In natural disasters people are often being displaced and the consequences and misery of those displaced by natural disasters and conflicts are often very similar. People lose their home and their possessions; they experience trauma and depression and are in need of similar protection and assistance needs. Given this context, this paper shares personal experiences and evolving and emerging challenges in preserving and promoting the Tangible and Intangible Culture Heritage, in particular in the field of Myanmar traditional performing arts which can be lost by different means and causes. The paper, as an example, discusses the experiences and lessons learnt from different cultural heritage restoration projects undertaken in Myanmar during the period from 2008 to 2012 which were supported by the Cultural Emergency Response Programme (CER) of the Prince Claus Fund in the Netherlands. The paper highlights what efforts could be made to prevent further damage and to restore the traditional skills, knowledge, techniques and cultural related objects that have been damaged and destroyed by natural disaster in the communities of Myanmar. Disaster management for cultural heritage can be handled differently in each area or country in terms of resources and capacity available. Therefore the aim is not only to describe the damage by the natural disaster but also to share my opinion and experience related to cultural related objects, monuments and artists that have been affected by natural disaster. In particular, the paper intended to express what we have learnt from the experiences in the major disasters in Myanmar, what special skills and knowledge are needed to alleviate negative impacts as the protection of cultural heritage.

1. The Impact of the Natural Disaster on
Tangible and Intangible Cultural Heritage:
Experience in Myanmar
Mr. Kyaw Myo Ko
Project Coordinator CER Prince Claus Fund
Director Mandalay Marionettes Theatre
Director Myanmar Upper Land | culture & travels
kmk@myanmarupperland.com
INTRODUCTION
Part of my work related to tangible and intangible heritage is supported by the
Cultural Emergency Response Programme (CER) of the Prince Claus Fund (PCF) in
the Netherlands. The Prince Claus Fund is a Dutch foundation aiming at increasing
cultural awareness as well as promoting exchange between culture and
development. The CER was initiated by the PCF in 2003, it provides grants to
conduct basic repairs and to prevent further damage on cultural heritage (Prince
Claus Fund’s Cultural Emergency Response (CER).
My city Mandalay is often considered the hub of Burmese traditional tangible and
intangible
culture.
Many
cultural
items
are
showcases
of
quintessential
craftsmanship in sculpture, glass and lacquer (Survey Report on International
Cooperation Survey Report on the Protection of Cultural Heritage in Republic of the
Union of Myanmar March 2013).
In this session I will mainly elaborate on climate change and the threat it poses to
tangible and intangible cultural heritage and on the importance of adopting disaster
risk reduction strategies.
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2. DISASTER RISK REDUCTION
Many heritage sites are continuously exposed to natural and man-made disasters.
The deterioration or worse, the loss of these heritage sites usually have a negative
impact on the communities, both for their cultural importance as a source of
information on the past and ass a symbol of identity, and last but not least for their
socio-economic value.
Hazards resulting from human activities can be avoided, natural disasters are
difficult to prevent or control and often unexpected. However, the vulnerability of
heritage sites to both human-made and natural disasters can be reduced, thereby
lowering the overall risk of damaging a heritage site and lowering the risk of loss of
intangible cultural heritage. Both, tangible and intangible cultural heritage is still
not given sufficient consideration in disaster risk management and climate change
adaptation strategies at national and local levels. Not even many of those heritage
sites included in the World Heritage List, have an appropriate disaster risk
management plan and also do not have a policy for managing risks associated with
potential disasters. Existing disaster preparedness and response mechanisms
seldom include heritage expertise in their operations.
Reducing loss of Tangible Cultural Heritage.
According to the WHO, the Strategy to reduce disasters risks identifies five
objectives and related actions (WHO: Reducing Disasters Risks at World Heritage
Properties) and are structured around the five main priorities for action defined by
the Hyogo Framework for Action, the main UN-wide policy on the subject of
Disaster Reduction, and are also in line with Article 5 of the World Heritage
Convention as well as the Strategic Objectives established through the Budapest
Declaration (The Budapest Declaration 2002). The five key objectives are:
1. Strengthen support within relevant global, regional, national and local
institutions for reducing risks at World Heritage properties;
2

