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Chapter 18
The Digestive System
Lecture PowerPoint
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
I. Introduction to the Digestive
System
Digestion
• From food, humans must get basic
organic molecules to make ATP, build
tissues, and serve as cofactors and
coenzymes.
– Digestion breaks polymers (carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins) into monomer building
blocks.
• Via hydrolysis reactions
– Absorption takes these monomers into the
bloodstream to be allocated.
Hydrolysis of Polymers
Digestive Tract
• Open at both ends
and continuous with
the environment
– Considered “outside”
the body
– Materials that cannot
be digested (cellulose)
never actually “enter”
the body.
Digestive Tract Functions
1. Motility
– Ingestion: taking food into the mouth
– Mastication: chewing
– Deglutination: swallowing
– Peristalsis: one-way movement through tract
– Segmentation: churning/mixing
Digestive Tract Functions
2. Secretion
– Exocrine: digestive enzymes, acid, mucus
– Endocrine: hormones to regulate digestion
3. Digestion
– Breaking food down into smaller units
4. Absorption
– Passing broken-down food into blood or lymph
Digestive Tract Functions
5. Storage and elimination
– Temporary storage and elimination of
undigested food
6. Immune barrier
– Simple columnar epithelium with tight
junctions prevents swallowed pathogens
from entering body.
Digestive System Divisions
• Gastrointestinal tract: 30
feet long, from mouth to
anus
Mouth 
Pharynx 
Esophagus 
Stomach 
Small intestines 
Large intestines 
Anus
• Accessory organs: teeth,
tongue, salivary glands,
liver, gallbladder,
pancreas
GI Tract Layers
• Layers are also called tunics
• There are four tunics:
Mucosa, Submucosa, Muscularis, and Serosa
GI Tract Layers
1. Mucosa:
inner secretory and absorptive layer
in places it is folded to increase surface area (villi)
contains lymph nodules, mucus secreting goblet cells, and a
thin layer of muscle
GI Tract Layers
2. Submucosa:
very vascular, to pick up nutrients; also has some glands
contains glands & nerve plexuses (submucosal plexus) that
carry ANS activity to muscularis mucosae
GI Tract Layers
3. Muscularis:
smooth muscle; responsible for peristalsis and segmentation
has an inner circular & outer longitudinal layer of smooth muscle
muscle activity moves food forward while pulverizing & mixing it
regulated by Myenteric plexus containing symp. & parasymp.
GI Tract Layers
4. Serosa:
outer binding and protective layer
consists of areolar connective tissue covered with layer of simple
squamous epithelium
Regulation of the GI Tract
• Parasympathetic division:
• Via vagus nerve stimulates peristalsis and secretion
in various organs of the digestive system
• Sympathetic division
– Inhibits peristalsis and secretion
– Stimulates contraction of sphincters
• Hormones:
– From brain or other digestive organs
Regulation of the GI Tract
• Intrinsic regulation:
– Intrinsic sensory neurons in gut wall help in
intrinsic regulation via separate enteric
nervous system
– Paracrine signals
II. From Mouth to Stomach
Mouth
• Mastication: Chewing breaks food down
into smaller pieces for deglutition and
mixes it with saliva.
• Saliva: contains mucus, an antimicrobial
agent, and salivary amylase to start
digestion of starch.
– Enhances taste and makes food slippary
Deglutition
• initiated by receptors in the posterior oral cavity
and oropharynx
– Bolus is moved down esophagus to stomach via
peristalsis
Esophagus
10 inches long
Passes through the diaphragm via
the esophageal hiatus
Upper portion has skeletal muscle;
lower portion smooth muscle
Lower esophageal sphincter opens
to allow food to pass into stomach.
It stays closed to prevent
regurgitation
III. Stomach
Stomach: Functions
• Stores food
• Churns food to mix with gastric secretions
• Begins protein digestion
• Kills bacteria in the food (acid)
• Moves food into small intestine in the form
of chyme
Stomach Structure
• Food is delivered to
cardiac region.
• Upper region =
fundus
• Lower region = body
• Distal region =
pyloris
– Ends at pyloric
sphincter
• Lining has folds
called rugae.
Stomach Structure
• Gastric pits at base of folds lead to gastric glands
with secretory cells:
– Goblet cells secrete mucus to help protect stomach lining
from acid.
Stomach Structure
– Parietal cells secrete HCl acid and intrinsic factor (helps
small intestine to absorb vitamin B12).
