4. Introduction
Most common site of cancer in the urinary tract.
2.7 times more common among men
White >black
Men-Fourth commonest cause of cancer.
Women- Eight most common cause
Incidence: 20/100000/year
Mortality: 8-9/100000/year
Disease of elderly- 67-70 yrs
Young patients- better prognosis
6. SEMINAR PLAN
INTRODUCTION
SURGICAL ANATOMY
RISK FACTORS
PRE NEOPLASTIC / CIS
BLADDER MALIGNANCY
INVESTIGATIONS/WORK UP
CANCER STAGING/MANAGEMENT
VARIOUS SURGERIES/ SURGICAL VIDEOS
RECENT UPDATES
VARIOUS STUDIES/TRIALS
7. Urinary Tract – Urinary Bladder
It is positioned immediately superior and
posterior to the pubic symphysis.
In females, the urinary bladder is in contact with
the uterus posterosuperiorly and with the vagina
posteroinferiorly.
In males, it is in contact with the rectum
posterosuperiorly and is immediately superior to
the prostate gland.
Retroperitoneal organ.
When empty - Pyramidal shape.
When filled - Oval shape.
1
9. TRIGONE
the Trigone is formed by imaginary lines connecting
the two posterior ureteral openings and the anterior
urethral opening.
The trigone remains immovable as the urinary bladder
fills and evacuates.
It functions as a funnel to direct urine into the urethra
as the bladder wall contracts to evacuate the stored
urine.
The four tunics that form the wall of the bladder are
the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and adventitia.
2
10. Bladder- structure of
3 layers
– Outer layer
Loose connective tissue
– Middle layer
Smooth muscle and
elastic fibres
– Inner layer
Lined with transitional
epithelium
14. Urothelium
Superficial layer- large flat umbrella cells
Umbrella cells- binucleated/multinucleated
Oval nuclei- perpendicular to basement
membrane
Cellular polarity exists
Basement membrane separate the epithelium
from lamina propria
19. Risk Factor : Family History
Bladder cancer is typically
not inherited as a genetic mutation.
Reported in association with
retinoblastoma
&
Osteosarcoma ( Chr 13 )
Increase incidence of HLA-B5
& CW4
20. Genetic
Abnormalities in chromosome 1,5,7,9,11,17,18&21
have been reported in bladder cancers.
A) ONCOGENES
Tumor suppressor gene
P53
RB gene
B) Amplification
EGF
ERBB2
ERBB1
21. Chemical Exposure
Aniline dyes
2-naphthlamine
4 amino-biphenyl
benzidine
common in
manufacturing:
petroleum
textiles
paint
dyes
Aromatic amines are
slow acetylators
22. Risk Factor : Smoking
Smoking is the greatest risk
factor- four fold higher.
Use of black tobacco
Unfiltered cigarettes
Both current smoking and a prior
history of smoking raise the risk
Cessation- 30-60% reduction
Carcinogens in tobacco become concentrated in the
urine and eventually damage the bladder lining
23. Miscellaneos
Artificial sweeteners
Endogenous tryptophan metabolites
Analgesic abuse- 5-15 kg for 10 yrs-phenacetin
Coffee & tea drinkin
Cyclophosphamide – 9 fold risk
Immunosupressed patients
Balkan Nephropathy
Diet rich in Vitamin A & C ,carotene- protective
24. Risk Factor : Urinary Disorders
Chronic inflammation of the bladder
increases the risk of bladder cancer
Irritative effect leads to cell damage
over time
Common history includes:
repeated urinary tract infection, eg. Cystitis
recurrent kidney, ureter or bladder calculi
chronic urinary retention requiring catheter
(spinal cord injury or neurogenic bladder)
25. Risk Factor : Irradiation
Bladder cells are known to
be reactive to ionizing
radiation
Therapeutic exposure, eg.
radiation for cervical,
prostate, or rectal cancer
May occur as a result of
environmental exposure,
eg. nuclear power plant
workers
26. Risk Factor : Arsenic Exposure
Arsenic is a naturally
occurring element found in
soil and rocks
High levels of arsenic can be
found in well water, as well
as drinking water near farms
and mines
Long-term exposure to arsenic raises the
risk of bladder cancer
29. Carcinoma In Situ
Proliferation confined to epithelium of mucosa.
