Science And Islam

Science
and
Islam

Al-Khilafah Publications
Suite 298
56 Gloucester Road
London SW7 4UB
e-mail: info@khilafah.com
website: http://www.khilafah.com

Contents

Al-Khilafah Publications
Suite 298 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
56 Gloucester Road
London SW7 4UB TheDark Ages in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
e-mail: info@khilafah.com
website: http://www.khilafah.com Islam as an Ideology 10

Science flourished under Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
1423 AH / 2002 CE
Islam directs man to think . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
ISBN 1 899 574 166
Glimpses of Achievement under Islamic Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

ThePresent Situation and
Regaining the leadership in Science and Technology . . . . . . . . . . . .39

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41

Notes and Refe
rences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

Appendix I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

Appendix II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51

- subhanahu wata’ala
- sallallahu ‘alaihiwasallam
AH - After Hijra h
CE - Christian Era

Science and Islam

"...I'll end by telling a story. There was once a civilization that was the greatest
in the world.

It was able to create a continental super-state that stretched from ocean to
ocean, and from northern climes to tropics and deserts. Within its dominion
lived hundreds of millions of people, of different creeds and ethnic origins.

One of its languages became the universal language of much of the world, the
bridge between the peoples of a hundred lands. Its armies were made up of
people of many nationalities, and its military protection allowed a degree of
peace and prosperity that had never been known. The reach of this civilization's
commerce extended from Latin America to China, and everywhere in between.

And this civilization was driven more than anything, by invention. Its
architects designed buildings that defied gravity. Its mathematicians created the
algebra and algorithms that would enable the building of computers, and the
creation of encryption. Its doctors examined the human body, and found new
cures for disease. Its astronomers looked into the heavens, named the stars, and
paved the way for space travel and exploration.

Its writers created thousands of stories. Stories of courage, romance and magic.
Its poets wrote of love, when others before them were too steeped in fear to think
of such things.

When other nations were afraid of ideas, this civilization thrived on them, and
kept them alive. When censors threatened to wipe out knowledge from past
civilizations, this civilization kept the knowledge alive, and passed it on to
others.

While modern Western civilization shares many of these traits, the civilization
I'm talking about was the Islamic world from the year 800 to 1600, which
included the Ottoman Empire and the courts of Baghdad, Damascus and Cairo,
and enlightened rulers like Suleiman the Magnificent.

Although we are often unaware of our indebtedness to this other civilization,
its gifts are very much a part of our heritage. The technology industry would not
exist without the contributions of Arab mathematicians. Sufi poet-philosophers

6 u Science and Islam Science and Islam u 7

like Rumi challenged our notions of self and truth. Leaders like Suleiman Islam
contributed to our notions of tolerance and civic leadership.
Its presence is felt in all walks of life, f
rom international politics to
And perhaps we can learn a lesson from his example: It was leadership based religious and ideological circles to personal lifestyle. This is because
on meritocracy, not inheritance. It was leadership that harnessed the full Islam is a dynamic way of life based on a powerful intellectual
capabilities of a very diverse population-that included Christianity, Islamic, doctrine. Islam does not establish itself in people by blind faith or
and Jewish traditions. imitation, but rather by an invitation to the human being to think
deeply about his existence and his surroundings. Th is why the
at
This kind of enlightened leadership - leadership that nurtured culture, Qur'an is constantly encouraging man to think, ponder and
sustainability, diversity and courage - led to 800 years of invention and contemplate.
prosperity..."
It calls man to use his intellect and reason to make vital judgments
about the profound nature of this Unive e. When we look to the
rs
Carly Fiorina, the CEO of Hewlett-Pa a 26 September 2001.
ck rd, wo around us, we observe many phenomena that establish a
rld
definitiveproof for the existence of the Cre ator. Islam challenges the
human being to think about them and accept the truth rega rding the
existence of the One Cre ator.

We are constantly discovering more and more laws that make up
this order. We utilize these laws for the satisfaction of our needs.
Howeve many people have failed to add
r, ress the fundamental issue:
Who or wh establishes these laws? Did they cre the Unive e
at ate rs
that they gove or did the Unive cre them so as to bring order
rn rse ate
to itself ?

It is impossible that either of these is the case because the matter
in the Unive is dependent on the lawsthat gove it, and the law
rse rn s
a a function of the matter. Therefo there must be something
re re,
independent of both matter and natural law that cre ated them.

It is only the Cre
ator, the only one who is unlimited, self-subsistent
and eternal that is worthy of being wo rshipped.

The Cre
ator in Islam is called Allah.


Introduction This understanding came from the saying attributed to Jesus,

The West has claimed for centuries that its scientific progress wa s "Render unto Caesar what is Caesar's and unto God what is God's."
a direct result of s a
ep rating religion from the practical life of the
people, in other wo s, s a
rd ep rating the Church from the State. It is Despite this, Christianity could not preserve the empire, and the
stated that religion1 cannot deal with the man's affars in the eve
i r- demise of the Romans bequeathed many Christian states in Europe
changing wo rld, and adopting it only stifles cre
ativity and progress in where the Churchwasable to dominate.
all walks of life, including science and technology.
The domination of the Church meant that all affars of life had to
i
It is a fact that throughout the history of Europe, the Church confo to the dogma of the Church. This caused many problems
rm
engaged in a ve harsh tre
ry atment of the people, especially the because the Bible, which the Church used as its authoritative text,
scientists and the thinke who opposed the views of the Church.
rs dealt with only ve limited matters. It gave some specific rules
ry
This stagnated scientific thought and as a result, religion wa s related to the Jews in their wo rships and their foodstuffs. It gave
perceived as impractical, inflexible, and full of contradictions. Hence, general moral principles for Christians and set norms for their
it was found to be unsuitable for the progress of humanity. p rs and communal wo
raye rship. Unlike the legislative sources of
Islam the Bible does not give detailed guidance on economy, politics
The Europeans have indeed suffe red greatly under the Church. (domestic and intern ational), judiciary, criminal punishments, the
Howeve can generalizations be made, based on the experience of
r, structure and functioning of gove rnment etc. The Quran info rms
Christianity in Europe, that progress can only be made through man- usthat the Christians and Jews had changed their books so the Bible
made legislation and that the Laws of the Cre ator are somewh at does not rep resent a preserved text from the cre ator to man and it
inadequate or defective? leaves a huge gapwhen it comes to human societal affars. This gap
i
This booklet will critically examine the argument that religion was an area of constant conflict of interests between kings, feudal
hinders man's progress and it will showthat there is no contradiction barons and priests. During Europe's darkages it was the priests who
between science and Islam. Furthermore, the booklet will highlight dominated life and when they gave judgments even kings had to
some of the scientific achievements of Muslims during the time submit. Yet these judgments of priests we an arbitra and
re ry
when Islam was implemented in a comprehensive fashion. inconsistent exe rcise of their authority owing to the lack of a
comprehensive legislative text to base their rules upon, and this laid
the seeds of direct confrontation between the society and the
The Dark Ages in Europe Church.