– Chief cells secrete pepsinogen
Stomach Structure
– Enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cells secrete histamine and
serotonin (paracrine signals).
– G cells secrete gastrin (hormone).
– D cells secrete somatostatin (hormone).
Stimulation of HCl Secretion
• Gastrin: made in G cells; carried to parietal cells
in blood
– Also stimulates ECL cells to make histamine
• Histamine: also stimulates parietal cells via H2
histamine receptors
– Examples: Tagametand Zantac block H2 receptors.
• Parasympathetic neurons: stimulate parietal and
ECL cells
Three Functions of HCl
• Reduces pH to 2
– Proteins are
denatured (allows
enzymes access).
– Pepsinogen is
converted to active
pepsin (digests
proteins).
– Serves as the
optimal pH for pepsin
activity
Stomach Defenses
• Acid and pepsin could eat the stomach
lining.
• Defenses that help prevent this:
– Adherent layer of mucus with bicarbonate
– Tight junctions between epithelial cells
– Rapid epithelial mitosis that replaces
epithelium every three days
Digestion and Absorption in the Stomach
• Proteins begin digestion in the stomach.
– Starches begin digestion in the mouth, but
salivary amylase is not active at pH 2, so this
activity stops in the stomach.
• Alcohol and NSAIDs (aspirin) are the only
common substances absorbed in the
stomach (due to high lipid solubility).
Peptic Ulcers
• Peptic ulcers: erosions of
the mucosa of the
stomach or duodenum
– Helicobacter pylori:
bacterium that reduces
mucosal barriers to acid
– Treatment for ulcers
combines K+
/H+
pump
inhibitors (Prilosec) and
antibiotics.
Gastritis
• Inflammation of the submucosa caused by
acid eating at it
– Histamine released as part of the
inflammatory response can stimulate more
acid release.
– Prostaglandins are needed to stimulate
protective alkaline mucus production.
– NSAIDs inhibit prostaglandin activity and can
lead to gastritis.
– Tagamet and Zantac inhibit H2receptors.
IV. Small Intestine
Small Intestine Functions
• Complete digestion of carbohydrates,
proteins, and fats
• Absorption of nutrients
– Sugars, lipids, amino acids, calcium, and iron
absorbed in duodenum and jejunum
– Bile salts, vitamin B12, water, and electrolytes
in ileum
– Very rapid due to villi and microvilli
Small Intestine Structure
• Three sections:
– Duodenum
– Jejunum
– Ileum
• Mucosa and
submucosa folded into
plicaecirculares;
mucosa further folded
into villi; and epithelial
plasma membranes
folded into microvilli
Villi and Microvilli
• Columnar epithelium with
goblet cells (mucus)
• Capillaries absorb sugars
and amino acids, and
lacteals absorb fatty
acids.
• Intestinal crypts with
Paneth cells (secrete
antibacterial molecules)
and mitotic stem cells
Intestinal Enzymes
• SI has no glands
• has brush border
enzymes
– These enzymes are
not released into
lumen, but stay
attached to plasma
membrane with
active site exposed
to chyme
Intestinal Enzymes
Intestinal Contractions/Motility
• Smooth muscle contractions occur automatically.
Contractions can be influenced by the autonomic nervous
systems
• Peristalsis is weak. Movement of food is much slower due
to pressure at pyloric end.
• Segmentation is stronger and serves to mix the chyme.
V. Digestion and Absorption of
Carbohydrates, Lipids, and
Proteins
Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates
• Starch digestion begins in
mouth with salivary
amylase and continues in
intestines with pancreatic
amylase.
• Brush border enzymes
finish breaking down
resulting products and
other disaccharides
(maltose, sucrose, lactose).
• Monosaccharides are
absorbed across the
epithelium into capillaries
Digestion and absorption of Proteins
• Begins in stomach with
pepsin to produce short-
chain polypeptides
• Finishes in duodenum and
jejunum with pancreatict
rypsin,chymotrypsin,elastase
, and carboxypeptidase, and
the brush border enzyme
aminopeptidase.
• Free amino acids are also
absorbed into capillaries
Digestion of Fats
• Fat digestion begins in duodenum when bile
emulsifies the fat and the pancreatic enzyme
lipase breaks it down into fatty acids.
• Phospholipase A (from pancreas) digests
phospholipids into fatty acids.