3. 2. Use knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of disaster
prevention at World Heritage properties;
3. Identify, assess and monitor disaster risks at World Heritage properties;
4. Reduce underlying risk factors at World Heritage properties;
5. Strengthen disaster preparedness at World Heritage properties for effective
response at all levels.
The objectives and corresponding priority actions can be found in (WHC07/31.COM/7.2).
It is very important, therefore, to raise the awareness of those responsible for
disaster risk management by raising and discussing these issues in their policies
and programmes.
Reducing loss of Intangible Cultural Heritage.
Although loss of tangible cultural heritage is often replaceable, digitized
information like detailed photographs can be a help in this, loss of intangible
cultural heritage can be a much bigger problem to restore or maintain. This loss can
be due to nature disasters -mainly indirectly- but also to dying out of artists
performing traditional art. Already in the eighties some of the performing
traditional art in Myanmar was getting rare and questions arose how the historical
legacy of traditional theatrical arts techniques and theatre performances in our
country could be preserved. This was the main reason of the founding of our
Mandalay Marionette Theatre in 1986, namely trying to preserve Myanmar String
Puppetry, which still holds its own traditional characteristic since it includes a wide
range of artistic works such as Myanmar dancing and music, sculpture, sequin
embroidery and painting (Mandalay Marionette Theatre).
In
least
developing
countries
like
Myanmar,
most
traditional
theatrical
professionals develop their professional skills based upon tacit knowledge. These
are gathered through immersion in the theatrical environment, with these skills
being passed from generation to generation. Such knowledge implies highly
3

4. personal rather than explicit skills, meaning they cannot be clearly stated or
documented (Dormer, P. 1997).
Therefore, one of the main challenges of our theatre was and is to continue efforts to
systematically transfer skills and knowledge onto the next generation of
performers, the younger artists. In this aspect it is important to take into account
the accessibility of appropriate learning resources, in terms of both the available
technology and sufficiently qualified trainers to support the lifelong learning
process of an artist. Further developments in this will require the development of a
national education strategy to promote the continuous learning opportunities in a
way that is appropriate and attractive to the performers (Naing Yee Mar).
CYCLONES, TYPHOONS AND HURRICANES
Natural disasters like cyclones, typhoons and hurricanes, are all the same weather
phenomenon; we just use different names for these storms in different places.
Climate change is expected to affect tropical cyclones by increasing sea surface
temperatures, one of the key factors that influences cyclone formation and
behaviour. Climate change can increase or decrease rainfall, influence agricultural
crop yields, affect human health, cause changes to forests and other ecosystems and
impact our energy supply (EPA. United States Environmental Protection Agency).
Interestingly, although science can explain all the ingredients that make a cyclone
possible there is still some mystery as to when an event will actually occur. All the
known factors that produce a cyclone can be present and yet a storm event may or
may not be born. The components for these storms include a pre-existing weather
disturbance, warm tropical oceans, moisture, and relatively light winds. If the right
conditions persist long enough, they can combine to produce the violent winds,
incredible waves, torrential rains, and floods we associate with this phenomenon
(Global Climate Change & Human Health). Nevertheless there are sometimes
conflicting results, the main stream of thinking in science is that the climate change
4

5. will cause perhaps not more but stronger storms, cyclones and typhoons (Thomas R.
Knutson et al).
UN scientists forecast more severe droughts, cyclones and floods. The consequences
can be seen already in extreme weather patterns, particularly drought and flood,
and they will probably get worse this century (Environment). According to Camilo
Mora average annual temperatures will start to consistently exceed the highest
levels previously recorded in as little as seven years in tropical hotspots and within
four decades for the majority of the globe if nothing is done to stop climate change,
according to a study published in the journal Nature (Camilo Mora, 2013). The
study of Camilo Mora came two weeks after the release of a United Nations report
expressing widespread, rising confidence among scientists the climate is already
warming and that humans are responsible for at least half of the increase in global
surface temperatures since the 1950s (Gateway to the United Nations systems work
on climate change). The results suggest that countries first impacted by
unprecedented climates are the ones with the least capacity to respond and
"Ironically, these are the countries that are least responsible for climate change in
the first place". "This suggests that any progress to decrease the rate of ongoing
climate change will require a bigger commitment from developed countries to
decrease their emissions, but will also require more extensive funding of social and
conservation programmes in developing countries," the authors write in their study.
Almost all of the tropical cyclone damage from climate change tends to be
concentrated in North America, East Asia and the Caribbean–Central American
region and almost 80% of fatalities from tropical cyclones are concentrated in two
countries especially in Bangladesh and to a lesser extend in Myanmar (Robert
Mendelsohn et al). Time to go to our next chapter.
A NATURAL DISASTER IN MYANMAR: CYCLONE NARGIS, 2008
5