Considerable potential for invasiveness
Within 4 yrs- 80% of pts. develop invasive ca
Asymptomatic/ Frequency/Urgency/Dysuria
Urine cytopathology – Positive in 80-90% cases
Cystoscopy- Velvety patch of erythematous
mucosa
Main site- Verumontanum area
Non urothelial mucosa involvement- seminal
vesicles,ejaculatory duct, urethral meatus
32. MANAGEMENT- Surgical
1. Asymtomatic FOCAL primary disease –
i. removal of carcinogen exposure
ii. Intravesical therapy
2. Primary DIFFUSE symptomatic disease
without associated bladder tumour
i. BCG immunotherapy
ii. Early Cystectomy
iii. BCG immunotherapy followed by cystectomy
34. Non Surgical Approach
2. INTRAVESICAL CHEMOTHERAPY
i. Thiotepa
ii. Doxorubicin
iii. Mitomycin C
3. BCG IMMUNOTHERAPY
- 6 Week course ( 120 mg of connaught BCG )
- 3 wkly instillation at- 3 months
- 6 months
- Every 6 months for 3 yrs
- 75% patients complete response
35.
36.
37. CLINICAL FEATURES
Hematuria
Approximately 80% of patients present with gross,
painless hematuria. Approximately 20% of patients
with bladder cancer present solely with microscopic
hematuria.
Dysuria and irritative
Dysuria and irritative symptoms are present in up to
30% of patients—especially those with carcinoma in
situ.
Upper urinary tract
obstruction
Upper urinary tract obstruction is rare on initial presentation
and is a sign of advanced disease in 50% of cases.
38. Advanced Malignancy
Pain in suprapubic region,buttock,perineum
may suggest invasion of paravesical tissue
Weight loss
Bony pain
39. Pathology of Bladder Cancer
90% Transitional Cell Carcinoma (TCC)
5% squamous cell -more common in middle
east – schistosomiasis
-also seen in chronic catheterization
0.5%-2% Adenocarcinoma – urachal
Rare- Small cell Carcinoma
40. Transitional Cell Carcinoma
Accounts for 90-95% of all bladder tumors.
Ranges from low grade superficial papillary
tumour to high grade invasive disease
Histologically – Increased epithelial cell layer
-- Papillary folding of mucosa
-- Prominent Nuclei
-- Clumping of chromatin
-- Loss of cell polarity
42. Cancer- Division
Superficial Bladder tumour
- not invaded the muscularis
Invasive tumour
- those that have invaded musclaris
propria,perivesical fibroadipose tissue or
adjacent structures.
Common in trigone,bladder base ,lateral walls
70% papillary,10% nodular,20% mixed
43.
44. Transitional cell carcinoma
A: Irregular filling defect represents tumor.
B: Enhanced computed tomographic scan of the same patient as in A. Note rim of calcification involving tumor
(arrows).
45. Transitional cell carcinoma
Unenhanced computed tomogram shows a sessile tumor along the right posterolateral bladder wall. A Foley
catheter balloon filled with air is in the center of the bladder.
46. Transitional cell carcinoma
A and B: Coronal and axial T1-weighted magnetic resonance images demonstrate invasion of the tumor through
the perivesical fat to the pelvic sidewall.
47. TUMOR GRADING
DEGREE OF ANAPLASIA
PAPILLOMA=GRADE-0
WELL DIFFERENTIATED TUMORS
Confined to mucosa=grade 1
Papillary urothelial tumors of low malignant potential (PUTLMP)
MOD. DIFFERENTIATED TUMORS=GRADE 2
Low grade urothelial carcinoma
POORLY DIFFERENTIATED TUMORS=grade 3
High grade urothelial carcinoma
56. AJCC Stage
Description
Jewett Stage
AJCC STAGING
Clinical Stage
Primary tumor
Tx
Primary tumor cannot be assessed
T0
No evidence of primary tumor
Ta
Noninvasive papillary carcinoma
0
TIS
Carcinoma in situ
0
T1
Tumor invades subepithelial connective tissue
A
T2a
Tumor invades superficial muscle
B1
T2b
Tumor invades deep muscle
B2
T3a
Tumor invades perivesical tissue—microscopic only
C
T3b
Tumor invades perivesical tissue—macroscopic
C
T4a
Tumor invades prostate, uterus, vagina
C
T4b
Tumor invades pelvic wall, abdominal wall
C
N1
Single regional lymph node, <2 cm in diameter
D1
N2
One or more lymph nodes, none >5 cm in diameter
D1
N3
One or more lymph nodes, >5 cm in diameter
D1
Distant metastasis
D2
Lymph nodes
Metastases
M1
57.