Absorption of Fats
• Fatty acids and monoglycerides move into bile micelles and
are transported to brush border.
• Inside the epithelial cells, they are regenerated into
triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids and combined
with proteins to form chylomicrons.
• These enter the lacteals.
Transport of Lipids Across Intestinal
Epithelium
Summary of Major Digestive Enzymes
VI. Large Intestine
Large Intestine Structure
• Chyme from ileum passes through ileocecal
valve into:
Cecum
Ascending colon 
Transverse colon 
Descending colon 
Sigmoid colon 
Rectum 
Anal canal 
Anus
Large Intestine Function
• Absorption of water, electrolytes, vitamin
K, and some B vitamins
• Production of vitamin K and B vitamins via
microbial organisms
• Storage of feces
Large Intestine Function
Microbial Biota
• Several hundred different species of
bacteria live in the large intestine. Some of
them are useful
• Microbes make vitamin K and some B vitamins.
• They also make fatty acids from cellulose to be used for energy
by large intestine epithelial cells. We can’t absorb the fatty acids,
but they help absorb electrolytes such as sodium, calcium,
bicarbonate, magnesium, and iron.
• Disruption of normal microflora can lead to irritable bowel
disease
Absorption of Fluids
• Most absorption occurs in small intestine,
but some is left for large intestine.
• Not all water is absorbed; about 200 ml is
left per day to be excreted with feces.
• Water is absorbed passively following an
osmotic gradient set up by active
Na+
/K+
pumps.
– Aldosterone stimulates greater salt and water
absorption here.
Defecation
• As material passes to the rectum,
pressure there increases, the internal anal
sphincter relaxes, and the need to
defecate rises.
• The external anal sphincter controls
defecation voluntarily.
• During defecation, longitudinal rectal
muscles contract to increase pressure as
the anal sphincters relax.
VII. Liver, Gallbladder, and
Pancreas
Pancreas
• Is located behind
stomach
• Has endocrine and
exocrine functions
– Endocrine: Islets of
Langerhans cells (alpha and
beta) make insulin and
glucagon.
– Exocrine: Acini cells make
pancreatic juice, which is
delivered to the duodenum
via the pancreatic duct. The
ducts secrete bicarbonate
• Contains water, bicarbonate, & digestive enzymes
• Digestive enzymes include amylase for starch, trypsin for
proteins, and lipase for fats
– Brush border enzymes are also required for complete digestion
Pancreatic Juice
18-72
Pancreatic Enzymes and How They Are
Activated in Small Intestine
• Most are inactive
(Zymogens) until
they reach the small
intestine.
– Enterokinase activates
trypsinogentrypsin (to
digest protein).
– Trypsin activates other
enzymes.
Liver
• Largest abdominal organ
• Has amazing regenerative
abilities due to mitosis of
hepatocytes
• Hepatocytes form hepatic
plates separated by capillaries
called hepatic sinusoids
– Very permeable – allow
passage of blood proteins, fat,
and cholesterol
Liver Functions
Blood Circulation Through Digestive
System and Liver
• Products of digestion
absorbed in intestines are
delivered to the liver via the
hepatic portal vein.
• After circulating through liver
capillaries, the blood leaves
via the hepatic vein.
• Liver also receives blood from
hepatic artery and it mixes-up
with the blood coming through
hepatic portal vein
Liver Lobules
• Are functional units
formed by hepatic plates
• In middle of each is
central vein
• At edge of each lobule
are branches of hepatic
portal vein & artery
which open into
sinusoids
Liver Lobules
• Blood from hepatic portal
vein and hepatic arteries is
mixed and processed by
hepatocytes
• The processed blood drains
into central vein
• Bile is secreted by
hepatocytes in bile canaliculi
– Empty into bile ducts
which flow into hepatic
ducts that carry bile away
from liver
Secretion of Drugs into Bile
Bile Production
• The liver makes 250–1,500 ml of bile per
day.
• Bile is composed of:
– Bile pigments (bilirubin)
– Bile salts
– Phospholipids (lecithin)
– Cholesterol
– Inorganic ions
Bile Salts
• Bile acids: derived from cholesterol
– Cholic acid and deoxy cholic acid
– Most is recycled in enterohepatic circulation.
– ½ gram of cholesterol is broken down and lost in the
feces through this pathway.