6. Myanmar’s cultural heritage has been exposed to various natural disasters (1975
earthquake, 2008 hurricane, 2010 flooding), as well as human disasters (thievery,
grave robbing, smuggling) and drastic development pressure. Urgent measures are
sought for their protection, but the country’s domestic affairs are still too fragile to
address this issue (Survey Report on International Cooperation Survey Report on
the Protection of Cultural Heritage in Republic of the Union of Myanmar March
2013).
Cyclone Nargis, devastated the Irrawaddy delta on 2 and 3 May 2008, killing tens of
thousands of people and ruined Myanmar infrastructure. Figures of partially or
totally destroyed monasteries probably rose in the thousands. More exact
estimations of the damage of cyclone Nargis to monasteries are difficult to make.
One of the reasons is the huge devastated area in the south where the
infrastructure is rudimentary and where the best way of travelling is by using a
traditional wooden boat with an outside motor.
Myanmar is one of the least developed countries. Being a cultural worker from
Myanmar I was aware that the location and situation of the project were not within
the compass of the Ministry of Culture.
Other renovations in the -large and remote- area were done by the Government, the
public sector and also by International aid organisations (NGOs).
Fortunately funding came from the PCF for the following three sites:
1. the restoration of Kanner Monastery, the Kyunlone Kutkar Pagoda and the
theatrical office building in Moulmeignyun;
2. the restoration of the Shin U Pa Goata Shrine, the Koe Myo Nan Shrine and the
theatrical office building in Bogolaythe;
3. the repairs and replacement of instruments and equipment used in traditional
orchestras and theatres in Bogolay and Moulmeignyun
6

7. The projects fell under two main headings: reconstruction of heritage buildings,
and theatrical support for restoration of tangible cultural heritage and safeguarding
intangible cultural heritage.
For all three sites apart from skilful engineers from elsewhere, only local and
traditional craftsmen and locally available labour force were used. During the
restoration process for the first two sites only traditional building materials, like
lime mortar and lime based paints were used for the monastic buildings and objects
of religious significance, including the Buddha images. The use of cement and
plastic paints was not accepted. The theatrical office building was rebuilt
completely. Musical instruments and puppets were replaced. In contrast to the
other projects, the use of cement and plastic paints was accepted in the theatrical
buildings. Important items for the third project were replacement of damaged
instrument sets and timber to build a new stage.
Even though the locations of the projects were in a remote area, the projects were
an enormous success.
In the short run the monks and local people could take up their religious and social
activities again. All people from this rural community are devotee Buddhists. And
in the long run it is expected to strengthen the community life. Through the
achievements of the projects local people became more aware of their cultural
heritage by contributing and safeguarding their own tangible and intangible
heritage. The historical, cultural and religious objects are restored for many
generations to come. The artist and the theatre could resume their activities.
The restored historical buildings, the theatrical performances and the upcoming
tourism may lay the foundations for a sustainable tourism, taking into
consideration the economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the needs
of the visitors, the environment and the communities. All this hopefully contributes
to a better economic future of the area.
7

8. When we finished the project, we organized the transferring ceremony. Mostly we
do this ceremony in a religious way at the local place of the project. This is because
the objectives of the project are closely related to the culture of ancient Buddhism.
For these ceremonies we invited all the stakeholders of the community, heads of the
communities and general public.
The projects had several spinoffs:
•
Discussions with the locals not only on restoring and conservation of their
tangible cultural objects but because of my background also discussions on
traditional art resulted in more awareness of their intangible culture heritage
and hereby encouraging and safeguarding their own traditions.
•
Traditional culture based community development programmes and related
training programme are in development.
MYANMAR’S POLICIES TOWARD REDUCING CULTURAL HERITAGE
RISK IN THE LIGHT OF THE COUNTRY’S PROBLEMS
There are lots of huge problems facing our country and its development.
Since 1962 Myanmar has been under military rule. This brought our country in a
political and economic isolation with a disastrous outcome. It has contributed to the
rapid and often uncontrolled depletion of the nation’s natural wealth (OECD
Development Pathways. Multi-dimensional Review of Myanmar).
After a general election held in 2010 a new government came to power in March
2011. This government has inherited problems like poor access to capital and credit;
poor trade facilitation and high customs-related fees; cumbersome business and
trade licensing and permits; shortages of electricity; weak telecommunications; and
inefficient transportations systems. Other challenges include a shortage of spare
8

