a power point presentation on carbohydrates

2. Reported by:
Shaina Kamil Sahidjuan
SharnelaKamil Sahidjuan

4. What are carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates are
one of the main
types of nutrients.
They are the most
important source
of energy for your
body.

7. Functions
Carbohydrates perform numerous
roles in living organisms.
Polysaccharides serve for the storage
of energy (e.g., starch and glycogen),
and as structural components (e.g.,
cellulose in plants and chitin in
arthropods). The 5-carbon
monosaccharide ribose is an
important component of
coenzymes(e.g., ATP, FAD and NAD)
and the backbone of the genetic
molecule known as RNA. The related
Deoxyribose is a component of DNA..

9. monosaccharide
MONOSACCHARIDES
also known as simple sugars
classified by
1. The number of carbons and
2. Whether aldoses or ketoses.

11. A striking feature of carbohydrates structure is the
presence of chirality centers. All carbohydrates except
for dihydroxyacetone contain one or more chirality
centers. The simplest aldose, glyceraldehyde, has one
chirality center---one carbon atom bonded to four
different groups. Thus, there are two possible
enantiomers---mirror images that are not superimposable
Fischer projection formulas

13. The most common monosaccharide
Glucose
Glucose -C6H12O6, (also
known as D-glucose,
dextrose, or grape sugar) is a
simple monosaccharide found
in plants. It is one of the three
dietary monosaccharide,
along with fructose and
galactose, that are absorbed
directly into the bloodstream
during digestion.

15. Fructose or fruit sugar is a
simple monosaccharide found
in many plants. It is one of the
three dietary
monosaccharide, along with
glucose and galactose, that
are absorbed directly into the
bloodstream during digestion.

17. Disaccharides
A disaccharide or biose is the
carbohydrate formed when two
monosaccharide undergo a
condensation reaction which involves
the elimination of a small molecule,
such as water, from the functional
groups only. Like monosaccharide,
disaccharides form an aqueous
solution when dissolved in water.
Three common examples are sucrose,
lactose,[2] and maltose.

18. Classification
There are two different types of disaccharides:
reducing disaccharides, in which one monosaccharide,
the reducing sugar, still has a free hemiacetal unit; and
non-reducing disaccharides, in which the components
bond through an acetal linkage between their anomeric
centers and neither monosaccharide has a free
hemiacetal unit. Cellobiose and maltose are examples
of reducing disaccharides. Sucrose and tetrahalose are
examples of non-reducing disaccharides

20. Lactose
Lactose is a disaccharide sugar that is
found most notably in milk and is formed
from galactose and glucose. It is extracted
from sweet or sour whey. The name
comes from lac or lactis, the Latin word
for milk, plus the -ose ending used to
name sugars. It has a formula of
C12H22O11.

21. Sucrose
Sucrose is the organic compound commonly
known as table sugar and sometimes called
saccharose. A white, odorless, crystalline
powder with a sweet taste, it is best known for
its nutritional role. The molecule is a
disaccharide composed of the monosaccharide
glucose and fructose with the molecular
formula C12H22O11. The word was formed in
mid-19th century from Latin sucrum= "sugar"
and the chemical suffix -ose.

22. Maltose (pronunciation: also
known as maltobiose or malt
sugar, is a disaccharide
formed from two units of
glucose joined with an
α(1→4) bond, formed from a
condensation reaction. The
isomer isomaltose has two
glucose molecules linked
through an α(1→6) bond.
Maltose

23. Polysaccharides are long carbohydrate
molecules of repeated monomer units
joined together by glycosidic bonds. They
range in structure from linear to highly
branched
Polysaccharides

25. Properties Mono- and
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides
• Molecular weight
• Taste
• Solubility in water
• Size of particles
• Test with Cu(OH)2
(an oxidizing agent)
• Low
• Sweet
• Soluble
• Pass through a
membrane
• Positive (except for
sucrose)
• Very high
• Tasteless
• Insoluble
• Do not pass through a
membrane
• Negative
Comparison of Polysaccharide
wit Mono- and Disaccharides

26. As a group, the polysaccharides play diverse and
important roles within the biology of life processes;
however, they can be divided into two broad groups.
Structural polysaccharides, and Polysaccharides used
as energy stores.

27. Structural polysaccharides
Cellulose
Cellulose is a major component of plant
cell walls. It is an unbranched polymer
with about ten thousand glucose units per
chain.