• Form micelles with polar groups toward
water
– Fats enter the micelle and are emulsified
Gallbladder
• Stores and concentrates bile from the liver:
Liver 
Bile ducts 
Hepatic duct 
Cystic duct 
Gallbladder 
Cystic duct 
Common bile duct 
(Sphincter of Oddi) duodenum
Enterohepatic Circulation
• Some of the molecules
released into the bile
are absorbed again in
the small intestine and
returned to the liver.
• These molecules are
part of enterohepatic
circulation.
Enterohepatic Circulation of Bilirubin
• Is produced in spleen, liver, and
bone marrow from heme (RBS
destruction) and conjucated with
glucuronic acid to make it soluble
• Conjugated bilirubin is secreted
into the bile, where it is taken to
the small intestine.
– Bacteria there turn it into
urobilinogen, which makes
feces brown.
– 30−50% is absorbed by the
intestines and taken back to
the liver.
– Some is used to make bile,
and some remains in blood to
be filtered by the kidneys.
VIII. Neural and Endocrine
Regulation of the Digestive
System
Regulation of Digestion
• Regulation of digestion involves:
– Intrinsic control via mechanical and chemical
stimuli
– Endocrine control
• Hormones from brain or other GI organs
– Secretin, gastrin, CCK, GIP
– Extrinsic control by CNS centers
• Parasymp. (vagus nerve) stimulates peristalsis and
secretion
• Symp. inhibits peristalsis and secretion; stimulates
contraction of sphincters
Receptors of the GI Tract
• Mechano- and chemoreceptors respond to:
– Stretch, osmolarity, and pH
– Presence of substrate, and end products of
digestion
• They initiate reflexes that:
– Activate or inhibit digestive glands
– Mix lumen contents and move them along
Regulation of Gastric Function
• Gastric motility & secretion occur automatically
– ANS & hormonal effects superimposed on ANS activity
• Three phases
– Cephalic phase: sight, smell, & taste of food
• Vagus n. increases gastric secretions/motility
– Gastric phase: distension and chyme in stomach
• Increase gastric secretions/motility
– Intestinal phase: chyme enters duodenum
• Inhibits gastric secretions/motility
• Secretion of pancreatic juice & bile is stimulated
by secretin & bile
• Secretin secreted in response to duodenal pH <
4.5
– Stimulates release of HC03
-
into SI by pancreas &
into bile by liver
• CCK is secreted in response to fat & protein in
duodenum
– Stimulates production of pancreatic enzymes
– Enhances secretin
– Stimulates contraction of sphincter of Oddi
– Stimulates contraction of gallbladder
Regulation of Pancreatic Function
Summary of Gastrointestinal Hormones

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Chapter 18 lecture

  • 1. Chapter 18 The Digestive System Lecture PowerPoint Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
  • 2. I. Introduction to the Digestive System
  • 3. Digestion • From food, humans must get basic organic molecules to make ATP, build tissues, and serve as cofactors and coenzymes. – Digestion breaks polymers (carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) into monomer building blocks. • Via hydrolysis reactions – Absorption takes these monomers into the bloodstream to be allocated.
  • 5. Digestive Tract • Open at both ends and continuous with the environment – Considered “outside” the body – Materials that cannot be digested (cellulose) never actually “enter” the body.
  • 6. Digestive Tract Functions 1. Motility – Ingestion: taking food into the mouth – Mastication: chewing – Deglutination: swallowing – Peristalsis: one-way movement through tract – Segmentation: churning/mixing
  • 7. Digestive Tract Functions 2. Secretion – Exocrine: digestive enzymes, acid, mucus – Endocrine: hormones to regulate digestion 3. Digestion – Breaking food down into smaller units 4. Absorption – Passing broken-down food into blood or lymph
  • 8. Digestive Tract Functions 5. Storage and elimination – Temporary storage and elimination of undigested food 6. Immune barrier – Simple columnar epithelium with tight junctions prevents swallowed pathogens from entering body.
  • 9. Digestive System Divisions • Gastrointestinal tract: 30 feet long, from mouth to anus Mouth  Pharynx  Esophagus  Stomach  Small intestines  Large intestines  Anus • Accessory organs: teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
  • 10. GI Tract Layers • Layers are also called tunics • There are four tunics: Mucosa, Submucosa, Muscularis, and Serosa
  • 11. GI Tract Layers 1. Mucosa: inner secretory and absorptive layer in places it is folded to increase surface area (villi) contains lymph nodules, mucus secreting goblet cells, and a thin layer of muscle
  • 12. GI Tract Layers 2. Submucosa: very vascular, to pick up nutrients; also has some glands contains glands & nerve plexuses (submucosal plexus) that carry ANS activity to muscularis mucosae
  • 13. GI Tract Layers 3. Muscularis: smooth muscle; responsible for peristalsis and segmentation has an inner circular & outer longitudinal layer of smooth muscle muscle activity moves food forward while pulverizing & mixing it regulated by Myenteric plexus containing symp. & parasymp.