The adoption of Christianity by the Roman Empirewas not based With the passage of time scientific discoverieswe made that we
re re
on the truthfulness of Christianity or on its ability to deal with man's at odds with the teachings of the Church. To preserve its authority,
problems. Rather, it was adopted by Constantine in 325 Christian the Church took some harsh steps against the emergence of new
Era (CE) to simply preserve the empire by building a common ideas. Many scientists we branded as heretics, infidels and satans. In
re
mentality and loyalty among the citizens. Christianity offe red blind 1042 AH2 / 1633 CE, Galileo wasfo rced to renounce his belief and
loyalty to the secular empero based on the understanding that the
rs writings that supported the Copernican theory of heliocentrism that
temporal authority and the spiritual authority can harmoniously co- claimed the sun was the center of the unive e. Instead, the Church
rs
exist. adamantly maintained the fl wed theory of geocentrism, whichstated
a
that the earth was the center of the unive e.
rs


Also, plenty of evidence exists indicating that hundreds of The wo 'Islam', in Arabic, linguistically means submission. As a
rd
thousands of women who we alleged witches we bu or
re re rnt term, 'Islam' refe to the Message that wasrevealed to Muhammad
rs
drowned. Theresponse to this oppression from the people, especially by Allah, the One Creator, and a 'Muslim' is the one who believes
the scientists, thinke and the philosophers such as Voltaire and
rs, in Allah, and accepts Muhammad as the last and final Prophet and
Rousseau, was equally strong. They began to highlight the Messenger of Allah. Consequently, a Muslim believes in Islam in its
contradictions of the Church and called for nothing less than the entirety.
s a
ep ration of the Church and the State. The struggle had begun.
In sharp contrast to Christianity and Judaism, Islam is not merely
Desperate measures we taken by the Church to deflect the
re areligion. Rather, Islam is a unique and comprehensive ideologythat
criticism, f
rustra and angerthat we vented by the people. These
tion re guides the life of the human being. The Islamic ideology, by the
measures failed to halt the flames of change that had galvanized the definition of an ideology, consists of both the 'Aqeedah (creed,
masses. The Churchrealized that it could no longerstay in ch rge of
a doctrine) and Systems, to regulate the practical life of human beings.
the State without refo rming itself. Thus, a period of Refo ation
rm
commenced. Howeve the Refo ation did not guarantee any bright
r, rm The Islamic 'Aqeedah p rovides the correct and comprehensive
future for the Church as the stru ggle became intensified between answe to the fundamental questions rega
rs rding humanity's existence
the 16th and the 17th century CE. andthat of the unive e. It add
rs resses the issue of the human being's
purpose in life, and links it with wh preceded life and wh will
at at
The eventual outcome of the stru ggle for power between the come after it, thereby settling humanity's coreproblem and providing
Church and the thinke and philosopherswas the sep ration of the
rs a the basis for systems and rules to properly organize human affars. i
Church and the State. This solution was a compromise that limited This 'Aqeedah also provides the basis for a means to implement
the authority of the Church to preserving the morals in society and Islam in reality, thus transfe rring it from 'theory' to 'practice'. This
conducting rituals, and left the administering of the worldlyaffars to
i means of implementing Islam is the State, which is distinguished
the State. The sep ration between the Church and the State through
a from all other states as the Khilafah. It is an integral part of the
the compromise solution was completed by the 18th century CE, ideology and distinguishes it from a philosophy, which provides
and fo rmed the basis of Capitalism marking the beginning of the hypothetical ideas but no means to implement them.
Enlightenment period that sparked the industrial revolution in
Europe. The Islamic Systems provide a comprehensive structure to govern
the affars of human beings. It correctly establishes:
i
It is therefo clear that Europe scientifically stagnated under the
re
arbitra authority of the Christian Church.
ry 1) The relationship between the human being and his Cre ator
2) The personal affars of individuals
i
3) The variousrelationships (social, political, economic, and
Islam as an Ideology international) that exist in the society

In order to understand the contribution of Muslims to the Thus, Islam constitutes a Creed and Systems. Wh distinguishes
at
advancement of various fields of sciences, it is necessary to explain Islam from the ideologies of Capitalism3 and Communism is that
Islam, as it was Islam that provided the driving fo of change and
rce Islam is built on the correct idea, whereas the others are founded
research. It is the Islamic ideology that deserves the credit and not on a shallow and unenlightened view of the life of the human being,
the individuals themselve s. and the wo in which he exists.
rld


