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Alzheimer's disease
- 12. β -amyloid production APP : amyloid precursor protein (type-1 transmembrane glycoprotein) BACE-1 : beta-site amyloid precursor protein-cleaving enzyme 1 β -Secretase sAPP : large amyloid precursor protein C83, C99 : 83, 99-residue carboxyl-terminal fragment AICD : amyloid intracellular domain
- 14. Pathological features of Alzheimer’s disease
- 16. Vaccination Dale Schenk, Michael Hagen, Peter Seubert. Current progress in beta-amyloid immunotherapy. Current Opinion in Immunology , Volume 16, Issue 5 , October 2004 , Pages 599-606
- 18. [ Tau & Neurofibrillary tangles ]
- 19. Axonal transport http://www.mpih-frankfurt.mpg.de/global/Nc/view.htm http://www.colorado.edu/intphys/Class/IPHY3430-200/002cellular.htm
- 20. Structural organization of microtubule http://manual.blueprint.org/Home/glossary-of-terms/mechano-glossary--m/mechano-glossary-microtubules
- 22. Querfurth HW, LaFerla FM. Alzheimer's disease. N Engl J Med. Jan 28;362(4):329-44.
- 26. The Synapse in Alzheimer’s Disease
- 29. Depletion of Neurotrophin Neurotrophins are a family of proteins that induce the survival, development and function of neurons. learning memory behavior
- 32. Depletion of neurotrophin
- 36. Synaptic Dysfunction in Alzheimer’s Disease
- 37. Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Alzheimer’s Disease
- 41. Mitochondrial Dysfunction Oxidative Stress Amany Mohamed , et. al., Int J Alzheimers Dis . 2011 , 127984. A can be translocated to the cell via interacting with RAGE
- 42. Mitochondrial Dysfunction Oxidative Stress A can be translocated to mt via TOM Inhibit cyt. c oxidase lead to ROS and oxidative stress Renato X. Santos , et. al., Int J Clin Exp Pathol 2010;3(5):570-581
- 44. Mitochondrial Dysfunction Oxidative Stress http :// clinicaltrials . gov /
- 48. VASCULAR EFFECTS IN ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE
- 52. Inflammation and Mechanism of A β Clearance
- 54. Chronic microglia activation and macrophage infiltration in Alzheimer’s disease http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v6/n9/fig_tab/nrn1725_F2.html
- 55. Inflammatory-activated glia co-cultured neurons http://www.neuroscience.cam.ac.uk/directory/profile.php?gcb3
- 56. Some components of the inflammatory to CNS degeneration http://www.gladstone.ucsf.edu/wp/2009/10/inflammationalzheimers/
- 57. Inflammatory responses and neurodegeneration http://www.gladstone.ucsf.edu/wp/2009/10/inflammationalzheimers/
- 58. Neurotoxic and neurotrophic action of microglia and astrocytes McNally L, Bhagwager Z, Hannestad J, CNS Spectr, Vol 13 NO.6. 2008.
- 59. Using the inflammatory response against AD http://www.gladstone.ucsf.edu/wp/2009/10/inflammationalzheimers/
- 61. Calcium Presenilin mutation Disrupt calcium homeostasis Calcium in endoplasmic reticulum Release calcium into cytoplasm Alzheimer’s disease A β level
- 64. Axonal – transport deficit Impairment of transport Amyloid precursor protein, vesicle and kinesin Exonal swelling, A β deposition and neurodegeneration
- 65. Aberrant Cell-Cycle Reentry http://www.nature.com/nrn/journal/v8/n6/box/nrn2097_BX2.html Oxidative stress DNA-damaging agents
- 67. Cholesterol Metabolism http://www.rndsystems.com/cb_detail_objectname_WI00_BaceAlzheimers.aspx promoted and clearance from the brain is reduced
Notas del editor
- Although amyloid plaques or senile plaques may be classified further according to their composition, all contain forms of β-amyloid protein (Aβ). Aβ is a 39- to 42-amino acid peptide that is formed by the proteolytic cleavage of β-amyloid precursor protein (APP) and is found in extracellular deposits throughout the central nervous system (CNS). 9 Aβ is believed to interfere with neuronal activity because of its stimulatory effect on production of free radicals, resulting in oxidative stress and neuronal cell death. In AD, the amyloid deposits are largely spherical, reaching up to 200 μm in diameter, and are prevalent throughout the cortex and hippocampus of brains from affected individuals. Neurofibrillary tangles are paired helical filaments composed of tau protein, which in normal cells is essential for axonal growth and development. However, when hyperphosphorylated, the tau protein forms tangles that are deposited within neurons located in the hippocampus and medial temporal lobe, the parietotemporal region, and the frontal association cortices, leading to cell death.