  • 14. GI Tract Layers 4. Serosa: outer binding and protective layer consists of areolar connective tissue covered with layer of simple squamous epithelium
  • 15. Regulation of the GI Tract • Parasympathetic division: • Via vagus nerve stimulates peristalsis and secretion in various organs of the digestive system • Sympathetic division – Inhibits peristalsis and secretion – Stimulates contraction of sphincters • Hormones: – From brain or other digestive organs
  • 16. Regulation of the GI Tract • Intrinsic regulation: – Intrinsic sensory neurons in gut wall help in intrinsic regulation via separate enteric nervous system – Paracrine signals
  • 17. II. From Mouth to Stomach
  • 18. Mouth • Mastication: Chewing breaks food down into smaller pieces for deglutition and mixes it with saliva. • Saliva: contains mucus, an antimicrobial agent, and salivary amylase to start digestion of starch. – Enhances taste and makes food slippary
  • 19. Deglutition • initiated by receptors in the posterior oral cavity and oropharynx – Bolus is moved down esophagus to stomach via peristalsis Esophagus 10 inches long Passes through the diaphragm via the esophageal hiatus Upper portion has skeletal muscle; lower portion smooth muscle Lower esophageal sphincter opens to allow food to pass into stomach. It stays closed to prevent regurgitation
  • 21. Stomach: Functions • Stores food • Churns food to mix with gastric secretions • Begins protein digestion • Kills bacteria in the food (acid) • Moves food into small intestine in the form of chyme
  • 22. Stomach Structure • Food is delivered to cardiac region. • Upper region = fundus • Lower region = body • Distal region = pyloris – Ends at pyloric sphincter • Lining has folds called rugae.
  • 23. Stomach Structure • Gastric pits at base of folds lead to gastric glands with secretory cells: – Goblet cells secrete mucus to help protect stomach lining from acid.
  • 24. Stomach Structure – Parietal cells secrete HCl acid and intrinsic factor (helps small intestine to absorb vitamin B12). – Chief cells secrete pepsinogen
  • 25. Stomach Structure – Enterochromaffin-like (ECL) cells secrete histamine and serotonin (paracrine signals). – G cells secrete gastrin (hormone). – D cells secrete somatostatin (hormone).
  • 26. Stimulation of HCl Secretion • Gastrin: made in G cells; carried to parietal cells in blood – Also stimulates ECL cells to make histamine • Histamine: also stimulates parietal cells via H2 histamine receptors – Examples: Tagametand Zantac block H2 receptors. • Parasympathetic neurons: stimulate parietal and ECL cells
  • 27. Three Functions of HCl • Reduces pH to 2 – Proteins are denatured (allows enzymes access). – Pepsinogen is converted to active pepsin (digests proteins). – Serves as the optimal pH for pepsin activity
  • 28. Stomach Defenses • Acid and pepsin could eat the stomach lining. • Defenses that help prevent this: – Adherent layer of mucus with bicarbonate – Tight junctions between epithelial cells – Rapid epithelial mitosis that replaces epithelium every three days
  • 29. Digestion and Absorption in the Stomach • Proteins begin digestion in the stomach. – Starches begin digestion in the mouth, but salivary amylase is not active at pH 2, so this activity stops in the stomach. • Alcohol and NSAIDs (aspirin) are the only common substances absorbed in the stomach (due to high lipid solubility).
  • 30. Peptic Ulcers • Peptic ulcers: erosions of the mucosa of the stomach or duodenum – Helicobacter pylori: bacterium that reduces mucosal barriers to acid – Treatment for ulcers combines K+ /H+ pump inhibitors (Prilosec) and antibiotics.
  • 31. Gastritis • Inflammation of the submucosa caused by acid eating at it – Histamine released as part of the inflammatory response can stimulate more acid release. – Prostaglandins are needed to stimulate protective alkaline mucus production. – NSAIDs inhibit prostaglandin activity and can lead to gastritis. – Tagamet and Zantac inhibit H2receptors.