Because Islam establishes the correct understanding of life and Many of these wo s, whichare mainly used in science, came from
rd
places humanity in the correct context, the systems and culture the Islamic State 4 - an indication that scientific culture was well
emanating from the Islamic creed would correctlyadd ress the human developed.
nature and provide the correct solutions. In this context, Islam is
compatible with the human being. Islam does not ignore a human Science flourished under Islam. It was not subject to any of the
being's instincts or desire but organizes them in the proper context,
s, repression, perpetrated by the Church in the West, which caused the
including the survival instinct that prompts man to seek material "darkages" until the people threw of the stifling influence of the
progress through the acquisition of science and technology. Church. Islamic thinke clearly defined twoareas of knowledge. Ibn
rs
Khaldun says in his "al-Muqaddimah," "the sciences ('uloom) are of
Only the full implementation of Islam in a practical and systematic two types: a natural type for man to arr at through his own
ive
manner would ensure the proper organization of ournatural desire s, thinking, and a textual type which he takes from the one who
including the desire for technological progress. The implementation originated it. The fi st type is the rational and philosophical sciences
r
of the Islamic System is a must, but until this fact becomes a reality which he can seek through his own thought; and by his faculties he
our instincts, needs, and natural desires will either remain subjected discove its subjects and issues, the fo
rs rms of their proofs and the
to oppression, ignored completely, or satisfied by corrupt means. aspects of their teaching, so that through discernment and study he
Rega rdless of having individuals satisfying their instincts the correct identifies the correct from the incorrect in his capacity as a human
wa the society as a whole would not.
y, being possessing the faculty of thought. The second is the textual
and traditional sciences, which depend on the report coming froma
Islam is an ideologythat was delive to the wo
red rld. Thespread of shar'ai source. In this type the mind has no scope ex cept to link the
Islam is neither confined to time or place, nor dependent upon peripheral issues to the foundation (usool)." Ibn Khaldun also said,
science and technology. Although technology has changed the living "The rational or natural sciences are common to all nations since
conditions of the people around the globe, the needs and instincts of manarr at them through the natural disposition of his thought."
ives
humanity have not changed. Therefo re, Islam, which came to
organize our needs and instincts through its implementation upon In the area of Islamic legislation Muslims cannot take from any
society by the Khilafah State is applicable and valid for all time. source or reference except the sharia texts. The wahiy instructs and
orders the Muslims to refer all of man's affars to the wahiy.
i

Science flourished under Islam The Muslims clearly understood that the rational sciences are left
open to the mind of man. In the domain of pure science we can
The notion that religion is at odds with scientific development is exercise our thinking and take from other peoples contributions in
alien to Islam. History shows that most of the scientific the technical and scientific field. For example, if aperson wanted to
developments by the Muslims we achieved under the rule of Islam,
re design an automotive engine he would refer to all the past and
and not when it was fo rcefully removed from their live Even the
s. current engine designs, regardless of who designed them, Muslims or
history books written by non-Muslim Europeans testify to this fact, non-Muslims. The pure science does not concern itself with one's
and if that does not suffice, then one can survey the origins of many point of viewabout life be it Capitalism, Buddhism, or Islam. Th e
wo used in the West, like alcohol, cipher, suga algebra admiral,
rds r, , pure science was understood to be the same for all people.
alchemy, atlas, coffee, cotton and so on, to find that theyare Arabic
in origin. Therefo it is with this clear definition that the early Muslims
re,
progressed ve fast in all fields of science known at the time and
ry


pioneered in to the new fields. Glimpses of Achievement under Islamic Rule
Thestaggering contribution of Muslims to science and technology,
Islam directs man to think as mentioned in this section, a meant only to serve as examples
re
and should be understood as merely rep resentative of the glorious
Islam is a system of life that originated from Allah, the Creator. services rendered by Muslim scientists to the ove development
rall
Allah is the One who cre ated man, life, and the unive and
rse of science and technology.
subjected man to the physical lawsthat He imposed on the unive e.
rs
The Qur'an, as revealed to Muhammad (saw), invites man to Befo Islam, Arabs had a rudimentary knowledge of history and
re
contemplate the physical wo in order to understand his reality
rld geograp Their historywas limited to the annals of the local tribes
hy.
correctly and therebyappreciate more the gre atness of the Cre
atoras and territories. Islam as an ideology pushes individuals to think and
he lives and rules by Islam. acquire education. Muslims are ordered to interact with others to
c rry the Message of Islam to them. In order to achieve this, the
a
The invitation to think can be found in many places of the Qu'ran. Muslims are ordered to build their material cap ability. The Khaleefa 5
h
Islam does not limit man to think in purelyreligious or scientific or isresponsible to utilize any means, within the limits of Islamic Law ,
m atters, as the priests of past and present do, but established fo r to take care of the affars of the people. Therefo all of these
i re,
him thinking as a necessity for the whole of life. Islam invites all to factors help to initiate the technological achievements.
think about man, life and the unive e, so that man arr
rs ives at the
correct answe to the gre
rs atest questions facing him about this life, From the earlydays of Islam, the Muslims of all regions in general,
wh preceded it and wh is to follow
at at . and those of Arabia in particular, tra veled extensively through plains,
hills, r rs, oceans, fo
ive rest and deserts in connections with Jihad6 ,
Thinking therefo is ve mu a part of Islam. For indeed, the
re ry ch Hajj7 and tra e. In the course of their life they collected info ation
d rm
belief in Islam comes through rational conviction and not the blind on social, political, historical, geographical, economical, agricultural
following of the previous generations. In this wa man becomes a
y and other conditions of the land they visited or settled in.
thinker from his fi st embracing of the Islamic belief. He further
r As a consequence of the collection of such info ation, sciences
rm
distinguishes his ch racter by thought as he refuses to follow the
a such as history and geograp became rich. During those days the
hy
immediate satisfaction of his instincts like the animals and the tra was tedious and hazardous because there we no means of
vel re
hedonistic followe of Western Capitalism. The Muslim seeks to
rs transport ation except animals, and no regular roads existed, yet the
understand the Islamic texts so as to constantly seek Allah's pleasure Muslims tra veled extensively through all kinds of terrain.
in the perfo rmance of all actions only in accordance with the
guidance of Islam. He thus fills his mind with contemplation of the So far as the physical or experimental sciences are concerned, the
Quran and the Sunnah. pre-Islamic Arabs had some knowledge of them. With their keen
sense of observation, they gathered info ation on animals like
rm
horses, camels and sheep and on the indigenous plants of their vast
deserts. Some medical use of these plants was also known to them.
The names mentioned in the pre-Islamic Arabic literature of various
internal and external organs of the human and animal bodies suggest
that their knowledge of a atomywas quite far. The Arabs had some
n i
knowledge of astronomy and meteorology as well. Th had some
ey


info ation on the fi ed stars, the movements of the planets and
rm x Arrangements for the dissection of the corpseswe made for the
re
the patterns of we
ather. A number of a and crafts such as hors
rts e practical teaching of a atomy. The Khaleefah al-Mu'tasim supplied a
n
breeding and camel rearing we also in existence among them.
re physician with apes for this purpose. P ractical demonstrations of
s rgical operations for the students we given in the hospitals.
u re
In order to make the foreign scientific wo easily understandable,
rks
it was necessary to undertake the selective translations of these Litera had reached the highest standard among the Muslim
cy
scientific wo rks into Arabic. Arabic, being a flexible and rich people during the 11th and 12th century CE. The scientific spirit of
language, easilyprovided sufficient terminology for the new sciences. that age is indicated by the optical wo of Shihab al-Din al-Qira
rk fi,
The objectivewas not just to translate but rather to build upon what a scholar of Islamic Law and judge of Cairo (d. 1285 CE), which
wastranslated. dealt with fifty optical problems.