58. Stage 0 Bladder Cancer
Stage 0a: The cancer is
only found on the
surface of the inside
lining of the
bladder, also called
noninvasive papillary
urothelial carcinoma
Stage 0is: The cancer
is found only on the
inner lining of the
bladder, also called flat
or carcinoma in situ
59. Stage I Bladder Cancer
The cancer
has grown
through the
inner lining of
the bladder
to the
connective
tissue layer
but has not
spread to the
thick muscle
wall of the
bladder
60. Stage II Bladder Cancer
The cancer
has spread
into the thick
muscle wall of
the bladder
(called
invasive or
muscleinvasive
cancer) but
not to the fatty
tissue
surrounding
the bladder
61. Stage III Bladder Cancer
The cancer has
spread to the fatty
layer of tissue
surrounding the
bladder and may
have spread to the
prostate (men) or
the uterus and
vagina (women)
62. Stage IV Bladder Cancer
The cancer has
spread to the pelvic or
abdominal wall but
not to lymph nodes or
other parts of the
body, or
The cancer has
spread to one or more
regional lymph nodes
but not to other parts
of the body, or
The cancer has
spread to other parts
63. Bladder cancer:
Stage and Prognosis
Stage
TNM
5-y. Survival
0
Ta/Tis
NoMo
>85%
I
II
T1
T2a-b
NoMo
NoMo
65-75%
57%
III
T3a-4a
NoMo
31%
IV
T4b
NoMo
24%
each T
each T
N+Mo
M+
14%
med. 6-9 Mo
64. SPREAD
Direct spread- Local invasion
i.Enblock spread- 60%
ii. Tentacular invasion- 25%
iii. Lateral spread- 10%
Metastatic spread
Lymphatic spreadpelvic,paravesical,obturator,external iliac nodes
Vascular spread- Liver,lung,bone,adrenal
Implantation- abdominal wounds,denuded
urothelium,resected prostatic fossa,traumatized
urethra
69. SYSTEMIC EXTENT (M STAGE )
Pulmonary - chest film
- Linear tomography
- CT/PET
BONE
- Bone scan /Bone survey
- MR
LIVER
- Liver scan
- CT/MR/PET
- Laproscopy
70.
71.
72. Flow Cytometry
Measures DNA content of cells (S-phase cells)
It quantitates the aneuploid cell population.
If > 15% cells are aneuploid-suggests cancer
Diploid tumours- favourable prognosis
Triploid /Tetraploid tumours- unfavourable
If > 10 % S Phase cells – lymphnode
metastasis
73.
74. IMAGING
CHEST X-RAY
CT is better than chest X-ray
ULTRASONOGRAPHY
IVU
Upper urinary tract
Filling defect
Irregularity
78. CT SCAN
Staging of the tumour
Extent of primary tumour
Rule out invasive bladder cancer
Assess pelvic LN status ( > 1 cm )
Visceral metastasis
Evaluation of upper urinary tract
90. Complications and Sequela of Cystoscope
Profuse bleeding.
Damaged urethra.
Perforated bladder.
Urinary tract infection.
Injured penis.
scar tissue.
91. BIMANUAL EXAMINATION
Under GA with full relaxation
Performed prior to tumour resection and then
again after endoscopic resection
Superficial tumour- Disappearance of mass
Invasive tumour -Fixed/Indurated or mass
persists after resection
92.
93. Bladder cancer:
Management
Carcinoma In Situ
75-85% superficial bladder cancer
pTa, pTis, pT1
10-15% muscle-invasive bladder cancer
pT2, pT3, pT4
5%
metastatic bladder cancer
N+, M+
94.
95.