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- The biggest risk factor for Alzheimer's disease is increased age. The likelihood of developing Alzheimer's disease After age 65, and rises sharply after age 75 Genetics==== Family history of AD Sex=====Women are more likely to develop AD than men Having Down syndrome
- Proteolytic processing of amyloid precursor protein (APP) by the secretases. APP is a type-I transmembrane glycoprotein. The majority of APP is processed in the nonamyloidogenic pathway (thick arrow); APP is first cleaved by a-secretase within the amyloid-b peptide (Ab) domain (darker shaded region), leading to APPsa secretion and precluding Ab generation. Membrane-anchored a-carboxy terminal fragment (CTF) is then cleaved by g-secretase within the membrane, releasing the p3 peptide and APP intracellular domain (AICD). Alternatively, amyloidogenesis (thin arrow) takes place when APP is first cleaved by b-secretase, producing APPsb. Ab and AICD are generated upon cleavage by g-secretase of the b-CTF fragment retained in the membrane. Scissors indicate the cleavage sites of a-, b- and g–secretase.
- The neocortex is part of the cerebral cortex . It is involved in higher functions such as sensory perception , generation of motor commands , spatial reasoning, conscious thought and language .
- Beta-amyloid (Ab) immunotherapy strategies. Immunotherapy can be achieved through either active immunization with full length Ab or an Ab immunoconjugate, or passive administration of monoclonal anti-Ab antibodies. After active immunization with Ab1–42, the peptide is processed by antigen-presenting cells and Ab fragments are presented to T cells. Subsequently, various B-cells that can recognize epitopes on Ab1–42 are engaged, proliferate and produce polyclonal anti-Ab antibodies. The second type of active immunization approach involves the administration of small fragments of Ab conjugated to an unrelated carrier protein. The immunological response after immunization of an Ab peptide-carrier protein conjugate is similar to the first strategy, with the exception that the T cells are stimulated by the carrier protein rather than the Ab fragment (which lacks T-cell epitopes). The third strategy involves direct administration of monoclonal antibodies directed against Ab and, as such, does not require any type of immunological response from the host.
- Aging: synapse loss
- Figure 4 . Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Failure.A [beta]-amyloid peptide (A[beta])-centric scheme depicts production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS). Their peroxidative attack on cell and organelle membrane lipids yields the mitochondrial toxins hydroxynonenal (HNE) and malondialdehyde. Oxidative damage to membrane-bound, ion-specific ATPases and stimulation of calcium (Ca2+) entry mechanisms - for example, glutamate (N-methyl-d-aspartate [NMDA]) receptors (NMDAr), membrane-attack complex (MAC) of complement, and ion-selective amyloid pore formation - cause cytosolic and mitochondrial Ca2+ overload. Cellular A[beta] directly attacks electron transport complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase) and key Krebs-cycle enzymes ([alpha]-ketoglutarate and pyruvate dehydrogenase) and damages mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), leading to fragmentation. Lipid peroxidation products also promote tau phosphorylation and aggregation, which in turn inhibit complex I. Exaggerated amounts of ROS and RNS are generated at complexes I and III. As the mitochondrial membrane potential (MPP) collapses and permeability-transition pores ([psi]m) open, caspases are activated. A[beta] also induces the stress-activated protein kinases p38 and c-jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), as well as p53, which are further linked with apoptosis. Substrate deficiencies, notably NADH and glucose, combine with electron transport uncoupling to further diminish ATP production. Alcohol dehydrogenase was recently identified as the mitochondrial-binding target for A[beta]. Endoplasmic reticulum contributions are shown. GLUT1, 4 denotes glucose transporter 1, 4.
- Long-term potentiation involved in memory
- However, there’s no single linear chain of events and matters are complicating