A number of academies we established in many places in the
re Under Islamic rule, scientists not only made original contributions
Muslim wo to carry out the wo of translation. During the rule
rld rk to science but also applied their scientific discoveries in technological
of the 'Abbasi Khulafa'a (Caliphs), p rticularly al-Mansur and al-
a innovation. They observed the stars, and prep red star maps fo
a r
Ma'mun, extensive activity was shown in the prep ration and
a navigational purposes. Ibn Yunus made use of pendulum for the
translation of scientific wo s. Significant wo was accomplished
rk rk measurement of time. Ibn Sina used air thermometers to measureair
by the end of the 10th century. The translators belonged to different temperature. Paper, compass, gun, gunpowder, inorganic acids and
ethnic and religious groups. For instance, Naubakht was of Pe rsian alkaline bases are some of the most important examples of scientific
origin. Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Fazari was an Arab. Hunain ibn and technological developments of Muslim scientists, which brought
Ishaq was a Nestorian Christian from Hirah. about an unprecedented revolution in human civilization.

The Muslim scientists accepted the scientific conclusions of others Muslim scientists made algebra a permanent branch of
subject to their experimental verification and also made new m athematics. The wo 'algebra' is derived from its original Arabic
rd
observations and experiments that lead to new discoveries. Muslim root Jabr. Muslim scientists also evolved plane and spherical
scientists used the practical approach to scientific problems with the trigonometry, and applied it to astronomy. They also sep rated
a
abstract thought. astrology from astronomy, because a belief in the influence of stars
on the fate of human beings is heresy in Islam. Astronomywasthus
Muslim scientists recognized the physical or qualitative and the developed to the stage of apure science after its purification from
mathematical or quantitative aspects of science. They made superstitious beliefs.
qualitative as well as quantitative studies of numerous scientific
problems. For instance, Ibn Khurdadhbeh determined the latitudes The numerous Arabic8 wo and scientific terms currently being
rds
and longitudes of various places in the Muslim wo rld. Al-Biruni used in European languages (see Appendix II for full list) are living
ascertained the specific gravity of anumber of substances. monuments of Muslim contributions to modem science. In addition,
the large number of books in the libraries of Asia and Europe, the
The experiments in chemistry, p hysics and medicine we re museums of many countries, and the mosques and palaces built
performed in the laboratories and those in pathology and surge in
ry centuries ago also bear an eloquent testimony to this important
the hospitals. Observatories we set up at various places in the
re phenomenon of wo history.
rld
Muslim wo such as Damascus, B
rld, aghdad, and Nishapur to perform
astronomical observations. Some examples of words derived from Arabic are: cipher and


chiff (in English and Frenchrespectively), derived from the Arabic
re Mathematics
wo sifr (meaning empty or nil), describing a number written at the
rd
right of another numeral to increase its value ten times; the wo rd Number Zero
alkali in chemical terminology used for that particular substance Arabic Numbers
which gives a salt when combined with an acid, is a modified fo of
rm Algorithms
the Arabic wo al-qali; the French wo escadre and the English
rd rd Algebra made into science
wo squadron for a section of a
rd rmed fo rces, h ave been derived Al-Khwarizmi's work on Algebra
fo the Arabic wo 'askariyyah used in the same sense; and the
rm rd Spherical, Analytical & Plane Trigonometry
wo admiral is derived from amir al-rahl and thereare many others.
rd Determining roots of quadratic equation
Sine, Cosine tables
In the process of translation, the names of a large number of Cubic equations
Muslim scholars have also altered, deceiving readers into thinking Work of Banu Musa on Geometry
that theyare the names of non-Muslim Europeans. Some such names
a Abul Qasim al-Zahra (Albucasis), Muhammad ibn Jabir ibn
re: wi The achievements of Muslims in the field of m athematics are
Sinan al-Battani (Albetinius) and Abu 'Ali ibn Sina (Avicenna). extremely remark able. A regular study of this science, like all other
sciences, wasbegun during the time of the second Abbasi Khaleefah,
It is quite obvious that the spirit of inquiry cre
ated in the Muslims al-Mansur, in the second half of the 8th century CE. During this
and the scientific method of investigation that they fo rmulated period the wo on mathematics was exclusively accomplished by
rk
resulted in the evolution of modern science. Muslims.

Some stimulus came from Indian and Greek wo that we later
rks re
translated into Arabic. During the 5th century AH /11th century CE
nearly all of the original and creative wo was done by Muslims,
rk
and even non-Muslims wrote all their mathematical wo in Arabic.
rks
The Muslims used numbers including the ze for counting in
ro
contrast with writing the amounts in wo rds or counting with the
letters of the alphabet. Thus they made arithmetic simple and
applicable to the problems of eve ay life in connection with
ryd
commerce and trade. The number ze holds gre importance in
ro at
arithmetic. Without the ze it is not possible to indicate the figure
ro
like tens, hundreds, etc.