96. ENDOSCOPIC SURGERIES
VIDEO ASSISTED TURBT
Under GA/Regional
Remove all visible tumors
Bimanual examination must before and after
Ideal Method – 2 specimen to be collected
First superficial portion of the tumour
Deep portion along with underlying bladder muscle
The base of resection site is fulgrated
102. ENDOSCOPIC SURGERIES
COMPLICATIONS
Irritation and minor bleeding
Uncontrolled haematuria
Perforation
REPEAT TURBT
Incomplete removal
T1 tumor
Second opinion
ROLE OF ADDITIONAL BIOPSIES
All suspicious lesions
Not required for low risk groups
103. BCG Therapy
Wait for 2 weeks after tumour resection
Early administration- risk of severe complication
Commonest side effect- Bladder irritability
Due to immune stimulation & inflammatory
reaction.
No direct toxic effect on malignant cells
Stimulates a generalized immune response –
result in tumour destruction
104. IMMUNOTHERAPY
BCG VACCINE
6wk induction course (weekly)
6wk gap
3wk instillation at 3rd and 6th month
Then every 6months for 3 years
Don’t give more than 6wks in single sitting
Avoid quinolones
108. Fever<38.5 Fever > 38.5
Allergic
reaction
12- 24 HRS
NO Rx
Isoniazid 300
mg daily for 3
months
Acute severe
SEPSIS
iIlness
Isoniazid 300
mg daily for 3
months
Isoniazid 300
mg
Isoniazid 300 mg
Rifampicin 600 mg
Rifampicin 600
mg
Hold BCG
until
symptoms
have
resolved
May resume
BCG when
asymtomatic
Further BCG is
indicated only
if benefit
excess risk
Ethambutol
1200 mg daily
for 3 months no
further BCG
Ethambutol 1200 mg
Cycloserine 500 mg
Twice daily
To consider
prednisolone 40 mg
iv acutely
114. LASER THERAPY
ARGON LASER- 1 mm penetration
Nd:YAG laser – 4-5 mm penetration
Used to treat the tumour bed following TUR
Newer KTP LASER- Safer ( 4-5 mm )
Indication- Small,superficial,recurrent lesion
Tumour larger 2.5 cm not available.
Drawback- tumour tissue not available
117. Photodynamic Therapy
Combines non toxic photo sensitivity dyes +
Visible light to destroy cancer cells.
Indication- CIS, Ta, T 1 tumour
Photofrin-II – 2 mg/kg body weight is given
After 48 hrs –bladder illuminated with red light
(630 mm)
Cascade of photo chemical reaction- generate
cytotoxic molecular oxygen.
118. Indications for Cystectomy
Persistent carcinoma in situ
Recurrence with invasion of the lamina propria
Persistent involvement of the prostate by TCC
Invasion of the muscularis propria
Rarely contracture and incontinence resulting
from intravesical therapy
119.
120.
121. Invasive Bladder Cancer
Diagnosis of muscle invasion (T2 – T3 ) established
Metastatic disease should be excluded
Aggressive therapy- Bladder preservation
- Bladder reconstruction
Radical cystectomy- gold standard
TUR- small tumors with superficial muscle invasion
122. Segmental cystectomy
Tumour > 2 cm from bladder neck
No evidence of CIS
Tumors in vesical diverticulum
Tumours arising from urachus.
Complications- implantation of tumour cells in
surgical wound
- Recurrence – upto 70 %
127. RADICAL
CYSTOPROSTATECTOMY
Analysis of the urethral margin at the time of
cystectomy before urinary tract reconstruction is
standard practice
MALE URETHRA
Prostatic urethra involvement –do simultaneous or
delayed urethrectomy .
Pt considered for orthotopic reconstruction should be
cautioned about its use till histological report.
FEMALE URETHRA
Better do enbloc urethrectomy
140. Urinary diversion: Ileal
reservoir
Kock’s pouch
Reservoir created
from ascending
colon and terminal
ileus
No appliance
needed
Nursing:
– teach selfcatheterizations
– Skin care
141. LYMPHADENCTOMY
Pelvic lymphadenectomy provides insight into
the local extent of disease.
Extended lymph node dissection should include
the distal para-aortic and paracaval lymph
nodes as well as the presacral nodes
Lymph nodes positive disease
Concept of ratio based lymph node staging
or lymph node density have have great
prognostic value
142. RADIOTHERAPY
EXTERNAL BEAM RADIO THERAPY
No randomized trail to compare with surgery
5000-7000cGy 5to 7 weeks
Local recurrence common
Only pt who are surgically not fit
Hyperfractionation is a future hope
PRE OP RT
Local control in T3
Survival advantage not demonstrated
144. Chemotherapy for bladder cancer
Bladder cancer is a chemosensitive disease
Active single agents.