9. parts and raw materials, a low level of advanced technology utilization, machinery
and equipment deficiencies, and shortages of foreign currency.
And the needs in our country are great: education, infrastructure and social and
health related issues all have to be tackled and all urgently. For instance, education
levels are low, less than half of Burma's 18 million children complete five years of
primary schools and less than 1 percent of the country's GDP is spent on education
(Burma's Reforms and Regional Cooperation in East Asia).
Every aspect of Burmese society suffers from a lack of capacity, and there is a
significant chance of aid being wasted. The need for aid in our country is severe and
the humanitarian situation is dire. Yet, even if significant amounts of aid and
investment are allowed to flow into Burma, an enormous question of capacity still
lingers.
Besides these important issues, we have many heritage sites, almost all of them in a
bad state of conservation. And the cost of conservation and restoring our heritage
sites are immense. We simply do not have the means, the money and the required
technical conservation of our many heritage sites. As an example of the cost,
Hurricane Katrina, which hit the US states of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama
in 2005, did cost roughly US$125 billion, represented only about 0.1 percent of the
US Gross Domestic Product. Cyclone Nargis caused damages that amounted to 30
percent of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (IDA At WORK. Managing Natural
Hazards, Reducing Risks to Development).
Before the (although still ongoing) change of our government, protection and
preservation of our cultural heritage was ‘’not its priority’’. On our current road to
liberalisation, privatisation and decentralisation all in the sake of democracy and
with the challenges of a transient economy steps are being made on the road to
conservation of our many heritage sites but (much needed) central funding has only
marginally increased, and mainly for the tangible heritage sites.
9

10. Myanmar has a central government but consist of several different states
(comprising The Union of Myanmar) all of them having their own habits, cultures
and wishes. The laws are made by the central government, but the forces of the
different states and even at lower levels are still strong in our newly developing
country which has to learn how to deal with all these problems.
The concepts of environmental governance and democracy in conservation and
decentralization are huge and often do not coincide and are also completely new to
us. Decentralization and conservation are rooted in very different histories and
paradigms and both are confronted with a democratic deficit. At its heart,
decentralization is but an extension of the historic movement of the state to
penetrate and rationalize society along modernization ideals. (Mariteuw Chimère
Diaw. Elusive meanings: decentralization, conservation, and local democracy).
The first laws in Myanmar on protection our cultural heritage sites were made in
1998; these laws were only about tangible cultural heritage sites, intangible
cultural heritage was not mentioned (Government of the Union of Myanmar
Ministry of Culture. The protection and preservation of cultural heritage regions
law). Revision of this law took place in 2009, and supplemented in 2011.
Often (and I’m sure also here) the will to reform in Myanmar is present with new
laws coming up; however the execution and implementation of the law is a much
more difficult path to walk.
To establish the supremacy of the law, the effective separation of executive,
legislative and judicial powers will be critical. Myanmar’s present laws do not
require the use of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIAs) for major projects nor
do they provide a framework and standards for their use.
Nevertheless, in my opinion governments have an obligation not only to protect by
law but also by implementation of the law, our transient and intransient cultural
heritage sites even though the economic benefits hardly ever outweigh the cost of
preservation or restoring.
10