The West learned the use of numerals from the Arabs, and
therefo called them the Arabic numerals. The diffusion of the
re
Arabic numeral in Christian Europe was ve slow The Christian
ry .
m athematicians either used the old Roman numerals and the abacus,
or used the Arabic numerals together with their old system. It was
only in the 12th century that after learning from the Muslims the
Western scholarswe able to produce some litera
re ture on the number


system without columns and incorporating the ze This system wa
ro. s five unknowns. His wo was studied and gre utilized by al-Ka
rk atly rkhi
named algorithms (or algorism) which was derived by the Latin and Leonardo of Pisa.
writers from al-Khwarizmi (a native of Khwarizm region), a
distinguished Muslim mathematicians, astronomer and geographer Abul-Wa fa's contribution to the development of trigonometry is
of the 9th century CE who flourished under the Khaleefah al- remarkable. He was the fi st to show the generality of the sine
r
Ma'mun. His full name was Abu 'Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Musa al- theorem relative to spherical triangles. He gave a new method of
Khwarizmi (d. 850 CE). His influence on mathematical thought constructing sine tables, and calculated the value of sin 30º to eight
exceeded that of a other writer of that period. He wrote an
ny decimal places.
encyclopedic wo dealing with arithmetic, geometry, music and
rk
astronomy. Nowwe come to the mathematical wo of 'Umar ibn Ibrahim al-
rk
Khay yam, who was one of the gre atest Muslim mathematicians and
Algebra was made into an exact science by the Muslims. Al- astronomers of the Middle Age While al-Khwarizmi deals only with
s.
Khwarizmi named his book dealing with this subject as Kitab al-Jabr quadratics, al-Khay yam mostly discusses the cubic equations. He
wal-Muqabalah (The Book of Restitution and Comparison). The makes a remark able classification of the equations, whichare based
wo jabr means restitution. It is the adding of some thing to a given
rd on the complexity of the equation, i.e. on the number of diffe rent
sum or multiplying it so that it becomes equal to another value. Th e terms which they contain.
wo mu abalah means comparison and is applied in comparing two
rd q
sides of an equation such as A+B = C. The wo al-jabr (Algebra
rd ) The 'Banu Musa' or 'Sons of Musa', w rote a series of important
was originally used for simple operations, like additions and original studies. One title was done by Muhammad ibn Musa, which
multiplication, but later it evolved into an entire subject. In addition, dealt with the measurement of the sphere, trisection of the angle, and
the Muslims founded analytical geometry as well as plane and determination of two mean proportionals to fo a single division
rm
spherical trigonometry. between two given quantities. His interest was not limited to
geometry; he also wrote wo on celestial mechanics, the atom, the
rks
Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf, who flourished between 786 CE and 833 ACE origin of the Earth and an essay on the Ptolemaic unive e. His
rs
in Baghdad, was the fi st to translate Euclid's Elements into Arabic.
r brother Ahmad wrote a fundamental wo on mechanics, while al-
rk
This wo was twice translated, fi st under the KhaleefahHarun al-
rk r Hasanwrote a study of the geometrical properties of the ellipse. Al-
Rasheed and second under his son al-Ma'mun. Hasan was perhaps the most gifted geometrician of his time. He
translated the fi st six books of Euclid's Elements and left the rest
r
Abu Sa'id al-Darir al-Jurfani (d. 845 CE), who was a Muslim unfinished because he was able to wo out the remaining
rk
astronomer and mathematician, w rote a discourse on geometrical propositions himself.
problems.
Another mathematician and geogra pherwas al-Hasan al-Marakashi,
By the end of the 10th century CE, the number of m athematicians who flourished until 1262 CE. Hewrote variouswo on astronomy,
rks
increased immensely Abu Kamil, who was one of the distinguished which was put to practical use in astronomical instruments and
m athematicians of this period, perfected al-Khwarizmi's wo onrk methods. Also, Abul-Abbas Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn 'Uthman al-
algebra. He determined and constructed both roots of quadratic Azdi, ave popular Muslim writes authored 74 wo that dealt with
ry rks
equations. He made a special study of the pentagon and decagon m athematics and astronomy. One of his books, Talkhis amal al-Hisab
with algebraic tre
atment, mentioned the multiplication and division (Summary of Arithmetical Operations) was studied forat least two
of algebraic quantities as well, resolved systems of equations up to centuries. It was highly admired by Ibn Khaldun, and a French


translation of it appeared in 1864 CE. the balance. Al-Razi made investigations on gravity by using the
hydrostatic balance, than called al-Mizan al-Tabi'i (The Physical
Balance).
P h y s i c s a n d Te c h n o l o g y
Muhammad ibn 'Ali ibn Rustam al-Khurasani was a famous
Force, Motion and Light constructor of clock and as a result, he was called al-Sa'ati (the
s,
The balance clock maker). Another Muslim mechanic of the 13th century wa s
Al-Khurasani, the clock maker Abul-'Isa Ismail ibn Razzaz Badi al-Zaman al-Jazari. He wrote a
Hydraulic apparatus dissert
ation on the knowledge of the geometrical mechanical
Elasticity of air contrivance that deals mainly with hydraulicapparatus like fountains.
Hammam (steam bath) This important wo is interesting from the technical point of view
rk ,
Magnetic Needle andrep resents the best Ara wo on applied mechanics. Qaisar ibn
bic rk
Guns and Cannons Abu Qasim, a mathematician and astronomer (d. 1251 CE) made
Science of Optics improvements on the waterwheels. Such improved types of water-
Research in spherical & parabolic mirrors wheels are still seen on the Orontes and are among the glories of
Research in angles of incidence & reflection Hama.

Muslim scientists studied the fundamental questions of p hysics Abu Nasr al-Fa refuted the existence of avacuum. He wrote a
rabi
deeply. For example Ibn Sina made profound studies of such remark able essay on the elasticity of the air. It is an original piece of
phenomena as fo rce, motion, light, h at, and vacuums to name a few
e . research.
A gre progress was made in theoretical and applied mechanics.
at
Valuable wo was done in the field of mechanics on the wheel, axle,
rk The Muslims developed the techniques of b athing. They
lever pulley, inclined plane windmill, waterwheel, toothed wheel, and constructed the hot steam bath called Hammam (from the Arabic
other mechanical devices. root hamm, meaning to heat).

