arranged for young men to meet an
attractive female while crossing a bridge.
Half the men crossed a bridge which was 10 feet above a
stream, while the other half crossed a swaying, 230 foot
suspension bridge.
The 230 foot suspension bridge men called the woman for
a date significantly more often than the low bridge men,
suggesting misattribution of arousal as attraction rather
than fear.
Image source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Capilano_suspension_bridge_-g.jpg
56. 56
Facial expression and emotion
There is an evolutionary link between the
experience of emotion and facial
expression of emotion:
Facial expressions serve to inform others
of our emotional state.
Different facial expressions are
associated with different emotions.
Facial expression can alter emotional
experience.
57. 57
Creating fear in the face
Participants who were instructed to:
(a) raise their eyebrows and pull them together
(b) raise their upper eyelids
(c) stretch their lips back towards their ears
showed physiological changes consistent with
fear.
Image source: Burton et al. (2012), Figure 10.10, Ekman, Levenson & Friesen, 1983
58. 58
Culture and facial expressions
Cross-cultural studies have identified
six facial expressions which are
recognised by people of every culture:
surprise
fear
anger
disgust
happiness
sadness
Display rules: There are norms about
when emotional displays are
considered appropriate within a
specific culture
?
Image source: Burton et al. (2012), Figure 10.10, From Ekman, Levenson & Friesen, 1983
59. 59
Gender and emotional expression
Women
Report more intense emotional states
Are better able to read emotional cues
in others
Express emotions more intensely and
openly than do men
Gender differences in emotional
expression may reflect differing
socialisation patterns.
60. 60
Taxonomy of emotions
Common 5 include:
anger
fear
sadness
disgust
happiness
Additional emotions:
contempt
shame
guilt
surprise
interest
anticipation
joy
trust
Psychology has identified between 5 and 9
basic emotional states.
61. 61
Positive and negative affect
Positive affect: pleasant emotions, drives
approach type behaviour
Negative affect: unpleasant emotions,
drives avoidant type behaviour
These are separate constructs rather
than opposite ends of the same
continuum.
Within these two factors, emotions are
substantially inter-correlated e.g., people
who experience one negative emotion (e.g.
anxiety) tend to experience others (e.g.
sadness, guilt).
62. 62
Happiness
An emotional state characterised by a
positive valence
Happiness is strongly related to:
love, marriage, work satisfaction, and personality
Happiness is moderately related to:
physical health
religious faith
cultural values (highest in individualistic, lowest in
collectivist culture)
number of uninterrupted years of democracy
quality of social relationships
Happiness is not related to:
gender, age, wealth, intelligence, attractiveness
63. 63
Objective realities are not as important
as subjective feelings
When it comes to happiness everything
is relative
People are surprisingly bad at predicting
what will make them happy
People often adapt to their
circumstances
Hedonic adaptation
(Happiness set/settling point)
Happiness
64. 64
Evolutionary perspective
Emotions are innate reactions to specific
stimuli with little cognitive interpretation
Emotions serve an adaptive purpose
(Darwin). They evolved:
because of their adaptive value (serve as
important signals to ourselves and others)
before thought
Basic emotional expressions are wired
into the organism and are recognised
cross-culturally.
65. 65
Neuropsychology of emotion
Three important areas:
Hypothalamus – link in circuit that converts
emotional signals into autonomic and
endocrine responses
Limbic system – Amygdala plays central role
in linking sensory stimuli with feelings
Cortex – allows assessment of whether
stimulus is safe or not, interpretation of
meaning of peripheral responses (e.g., dry
mouth) and regulation of facial displays
66. 66
Psychodynamic perspective
People can be unconscious of their own
emotional experience.
Unconscious emotional processes can
influence thought, behaviour & health.
We regularly delude ourselves about our
abilities & attributes to avoid unpleasant
emotional experiences.
67. 67
Cognitive perspective
Schachter and Singer (1962):
Cognitive judgements (attributions)
are a critical part of emotional
experience.
Cognitive appraisals influence
emotion.
Mood and emotion can affect
thought and memory.
69. 69
Summary
Motivation refers to forces that energise
behaviour and includes two components:
what people want to do
how strongly they want to do it
Different theoretical perspectives (e.g.,
evolutionary, cognitive) suggest different
reasons for motives.
Emotion is an evaluative response that
typically involves subjective experience,
physiological arousal and behavioural
expression.