11. Our Ministry of Culture (MOC) is completely responsible for the administrative
functions connected with the protection of our Cultural heritage. In recent years,
the Ministry of Culture comprises three departments each of them having their own
field and responsibilities:
1. The Department of Archaeology, National Museum and Library;
2. The Department of Historical Research; and
3. The Department of Fine Art.
The first, sporadic conservation measures were already done under British rule and
continued after independence in 1948. All these and later restoration and
conservation measures were done by people from Myanmar without any help from
foreign experts in the different field. Actions were either a local initiative or
centrally, from the MOC. The political and economic isolation did not much help in
this, and instead of advanced foreign technologies and foreign expertise on different
field of restoring ‘we did it our own way’. Alterations and restorations were done in
the past on cultural heritage sites, but often with wrong and different than the
original (e.g.: concrete instead of wood) material (Survey Report on International
Cooperation Survey Report on the Protection of Cultural Heritage in Republic of the
Union of Myanmar March 2013). The results are such that because of the current
bad status of many buildings, due to the small budgets and the lack of
conservational measures, none of the huge amount of rich cultural heritage sites,
with among them some very world-wide famous buildings, are on the World
Heritage List. The latest was a visit in October 2013 by the World Heritage center
at three ancient Pyu Cities. These cities date from the 7th and 9th centuries A.D. by
the Pyu, who dominated central Burma for almost a millennium before their culture
died out. Acceptance on the World Heritage list will be decided by the World
Heritage Committee to be held in June 2014. Some of the problems that have to be
addressed too are the bad conservation state they are in nevertheless the recent
11

12. foreign cultural heritage advisers and experts in these cities and the fact that
displaced people are living on these heritage sites.
In short, Myanmar’s tangible cultural heritage is facing a conservation crisis with a
definite shortage of human resources and facilities. Only lately and sporadically is
help coming from other countries with high Tech mechanisms to prevent cultural
heritage from natural disaster. But we are still a long way from being faced with
questions like: how can high-tech solutions be evaluated in comparison to
traditional methods (retrofitting versus authenticity)?
SOME LESSONS LEARNT
Restoring tangible and intangible heritage did safeguard a sustainable social and
economic development of the region, not only during the recovery stage but also on a
longer term, with some important aspects:
-­‐
It created awareness by the local community for their tangible and intangible
cultural heritage.
-­‐
It was a source of employment, by supporting the local workers but also the
traditional craftsmen, like the mason, carpenter et cetera, thereby using the
potential of traditional knowledge;
-­‐
It attracted investments after renovation (such as for tourism purposes)
-­‐
and last but not least: it became an essential support for the social and economic
well-being of the communities in distress.
Overall important is the decisive role of the local community in implementing and
achieving the goals. This we did by making the locals aware of their tangible and
intangible culture heritage.
We became aware that local authorities played a crucial role in many ways, they
could activate and involve the local communities, and they helped not only to access
12

13. environmental damage but were also crucial in implementing the support. Their
active engagement turned out to be essential in carrying out integrated disaster
preparedness strategies.
Tangible and intangible cultural heritage can be important components of economic
innovation and for local development. Local involvement and local ownership is a
precondition for a successful project. Successful projects should be based on local
definitions and local perceptions of cultural heritage and require broad partnerships
of different kinds of knowledge and expertise.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Myanmar is very rich in tangible and intangible cultural heritage. A lot of our
heritage is in danger, many of the sites are in a bad state of conservation and
intangible cultural heritage is diminishing for various reasons.
During the last years with the help of the Prince Claus Fund I managed to restore
some of our heritage sites; with my own theatrical company we revived some of our
intangible cultural heritage. And with my travel company I try to promote tourism
in order to contribute to economic development of some of the regions of our cultural
heritage sites.
Our new Government has a huge task in restoring and preserving our tangible and
intangible cultural heritage but is willing. In this process it faces also many other
and huge problems that people and the nation needs.
To further strengthen our restoration programmes and to bring them up the next
level the research and education sector should be recognised as a central
stakeholder in capacity building and sectorial development projects for cultural
heritage (Evaluation of Norwegian support to the protection of Cultural Heritage,
2009) and future assistance is needed particularly for technical transfers and
human resource development in the field of conservation and restoration
13