The physicist and astronomer al-Khazini wrote a book on Muslims we the fi st to apply the directive property of the
re r
mechanics, hyd rostatics and physics named Kitab Mizan aI-Hikmah m agnetic needle in determining their direction while traveling on the
(Book of the Balance of Wisdom) which is the most remark able sea.
medieval wo on these subjects. It gives a theory of the fo of
rk rce
theattraction of the Earth (gravity), according to which the universal The Muslims we also the fi st to invent guns and cannons and use
re r
fo is directed towa the center of the unive e.
rce rds rs explosives material in them. The purpose of this invention was to
throw bullets at the enemy from a long distance. The Chinese used
In another book on the balance al-Khazini stresses the need to sodium nitrate only. But the penetrating power of explosives wa s
remove, as far as possible, the influences of temperature va i
ration discove and used only by the Muslims. Historians generally write
red
during weighing. When al-Khazini's other studies are considered, he that the guns we fi st used in the war of Cressi. But from the
re r
seems to be a precursor of Galileo. writings of many Muslims, it is revealed that guns bad been used
e rlier.
a
Befo al-Khazini, 'Umar al-Khay
re yam did the greatest wo on the
rk
balance. Ibn Sina and al-Razi (d.924 CE) contributed to the theory of In one of these writings there is a story that a ruler named Yaqub


besieged an African town of Medra in 1205 CE, by attacking the Celestial Motions
walls with the help of sounding guns and machines. From eve ry Geodetic Measurements
machine there came out a number of showe of big stones and fi e
rs r Verification of Solar Year
balls. Astronomical Instruments

The statement given by Ibn Khaldun in his History of Berbers The Arabs took a keen interest in the study of the heavens. Th ey
also proves the use of the guns at the time of wa He writes:
r. developed this interest because as the dwellers of the desert who
usually traveled at night in connection with trade, war and migration
"Abu Yusuf the Sultan of Morocco besieged the city of Sijilmasa f
rom one place to another, they found the direction of their journey
in 1273 CE. He installed the instruments for besieging in front of the with the help of the stars. The clear sky of the desert ga them a
ve
city. These instruments consisted of Manjneeq, Ura and Handam
we chance of making precise observations. Thus therewas some locally
with which the bits of i on we thrown. These bits we filled in the
r re re acquired knowledge of the fi edstars, the movements of the planets
x
box of Handam, and the explosives kept behind them we set on re and the changes of the we ather. After the advent of Islam, the
fi e. Its effect waspowerful."
r Muslims had to determine the time of the pra rs and the direction
ye
of the Ka'bah. For this Muslims who once flourished in trade all
Muslims developed the science of optics. Ibn al-Haitham made a over the wo of launched Jihad, had to tra on the land and the
rld vel
remark able contribution towa this science. Indeed modern optics
rds sea. As an aid to tra vel, navigation and meteorology, a by product
began with him. He showed remark able progress in experimental of n avigation, they needed star map The necessity of such map
s. s
techniques. He made research on spherical and parabolic mirro and
rs also resulted in their interest in astronomy.
dioptrics. He noticed that the relation between the angles of
incidence and reflection does not remain constant. He ga a better
ve The regular study of astronomy and mathematics was begun at
description of the eye and vision. He tried to explain binocular Baghdad in the second half of the 8th century during the time of the
vision, and ga a correct explanation of the apparent increase in
ve second Abbasi Khaleefah al-Mansur. The investigations on
the size of the sun and the moon near the horizon. Ibn Sina made a astronomy continued until the end of the 11th century. Nearly all of
deep study of light. He observed that if light is emitted due to the the original and cre ative wo was done by Muslims. Astronomy
rk
ejection of some sort of p rticles by the luminous source, the speed
a reached its highest in the 13th and 14th centuries. In the 12th century,
of light must be finite. Al-Biruni noticed that the speed of light is the Christians and Jewsstarted the wo of translation from Arabic
rk
immensely gre ater than that of the sound. into Latin and Hebrew and began to conduct research in this field.
,
But until the end of the 13th century CE, no mathematical and
astronomical wo comparable to that of the Muslims could be
rk
Astronomy produced by the Christians or Jew s.

Need for Astronomical Science The Muslim astronomers also prep red the star maps to preserve
a
Travel for Trade the old astronomical knowledge and to use them as aid to travel
Find direction of Makkah naviga and meteorology. Astronomer Ibrahim ibn Habib al-Fazari
tion
Building Mosques was the fi st Muslim who constructed astrolabes. He composed a
r
Star Maps poem on astrology, and compiled a Zij (calendar) according to the
Astrolabes Arab method. He also wrote on the use of astrolabes and on the
Building of Observatories armillary spheres.


During the time of Khaleefah al-Ma'mun the important wo ofrk Chemistr y
translation of Ptolemy's Almagest from Greek into Arabic wa s
completed. Khaleefah al-Ma'mun (786-833 CE) built an observatory Definition of Organic and Inorganic Chemistry
in Baghdad in his Bait al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom) and another in Sulfur Mercury theory of metals
the plains of Tadmor (Palmy ra). In these observatories the Calcination (extraction of metals from their ores)
fundamental elements of the Almagest like the inclination of the Reduction (chemical treatment)
ecliptic, the length of the solar ye r, and the precession of the
a Discoveries of various acids Sulfuric & Nitric acids
equinoxeswe verified. Observations on the celestial motions we
re re Preparation of Drugs
c rried out and geodetic measurements we made.
a re Applied Chemistry
Paper
More original and improved wo was done in the second half of
rk
the 10th century. The elaboration of trigonometry, which wa s Chemistry deals with the composition and properties of substances
considered to be a branch of astronomy at that time, was also and the changes of composition they undergo. It has been divided
continued. Gre attention was paid to the construction of good
at into Inorganic and Organic. The conception of this division in
astronomical instruments, especially to the spherical astrolabe which modem Chemistry came from al-Razi's classification of chemical
wasnewly introduced at that time. Hamid ibn 'Ali and Jabir ibn Sinan substances into mineral, vegetable and animal.
we famous make of astrolabes.
re rs
Inorganic Chemistry, which deals with the prep ration and
a
Ibn Sinan's full name was 'Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Jabir ibn properties of the elements and their compounds, originally arose
Sinan al-Battani (Albategnius, Albatenius in Latin). He is considered from the study of minerals and metals. Organic chemistry, which
to be one of the gre atest astronomers of Islam. He carried out deals with carbon compounds, d eveloped through the investigation
astronomical observations of a wide range and with remark able of animal and plant products.
accura for about 41 ye rs (871-9 18 CE). He determined many
cy a
astronomical coefficients, like the precession 54.5" a year and the A Greek philosopher, Empedocles, held the view that all the four
inclination of the ecliptic 23º 35', with gre accura He noticed
at cy. elements, ar, water, e rth and fi e, we the primal elements, and
i a r re
an increase of 16º 47' in the longitude of the sun's apogee since that the various substances we made by their intermixing. He
re
Ptolemy's time. regarded them to be distinct and unchange able. Aristotle considered
these elements to be change able, i.e. one kind of m atter could be
This led to the discove of the motion of the solar episodes and
ry changed into another kind.
of slow va iration in the equation of time. Al-Hattani proved the
possibility of the annular eclipses of the sun. Al-Battani's Jabir ibn Hay yan (Geber), a gre Muslim Chemist of the 8th
at
astronomical wo wastranslated into Latin and Spanish in the 12th
rk century CE, modified the Aristotelian doctrine of the four elements,
and 13th centuries respectively. It exerted a gre influence on the
at and presented the so called sulfur mercury theory of metals.
European scholars of the Middle Ages and Renaissance. According to this theory, metals duller essentially because of
different proportions of sulfur and mercury in them. He also
formulated the theory of geologic fo ation of metals. Unlike his
rm
Greek predecessors, he did not merely speculate, but perfo rmed
experiments to reach certain conclusions. He recognized and stated
the importance of experimentation in Chemistry. He combined the