70. 70
3rd
year psych unit, Semester 2
Prereqs: Psy 101 & Psy 102
~6 weeks each on Motivation
and Emotion
Next unit on this topic:
Motivation & Emotion
(7124/6665)
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71. 71
4th
year (1 year FT or 2-3 years PT)
Can start Semester 1 or Semester 2
Requires DI-average in 2nd
and 3rd
year
core psychology units
Honours in Psychology Information
Evening - Wednesday 9 September 2015, 5:30-
7:00pm at the Ann Harding Conference Centre
(Building 24)
More info: See Honours in Psychology
Handbook on UC psychology homepage
Honours in Psychology
72. 72
Burton, L., Westen, D., Kowalski, R. (2012).
Chapter 10: Motivation and emotion. In L. Burton,
D. Westen, & R. Kowalski, Psychology (3rd
ed.)
(pp. 371-420). Milton, Queensland, Australia:
Wiley.
Gerrig, R. J., Zimbardo, P. G., Campbell, A. J.,
Cumming, S. R., & Wilkes, F. J. (2008). Motivation
(Ch 11). Psychology and life (Australian edition).
Sydney: Pearson Education Australia.
Weiten, W. (2010). Motivation and emotion (Ch
10). Psychology: Themes and variations (8th
ed.).
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
References
Note: Image credits are on the slides or in the slide notes.
73. 73
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Editor's Notes
Lecture home page: http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Introduction_to_psychology/Lectures/Motivation_and_emotion
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Image by: Daniel Plunkett
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Acknowledgements: This lecture is based in part on adaptations of:
Psychology 102 2008 lecture notes which were, in part, developed by Dr. Amanda George, University of Canberra
Instructor slides and material provided by Pearson Education for Chapter 11 from Gerrig et al. (2008) Psychology and life (Australian edition).
Instructor slides and material provided by Wiley for Chapter 11 from Burton, Westen, & Kowalski (2013, 3rd ed.)
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Image by: Mehmet Karatay, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Mehmet_Karatay
Image license: GFDL, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Free_Documentation_License
Motivation is a broad term in psychology, a catch-all phrase to indicate all the internal and external drives and forces that guide behaviour.
Reference: Burton et al. (2012) p. 374
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Image author: Erik (HASH) Hersman, http://www.flickr.com/people/18288598@N00
Image license: CC by A 2.0, Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic
The puzzle of “why is s/he doing that”? - why take one option instead of another option.
The field of motivational psychology seeks to explain why behaviour is initiated, maintained and stopped.
Anotther example:
What made you attend or watch this lecture?
What was the cause of this behaviour?
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Image author: Paul Robinson, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Rfc1394
Image license: CC by-SA 3.0, Creative Commons Share-alike 3.0 Unported, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en
Image source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:12_Minutes_to_Heaven_Teaser.png
Image by: Evan89, http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Evan89
Image license: Public domain
Motivational psychology consists of a set of theories that help to explain behaviour.
Motives are the needs, wants, interests, and desires that propel people toward behavior.
Drive theories hold that motivation is based in an internal state of tension that motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension…organisms seek to maintain homeostasis, or a state of equilibrium or stability.
Incentive theories hold that motivation is regulated by external stimuli…ice cream, an A, money, etc.
Evolutionary theories hold that natural selection favors behaviors that maximize reproductive success…explains affiliation, achievement, dominance, aggression, and sex drive in terms of adaptive value.
One at a time, 10 pictures
Image source:http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:William-Adolphe_Bouguereau_(1825-1905)_-_Thirst_(1886).jpg
License: Public domain
Expectation: An idea about the future likelihood of getting something that is wanted.
Significant human motivation derives from the individual’s subjective interpretation of reality.
Image source:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maslow%27s_Hierarchy_of_Needs.svgImage author: Factoryjoe,
Image license: CC-SA 3.0
Maslow posited that the individual’s basic motives formed a hierarchy of needs, with needs at each level requiring satisfaction before achieving the next level.
Biological: Bottom level needs, such as hunger and thirst, require satisfaction before other needs can begin operation.
Safety is a requirement to attend to needs for protection from danger, need for security, comfort, and freedom from fear.
Attachment is the need to belong, affiliate with others, love and to be loved.
Esteem is the needs to like oneself, to see oneself as competent and effective, and to do what is necessary to earn the esteem of others.
Cognitive: Humans demand thought stimulation, a need to know one’s past, to comprehend current existence, and to predict the future.
Esthetic: Need for creativity, and the desire for beauty and order.
Self-actualisation: Individual has moved beyond basic needs in the quest for fullest development of his/her potential. Individual is self-aware, self-accepting, socially responsive, creative, spontaneous, open to novelty and challenge.
Transcendence: a step beyond fulfilment of individual potential, may lead some individuals to higher states of consciousness and a cosmic vision of one’s part in the universe.