28. Chitin
Chitin is closely related in structure to
cellulose, also being an unbranched
polysaccharide. Large amounts of chitin is
found in the cuticles of arthropods, with
smaller amounts being found in sponges,
molluscs and annelids. Chitin can also be
found in the cell walls of most fungi and in
some green algae.

29. Polysaccharides used as energy stores
Polysaccharides make ideal storage molecules for energy for
a number of reasons;
 they are large, this makes them insoluble in water and
therefore they exert no osmotic or chemical effect on the
cell;
 they fold into compact shapes;
 they are easily converted into the required sugars when
needed.

30. Glycogen
Glycogen is a branched
polysaccharide found in nearly all
animal cells and in certain protozoa
and algae. In humans and other
vertebrates it is principally stored
in the liver and muscles.

31. Starch
Starch is similar to glycogen, however it is found in plant
cells, protists and certain bacteria. The starch granules
can be seen in the cell through a light microscope. The
starch granules are made up of two polysaccharides,
amylose and amylopectin.

32. Derivatives of carbohydrates
Means modification of sugar molecules by the
addition of substituents other than hydroxyl
group, after modification, a transformed molecule
of sugar resembles structure of a sugar and an
added substituent; however, it is not considered
as sugar anymore because its functions and
characteristics has change.

33. Amino Sugars
-generally known as monosaccharide
carbohydrate sugars that have replaced
an –NH2 amine group with the 2’-carbon
hydroxyl substituent.
Examples:
• Galactosamine
• Sialic acid
• Glucosamine
• N-acetyl glucosamine

34. Deoxy sugars
-carbohydrates derivatives that are lacking an –
OH hydroxyl group at the 2’carbon of the sugar
cyclic ring, hence “deoxy,” de- being a prefix
meaning “to remove,” and “oxy” representing
oxygen.
• Deoxyribose
• Fucose
• Rhamnose

35. Dideoxy and Trideoxy
Sugars
Acidic Sugars
Glucuronic Acid
Ascorbic Acid
Artificial sweeteners

36. Health Complications
Associated with
Carbohydrates

37. Tooth decay
Cause by oral
bacteria such as
Streptococcus mutans

38. Lactose intolerance
a.k.a. lactase deficiency and
hypolactasia.
---is the inability to digest lactose.
Cause???
_insufficient levels of
lactase
Symptoms:
_bloating
_pain or cramps
_borborygmi
_flatulence
_diarrhea
_nausea and vomiting

40. Impaired
glucose
intolerance
A pre-diabetic state of
hyperglycemia that is
associated with insulin
resistance and increased
risk of cardiovascular
pathology.

41. Diabetes mellitus
_a disease that causes the body to
metabolize sugar poorly, occurs when
either:
 The body attacks the cells producing
insulin, the hormone that allows the
metabolizing of sugar (Type 1 diabetes)
 The body’s cells exhibit impaired
responses to insulin (Type 2 diabetes)
DIABETES MELLITUS

42. Blood Glucose Tests
A test that measures the amount of
a type of sugar, called glucose, in
your blood.
Different types of blood glucose test:
• Fasting blood sugar(FBS) measures blood glucose
after you have not eaten for at least 8 hours. It is
often the first test done to check for prediabetes
and diabetes.
• 2-hour postprandial blood sugar measures blood
glucose exactly 2 hours after you start eating a
meal. This is not a test used to diagnose diabetes.

43. • Random blood sugar(RBS)
measures blood glucose
regardless of when you last ate.
• Oral glucose tolerance test is
used to diagnose prediabetes
and diabetes.
• Glycohemoglobin A1c measures
how much sugar is stuck to red
blood cells.

44. References:
Michael S. Matta and Antony Wilbraham: General,
Organic, and Biological Chemistry-2nd edition.
Benjamin/Cummings Publishing company, Inc., 2727
Sand Hill Road Menlo Park, California. 1986, chap.16
Ronald M. Schultz and George I. Sackheim: Chemistry for
the Health Sciences-3rd edition. Macmillan Publishing Co.,
Inc.-NY. Collier Macmillan Publishers-London., 1969 and
1973, chap.21
Janice Gorzynski Smith: General, Organic, and Biological
Chemistry. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. NY,
2010.chap.20
George Odian M.A., Ph.D. & Ira Blei M.A., Ph.D.: General,
Organic, and Biological Chemistry for Nursing and Allied
Health-2nd edition. The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc.USA.1994 2009.chap.18

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