theoretical knowledge of the Greeks and the practical knowledge of The gre Muslim surgeon, Khalaf ibn 'Abbas al-Zahrwi wrote a
at
craftsmen, and made notewo rthy advances both in the theory and gre medical encyclopedia, al-Tasrif, which contains interesting
at
practice of Chemistry. methods of preparing drugs by sublimation and distillation, but it's
most important part is the surgical one.
Jabir's contribution to Chemistry is ve gre He ga a scientific
ry at. ve
description of two principle operations of Chemistry. One of them Ibn Sina wrote a tre
atise on mineralsthat provided one of the main
is calcination, which is employed in the extraction of metals from sources of geological knowledge, and chemistry in Western Europe
their ore The other is reduction that is employed in numerous
s. until the Renaissance.
chemical tre atments. He improved upon the methods of eva pora tion,
melting, distillation, sublimation and crystallization. These are the The Muslim chemists applied their chemical knowledge to a large
fundamental methods employed in the purification of chemical number of industrial arts. One of them is mentioned here, which
substances, enabling the chemist to study their properties and uses, will enable the reader to estimate the extent of their knowledge of
and to prep re them. The process of distillation is particularly used
a Applied Chemistry.
for taking extracts of plant material.
Paper is also featured in the pioneering wo rks of the Muslims.
The most important discove made by Jabir was the prep ration
ry a Paperwasinvented by the Chinese whoprep red it from the cocoon
a
of sulfuric acid. The importance of this discove can be realized by
ry of the silk worm. Some specimens of Chinese paper dates back to
the fact that in this modernage the extent of the industrial progress the second century CE. The fi st manufacture of the paper outside
r
of a country is mostly judged by the amount of sulfuric acid used in China occurred in Samarqand in 757 CE. When Samarqand wa s
that country. Another important acid prep red by him was nitric acid,
a captured by the Muslims, the manufacture of p aper spread all over
which he obtained by distilling a mixture of alum and copper sulfate. the Muslims Wo rld. By the end of the 12th century, therewe four
re
Then by dissolving ammonium chloride into this acid, he prep re a d hundred paper mills in Fas alone. In Spain the main center of
aquaregia, which unlike acids, could dissolve gold in it. manufacturing of p aper was Shatiba which remained a Muslim city
until 1239 CE. Cordovawas the center of the paper business in
Jabir classified chemical substances, on the basis of some Spain.
distinctive feature into bodies (gold, silve etc.) and souls (mercury,
s, r,
sulfur, etc.) to make the study of their properties easier. The Muslims developed this art. Th prep red paper not only
ey a
from silk, but also from cotton, rags and wood. In the middle of the
In the same century Jabir's wo was further advanced by al-Ra i
rk z 10th century the paper industry was introduced into Spain. In
who wrote many chemical tre atises, and described a number of Khurasanpaper was made from linen. Joseph Ka rabacek, in one of
chemical instruments. Heapplied his chemical knowledge for medical his wo s, explains the process of making paper in minute detail,
rk
purposes, thus laying the foundation of Applied Chemistry. describing how the pulp is prep red to make sheets, washed and
a
cleaned them, colored, polished and pasted. No text comparable to
Abu Mansur distinguished between sodium carbonate (natrum) this in any other language exists from that time.
and potassium carbonate (qali). He had some knowledge of a
rsenious
oxide, cupric oxide, antimony and other substances. He knew the The prep ration of pulp involves a large number of complicated
a
toxicological effects of copper and lead compounds, the depilatory chemical processes, which indicates the level of achievement in
virtue of quicklime, the composition of plaster of Paris and its chemistryreached by Muslims.
s rgical use.
u