Maslow’s hierarchy presents an upbeat view of human motivation, with the core of the theory being the need for each individual to grow and actualise his/her highest potential.
Image source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hypothalamus_small.gif
Image license: CC-BY-SA-2.1-jp
The hypothalamus is about the size of an almond.
http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/hypothalamus.aspx
Image source: https://pantherfile.uwm.edu/plenz/www/introFilesF07/chapter10.html
License: Not specified
Decades ago, researchers began studying the roles of the ventromedial hypothalamus and lateral hypothalamus in eating. Destruction of the ventromedial hypothalamus can lead to obesity in rats.
Image source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hypothalamus_small.gif
Image license: CC-BY-SA-2.1-jp
Decades ago, researchers began studying the roles of the ventromedial hypothalamus and lateral hypothalamus in eating. Destruction of the ventromedial hypothalamus can lead to obesity in rats.
Image source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hypothalamus_small.gif
Image license: CC-BY-SA-2.1-jp
http://www.eatingdisorders.org.au/key-research-a-statistics
10 x more likely in females
More likely in Caucasians more than African Americans.
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License: Public domain
Image source: Burton et al. (2012), Figure 10.6 Sexual response cycles. Original source: Masters and Johnson (1966, p. 5)
Part (a) depicts the variations of sensation in women&apos;s sexual response. Part (b) illustrates the typical male sexual response cycle. The two are practically indistinguishable, except for the greater variability in women&apos;s experience.
Sexual orientation is more likely based on biological factors like differing brain centers, genetics, and parental hormone exposure rather than environmental factors.
Image source: Gerrig et al. (2011)
52% of gay adopted identical twins were also gay (22% of fraternal twins and 11% of adopted brothers)
Image source:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rebecca1917version.jpg
Image author: Mary Pickford in Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm (1917)
Image license: Public domain
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http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Flickr_-_Sukanto_Debnath_-_A_happy_man.jpg
Image author: Sukanto Debnath from Hyderabad, India, http://www.flickr.com/people/7487149@N03
Image license: CC-by-A 2.0, Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic
The cognitive component of emotion involves subjective feelings that have an evaluative aspect…a cognitive appraisal of an event is an important element in emotional experience. Researchers have, in the past, focused primarily on negative emotions, consistent with the bias in the field of psychology toward studying pathology, weakness, and suffering. In recent years, however, a group of psychologists have advocated for positive psychology…increasing research on contentment, well-being, human strength, and positive emotion.
The physiological arousal associated with emotion occurs through the actions of the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is responsible for the highly emotional fight-or-flight response. The galvanic skin response (GSR) measures autonomic activation – the device that measures autonomic fluctuations while a person is questioned is called a polygraph or lie detector (really an emotion detector). Polygraph tests measure emotion, which may or may not be due to deceit; they are inaccurate often enough that they are deemed not reliable enough to be submitted as evidence in most types of courtrooms.
In the brain, the limbic system is the emotional circuit (the hypothalamus, the amygdala, and adjacent structures); Joseph LeDoux (1996) has shown that the amygdala plays a particularly central role in modulating emotions.
Behaviorally, emotions are expressed through body language and facial expressions. Research indicates considerable cross-cultural similarities in the ability to differentiate facial expressions of emotion. The facial-feedback hypothesis holds that facial muscles send signals to the brain that help it recognize the emotion being experienced…smile and feel better.
Cross-cultural similarities have also been found in the cognitive and behavioral components, although display rules, or norms for regulating appropriate expression of emotion, vary from culture to culture.
Image source: Burton et al. (2012), Figure 10.10 The James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion.
Schacter’s Two-Factor Theory holds that you feel autonomic arousal and look around to see why…if there’s a snake you feel fear.
Image source: Burton et al. (2012), Figure 10.18
Image source: Burton et al. (2012), Figure 10.10, Ekman, Levenson & Friesen, 1983
Activity: Make these facial actions and notice response
Image source: Burton (2012), Figure 10.10, From Ekman, Levenson & Friesen, 1983
Images: Anger, Happiness, Disgust
Activity: Identify the emotions in each pair
New - Hedonic adaptation occurs when the mental scale that people use to judge the pleasantnessunpleasantness of their experiences shifts so that their neutral point, or baseline
for comparison, changes. Unfortunately, when people’s experiences improve, hedonic adaptation may sometimes put them on a hedonic treadmill—their neutral point moves upward, so that the improvements yield no real benefits
Evidence suggests that people adapt more slowly to negative events than to positive events (Larsen & Prizmic, 2008). Thus, even years later, people who suffer major setbacks, such as the
death of a spouse or serious illness, often are not as happy as they were before the setback, but generally they are not nearly as unhappy as they or others would have predicted