  • 33. Small Intestine Functions • Complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats • Absorption of nutrients – Sugars, lipids, amino acids, calcium, and iron absorbed in duodenum and jejunum – Bile salts, vitamin B12, water, and electrolytes in ileum – Very rapid due to villi and microvilli
  • 34. Small Intestine Structure • Three sections: – Duodenum – Jejunum – Ileum • Mucosa and submucosa folded into plicaecirculares; mucosa further folded into villi; and epithelial plasma membranes folded into microvilli
  • 35. Villi and Microvilli • Columnar epithelium with goblet cells (mucus) • Capillaries absorb sugars and amino acids, and lacteals absorb fatty acids. • Intestinal crypts with Paneth cells (secrete antibacterial molecules) and mitotic stem cells
  • 36. Intestinal Enzymes • SI has no glands • has brush border enzymes – These enzymes are not released into lumen, but stay attached to plasma membrane with active site exposed to chyme
  • 38. Intestinal Contractions/Motility • Smooth muscle contractions occur automatically. Contractions can be influenced by the autonomic nervous systems • Peristalsis is weak. Movement of food is much slower due to pressure at pyloric end. • Segmentation is stronger and serves to mix the chyme.
  • 39. V. Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Proteins
  • 40. Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates • Starch digestion begins in mouth with salivary amylase and continues in intestines with pancreatic amylase. • Brush border enzymes finish breaking down resulting products and other disaccharides (maltose, sucrose, lactose). • Monosaccharides are absorbed across the epithelium into capillaries
  • 41. Digestion and absorption of Proteins • Begins in stomach with pepsin to produce short- chain polypeptides • Finishes in duodenum and jejunum with pancreatict rypsin,chymotrypsin,elastase , and carboxypeptidase, and the brush border enzyme aminopeptidase. • Free amino acids are also absorbed into capillaries
  • 42. Digestion of Fats • Fat digestion begins in duodenum when bile emulsifies the fat and the pancreatic enzyme lipase breaks it down into fatty acids. • Phospholipase A (from pancreas) digests phospholipids into fatty acids.
  • 43. Absorption of Fats • Fatty acids and monoglycerides move into bile micelles and are transported to brush border. • Inside the epithelial cells, they are regenerated into triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids and combined with proteins to form chylomicrons. • These enter the lacteals.
  • 44. Transport of Lipids Across Intestinal Epithelium
  • 45. Summary of Major Digestive Enzymes
  • 47. Large Intestine Structure • Chyme from ileum passes through ileocecal valve into: Cecum Ascending colon  Transverse colon  Descending colon  Sigmoid colon  Rectum  Anal canal  Anus
  • 48. Large Intestine Function • Absorption of water, electrolytes, vitamin K, and some B vitamins • Production of vitamin K and B vitamins via microbial organisms • Storage of feces
  • 50. Microbial Biota • Several hundred different species of bacteria live in the large intestine. Some of them are useful • Microbes make vitamin K and some B vitamins. • They also make fatty acids from cellulose to be used for energy by large intestine epithelial cells. We can’t absorb the fatty acids, but they help absorb electrolytes such as sodium, calcium, bicarbonate, magnesium, and iron. • Disruption of normal microflora can lead to irritable bowel disease
  • 51. Absorption of Fluids • Most absorption occurs in small intestine, but some is left for large intestine. • Not all water is absorbed; about 200 ml is left per day to be excreted with feces. • Water is absorbed passively following an osmotic gradient set up by active Na+ /K+ pumps. – Aldosterone stimulates greater salt and water absorption here.
  • 52. Defecation • As material passes to the rectum, pressure there increases, the internal anal sphincter relaxes, and the need to defecate rises. • The external anal sphincter controls defecation voluntarily. • During defecation, longitudinal rectal muscles contract to increase pressure as the anal sphincters relax.
  • 53. VII. Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas
  • 54. Pancreas • Is located behind stomach • Has endocrine and exocrine functions – Endocrine: Islets of Langerhans cells (alpha and beta) make insulin and glucagon. – Exocrine: Acini cells make pancreatic juice, which is delivered to the duodenum via the pancreatic duct. The ducts secrete bicarbonate
  • 55. • Contains water, bicarbonate, & digestive enzymes • Digestive enzymes include amylase for starch, trypsin for proteins, and lipase for fats – Brush border enzymes are also required for complete digestion Pancreatic Juice 18-72
  • 56. Pancreatic Enzymes and How They Are Activated in Small Intestine • Most are inactive (Zymogens) until they reach the small intestine. – Enterokinase activates trypsinogentrypsin (to digest protein). – Trypsin activates other enzymes.