14. technologies, the development of a tourism environment with due consideration to
cultural heritage, and the formulation of a comprehensive plan from the perspective
of regional development (Survey Report on International Cooperation Survey
Report on the Protection of Cultural Heritage in Republic of the Union of Myanmar
March 2013).
It is very important, therefore, to use the opportunity offered at the 2013 Global
Platform to raise the awareness of those responsible for disaster risk management
and to invite responsible for heritage management of the importance of integrating
heritage concerns in their policies and programmes, both for its intrinsic value and
because of its major role in supporting the resilience of communities (Global
platform for disaster risk reduction. Heritage and Resilience).
References
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Burma's Reforms and Regional Cooperation in East Asia:
http://www.carnegiecouncil.org/publications/articles_papers_reports/0164.html
Camilo Mora, 2013 http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/10/science/earth/by-2047coldest-years-will-be-warmer-than-hottest-in-past.html?_r=0)
Dormer, P. (1997). Craft and Turing Test for Practical Thinking. Peter Dormer
(ed.), The Culture of Craft, Manchester: Manchester University Press, p.137.
Environment: http://www.smh.com.au/environment/climate-change/unscientists-forecast-more-severe-droughts-cyclones-and-floods-201111131ndu0.html
Evaluation of Norwegian support to the protection of Cultural Heritage, 2009.
http://www.oecd.org/countries/nepal/43971499.pdf
EPA. United States Environmental Protection Agency:
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/impacts-adaptation/.
Gateway to the United Nations systems work on climate change:
http://www.un.org/climatechange/ and Global Issues. Climate Change
http://www.un.org/en/globalissues/climatechange/.
Global Climate Change & Human Health:
http://climatechangehumanhealth.org/activities/natural-disasters-cyclones/
Global platform for disaster risk reduction. Heritage and Resilience:
http://www.preventionweb.net/globalplatform/2013/programme/featuredevents/vi
ew/480
Government of the Union of Myanmar Ministry of Culture. The protection and
preservation of cultural heritage regions law:
http://www.burmalibrary.org/docs15/1998-SPDC_Law1998-09Protection_and_Preservation_of_Cultural_Heritage_Regions_Law-en.pdf
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15. •
•
•
•
•
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•
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•
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•
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Government of the Union of Myanmar Ministry of Culture. The protection and
preservation of cultural heritage regions law. http://www.jcicheritage.jp/doc/pdf/2012Report_Myanmar_eg.pdf
IDA At WORK. Managing Natural Hazards, Reducing Risks to Development:
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/IDA/Resources/IDA-Risk_Management.pdf
Mandalay Marionette Theatre: http://www.mandalaymarionettes.com/
Mariteuw Chimère Diaw. Elusive meanings: decentralization, conservation, and
local democracy.
http://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/events/documentations/durban/papers
/Paper20Diaw.pdf
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Naing Yee Mar (not published). APPROACHES TO EDUCATION FOR
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d&st=&qs=3779&unevoc=0
OECD Development Pathways. Multi-dimensional Review of Myanmar.
http://www.oecd.org/dev/Pocket%20Edition%20MYANMAR2013.pdf
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http://www.princeclausfund.org/nl.
Robert Mendelsohn et al. The impact of climate change on global tropical cyclone
damage. Nature Climate Change 2, 205–209 (2012) doi:10.1038/nclimate1357.
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by Japan Consortium for International Cooperation in Cultural Heritage 13-43
Ueno Park, Taito-ku, Tokyo, 110-8713 JAPAN Tel:+81-3-3823-4841 Fax: +81-33823-4027 URL: http://www.jcic-heritage.jp/
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geoscience 21 February 2010 | doi: 10.1038/ngeo779.
www.nature.com/naturegeoscience. and
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WHO Reducing Disasters Risks at World Heritage Properties
http://whc.unesco.org/en/disaster-risk-reduction/
WHC-07/31.COM/7.2 http://whc.unesco.org/en/sessions/31com/documents/
Biodata
Part of Mr. Kyaw Myo K’s work related to tangible and intangible heritage is
supported by the Cultural Emergency Response Programme (CER) of the Prince
Claus Fund (PCF) in the Netherlands. The Prince Claus Fund is a Dutch foundation
15

16. aiming at increasing cultural awareness as well as promoting exchange between
culture and development.
As director of the Mandalay Marionettes Theatre, he organizes daily performances
of traditional Marionette plays, music and dance in Mandalay and in other parts of
the world. Furthermore, he is the director of Myanmar Upper Land | culture &
travels (MUL), a travel company specializing in cultural tours to our many heritage
sites and my organization for these purposes, working to achieve the goals of
restoration, conservation and safeguarding the historical, cultural and religious
objects of Myanmar (Myanmar upper land and travel).
16