RR
–Cisplatin
–Carboplatin
–Gemcitabine
–Ifosfamide
30%
20%
20-30%
20%
151. Metastatic bladder cancer
50 % patients with high grade cancer die of
disseminated disease within 2 yrs of
presentation.
Palliative Radiation therapy – 3000 to
35OOcGY given in ten fractions
Intravesical alum (1 %) formalin (1-10%)
instillation:to control haemorrhage from
advanced bladder tumor or radiation cystitis.
152. CHEMOTHERAPY
FOUR – DRUG COMBINATION M-VAC
Methotrexate 30 mg/sq.m – 1,15 & 22
Vinblastine 3 mg/sq.m- 2,15 & 22
Adriamycin 30 mg/sq.m on day 2
Cisplatin 70 mg/sq.m on day 2
Repeat cycle every 28 days ,totally 6 cycles
155. Role of MR Virtual
Cystoscopy in the Detection
of Urinary Bladder
Neoplasms
156. Steps for Creating Virtual Cystoscopy
Patient preparation and Image acquisition
Image processing
Segmentation.
Fly through (creating virtual reality)
Image analysis
Image display
157. Combined virtual and axial MR images for detection
of bladder lesions.
Sensitivity
Specificity
lesions less than 1 cm
90.3%
100%
lesions 1 cm or more
100 %
100 %
Overall lesions
96.9%
100 %
160. Male patient, 65 years
hematuria and dysuria.
old,
presenting
by
161. Male patient, 74 years old,
hematuria and frequency.
presenting
by
162. The Advantages of Virtual Cystoscopy
versus Conventional Cystoscopy
Non-invasive technique.
No anesthesia .
Accurate localization of a lesion .
Accurate measurement of tumor size.
Data of large number images in one image.
More than view .
Access to the anterior bladder wall or the lumen
of a diverticulum .
Detect lower ureteric extension.
MR images assess extravesical extension.
166. NMP22 Antigen
Malignant urothelial cells contain up to 80 times
higher concentration of NMP22 antigen than
normal urothelial cells and release it upon cell
death.
Based on previous studies, an NMP22 test result
> 10 U/ml in the urine is associated with a high
probability of bladder cancer
167. Created to identify urine
with NMP22 antigen 10 U
/ mL
– Requires 4 drops of freshly
voided urine
– results available in 30
minutes
– Positive result if NMP22
antigen level 10 U / mL
168. Molecular Progression of Bladder
Cancer
9q-
Precursor
lesion
14q-
Papillary
hyperplasia
Papillary
cancer
17p- (p53)
9p-(p16)
11pInvasive
Cancer
13q-(Rb)
Dysplasia
CIS
179. Summary & Conclusion
Long-term, percutaneous or intravesicular
hyperthermic perfusion-chemotherapy is one of
the most powerful new treatments in oncology
It is feaseable and has minimal side effects
compared to standard chemotherapy
It can be repeated oftenly (> 30 Tx)
182. SUMMARY
Bladder CA is not rare
Incidence is increasing in both sexes
Chemical carcinogens have big role
Late presentation in developing world
Lack of awareness in early diagnosis
Urine cytology and cystoscopy are good
screening
Grade is most important for prognosis
Stage before and after endoscopic surgeries
Bimanual examination has big role
183. SUMMARY
Endoscopic surgeries and immunotherapy are main
stay in non- muscle invasive tumors
Surgery is main stay of Rx in muscle invasive tumors
RT is equally challenging
Neoadjuvant Rx has proven role in increasing survival
Newer modalities of treatment are under
investigational
184. REFERENCES
Short text book of BAILEY & LOVE
McGregor Synopsis of surgical anatomy
Cambells Urology
Genitourinary cancer surgery by Crawford
CANCER PRINCIPLES- De Vita
Chemotherapy of urogenital tumours-Murphy
Bladder Cancer:Principles of combination
therapy
Urologics clinics of North America
RECENT ADVANCES- WOLTERS KLUWER
RECENT ADVANCES- RSG