  • 57. Liver • Largest abdominal organ • Has amazing regenerative abilities due to mitosis of hepatocytes • Hepatocytes form hepatic plates separated by capillaries called hepatic sinusoids – Very permeable – allow passage of blood proteins, fat, and cholesterol
  • 59. Blood Circulation Through Digestive System and Liver • Products of digestion absorbed in intestines are delivered to the liver via the hepatic portal vein. • After circulating through liver capillaries, the blood leaves via the hepatic vein. • Liver also receives blood from hepatic artery and it mixes-up with the blood coming through hepatic portal vein
  • 60. Liver Lobules • Are functional units formed by hepatic plates • In middle of each is central vein • At edge of each lobule are branches of hepatic portal vein & artery which open into sinusoids
  • 61. Liver Lobules • Blood from hepatic portal vein and hepatic arteries is mixed and processed by hepatocytes • The processed blood drains into central vein • Bile is secreted by hepatocytes in bile canaliculi – Empty into bile ducts which flow into hepatic ducts that carry bile away from liver
  • 62. Secretion of Drugs into Bile
  • 63. Bile Production • The liver makes 250–1,500 ml of bile per day. • Bile is composed of: – Bile pigments (bilirubin) – Bile salts – Phospholipids (lecithin) – Cholesterol – Inorganic ions
  • 64. Bile Salts • Bile acids: derived from cholesterol – Cholic acid and deoxy cholic acid – Most is recycled in enterohepatic circulation. – ½ gram of cholesterol is broken down and lost in the feces through this pathway. • Form micelles with polar groups toward water – Fats enter the micelle and are emulsified
  • 65. Gallbladder • Stores and concentrates bile from the liver: Liver  Bile ducts  Hepatic duct  Cystic duct  Gallbladder  Cystic duct  Common bile duct  (Sphincter of Oddi) duodenum
  • 66. Enterohepatic Circulation • Some of the molecules released into the bile are absorbed again in the small intestine and returned to the liver. • These molecules are part of enterohepatic circulation.
  • 67. Enterohepatic Circulation of Bilirubin • Is produced in spleen, liver, and bone marrow from heme (RBS destruction) and conjucated with glucuronic acid to make it soluble • Conjugated bilirubin is secreted into the bile, where it is taken to the small intestine. – Bacteria there turn it into urobilinogen, which makes feces brown. – 30−50% is absorbed by the intestines and taken back to the liver. – Some is used to make bile, and some remains in blood to be filtered by the kidneys.
  • 68. VIII. Neural and Endocrine Regulation of the Digestive System
  • 69. Regulation of Digestion • Regulation of digestion involves: – Intrinsic control via mechanical and chemical stimuli – Endocrine control • Hormones from brain or other GI organs – Secretin, gastrin, CCK, GIP – Extrinsic control by CNS centers • Parasymp. (vagus nerve) stimulates peristalsis and secretion • Symp. inhibits peristalsis and secretion; stimulates contraction of sphincters
  • 70. Receptors of the GI Tract • Mechano- and chemoreceptors respond to: – Stretch, osmolarity, and pH – Presence of substrate, and end products of digestion • They initiate reflexes that: – Activate or inhibit digestive glands – Mix lumen contents and move them along
  • 71. Regulation of Gastric Function • Gastric motility & secretion occur automatically – ANS & hormonal effects superimposed on ANS activity • Three phases – Cephalic phase: sight, smell, & taste of food • Vagus n. increases gastric secretions/motility – Gastric phase: distension and chyme in stomach • Increase gastric secretions/motility – Intestinal phase: chyme enters duodenum • Inhibits gastric secretions/motility
  • 72. • Secretion of pancreatic juice & bile is stimulated by secretin & bile • Secretin secreted in response to duodenal pH < 4.5 – Stimulates release of HC03 - into SI by pancreas & into bile by liver • CCK is secreted in response to fat & protein in duodenum – Stimulates production of pancreatic enzymes – Enhances secretin – Stimulates contraction of sphincter of Oddi – Stimulates contraction of gallbladder Regulation of Pancreatic Function
  • 73.