The manufacture of writing paper in Spain is one of the most and thus received their knowledge of medicine from these nations.
beneficial contributions of Muslim to Europe. Without paper the Befo they accepted at face value the info ation they extracted,
re rm
scale on which popular education in Europe developed would not they conducted research in various branches in medicine to verify
h been possible. The prep ration of p
ave a aper from silk would have wh they gathered from these texts.
at
been impossible in Europe due to the lack of silk production there.
In addition, they made many valuable new discoveries in medical
The Muslims method of p roducing paper from cotton could only theory and practical. By combining their discoveries, with the
be useful for the Europeans. After Spain the art of papermaking wa s info ation they filtered from other sources they evolved an entirely
rm
established in Italy (1268 CE). France owed its fi st paper mills to
r new system of medicine.
Muslim Spain. From these countries the industryspread throughout
Europe. The Arabs had a fair knowledge of a atomy as it is obvious from
n
the names of the internal and external organs of the human and
animal bodies found in the literature of pre-Islamic Arabia. When
Medicine they became acquainted with the Greekanatomical descriptions, they
made investigations on them, pointed out manyerro in the wo of
rs rk
Translation of work from other languages their predecessors, and made many new discoveries in this field.
Knowledge of Anatomy
Physiology In order to verily the Greek anatomical ideas prevailing at that
Bacteriology time, Yuhanna ibn Masawaih made dissections of apes supplied to
Surgery him by the order of the Abbasi Khaleefah Mu'tasim Billah. After
Optical work this verification he composed his wo on anatomy. The wo of
rk rks
Operation of Cataracts some Muslim physicians and surgeons, like Tashrih al-Mansuri by
Structure of the Eyes Mansur ibn Muhammad, contain illustrations of human organs,
Cesarean operation which are not found in the Greek wo s. These illustrations also
rk
Development of Hospitals throw light on the Muslims' practical knowledge of a atomy.
n
Mobile Hospitals
Medical Schools The wo of the Muslim physicians in the field of p
rk hysiology, i
s
quite valuable. For instance, Ibn Nails al-Qarshi of Damascus
Centuries befo the advent of Islam the Arabs had their own
re explained the theory of the minor circulation of blood three
system of medicine in the fo of herb and shrubs whichwasbased
rm centuries befo William Harvey, who is credited with this discove
re ry.
on Chaldean medicine and on their own experience. Gradually Greek Also, al-Aarshi suggested that food is fuel for the maintenance of
medicine attracted their attention. Harith ibn Kaldah was the fi st
r the body's heat. Abu'l-Fa held that thereare canals in the nerve
raj s
to introduce Greek medicine to the Arabs. Khalid ibn Yazid ibn through which sensations and movement are transmitted.
Mu'waiyah had some Greek and Egyptian books translated into
Arabic during the 'Umay yah period. But the science of medicine The contributions of Muslims in the field of bacteriologyare quite
flourished during the time of the Abbasids. revolutionary. According to Browne, Muslims we fully awa of
re re
the theory of ge rms. Ibn Sina was the fi st to state that bodily
r
Initially, the Muslims made arrangements for the translation of secretions are contaminated by foul fo reign earthly bodies befo re
Greek, Indian, Pe rsian and Chaldaean medical works into Arabic, getting the infection. Ibn Khuatimah of the 14th centurystated that


man is surrounded by minute bodies that enter the human bodyand methods of operations for various diseases. While describing the
cause disease. operations of the skull and its parts, the Muslim surgeons made a
mention of operations of the uvula and nasal cavity. Th also used
ey
Some Muslims also ga new suggestions rega
ve rding the treatment methods of tonsillectomy and paracentesis of the ear drum.
of diseases. Abul-Hasan, the physician of Adud al-Daulah introduced
the process of bleeding as a tre
atment of cereb hemorr agewhich
ral h The Muslim opticians did valuable and original wo in the
rk
is often due to blood pressure. t atment of eye diseases and surge Many of the surgical principles
re ry.
formulated by Muslims are still utilized today. The method of
Al-Razi suggested nourishing food for the tre
atment of genera l operation of cataracts was fi st described by them. Th knew that
r ey
weakness. The Muslim physicians we the fi st to use the stomach
re r cataracts we due to the incapacity of the eye lens. Ibn al-Haitham
re
tube for the performance of gastric lavage in the case of ga s described the structure of the eye and gave revolutionary ideas
poisoning. Th we fully awa of the principles of opotherapy
ey re re regarding the mechanism of sight and describing various types of
centuries befo Browne Sequard, who is ascribed to discovering this
re lenses.
method of tre atment.
The art of midwife was highly developed by Muslims. Abul-
ry
Said ibn Bishr ibn Abdus suggested light foods and cold producing Qasim al-Zahra invented the method of Cranicolsy for the delive
wi ry
medicines for the treatment of generalpara lysis and facialparalysis. of dead fetus and applied it himself. A book entitled Al-Athar al-
Ibn al-Wa ga emphasis upon the tre
fid ve atment of diseases through Baqiyyah in the University of Edinbu rgh contains an illustration
food control. Th discove
ey red the tre
atment for epidemic jaundice showing an Arab physician perfo rming Cesarean operation.
and suggested a reasonable quantity of opium as a tre atment of
mania. For epistaxis they suggested the pouring of cold water on During the time of Banu 'Umay rule, the Muslims developed
yah
the head. the institution of hospitals. During the time of the Abbasi Khaleefa h
H run al-Rasheed a hospital was built in Baghdad, which was the
a
In the science of s rge therewe also manyadvancements made
u ry re fi st in the history of this city. Many new hospitals we established
r re
by Muslims. Th introduced the cauterizing agents in surge Th
ey ry. ey shortly afterwa s. Some of them had their own ga
rd rdens in which the
we the fi
re rst to apply the method of cooling to stop the medicinal plants we cultivated. The large hospitals had medical
re
hemorr age, and suture wounds with silken threads.
h schools attached to them. Besides such hospital there we a large
re
number of mobile hospitals in the Muslim wo rld.
It cannot go unnoticed that one of the most famous and eminent
figure in Islamic medical field was Ibn Sina, known in the West as The Muslim hospitals served as models for the hospitals established
Avicenna (981-1037 CE). It is said that for a thousand ye rs he has
a in different parts of Europe, p rticularly in Italy and France during
a
retained his original renown as one of the gre atest thinke and
rs the 14th century due to the influence of the Crusades. The Crusaders
medical scholars in history. His most important medical wo are the
rks we inspired by the magnificent hospitals of the Seljuq ruler Nur al-
re
Qanun (Canon) and a tre atise on Cardiac drugs. Din in Damascus and those of the Mamluk Sultan al-Mansur Qala'un
in Cairo.
In the 11th century Ibn Zuhr ga a complete description of the
ve
operation of tra cheotomy, whichwas not mentioned by the Greeks.
Abdul-Qasim al-Zahrawi invented many surgical instruments
illustrated in his book al-Tasrif. In the same book he described the

Science And Islam

Recomendados

Recomendados

Más contenido relacionado

La actualidad más candente

La actualidad más candente (16)

Similar a Science And Islam

Similar a Science And Islam (20)

Más de Caller To Islam / الداعية الإسلامي

Más de Caller To Islam / الداعية الإسلامي (20)

Science And Islam