A Novel Multi-phased Project that investigates the Glutathione Pathway by Creating Alzheimer’s model Drosophila with Pan-neuronal Over-expression of the GCLc Gene, Inducing Redox Stress through Sleep Deprivation, and Analyzing Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain using Colorimetric Enzymatic Assays.

1. Early Diagnosis and Treatment of Alzheimer’s:
Modulating the GCLc Gene to Mitigate Redox Stress
and Mitochondrial ETC Complex Dysfunction
A Novel Multi-phased Project that investigates the Glutathione Pathway by Creating
Alzheimer’s model Drosophila with Pan-neuronal Over-expression of the GCLc Gene,
Inducing Redox Stress through Sleep Deprivation, and Analyzing Mitochondrial
Electron Transport Chain using Colorimetric Enzymatic Assays.
Lisa Michaels • Plano West Senior High School • Plano, TX •

2. ALZHEIMER’S BRAIN
Source: Alzheimer’s.org, National Center for health statistics
Brain scans done with Positron Emission Tomography (PET) show how Alzheimer’s affects brain activity.
The top images show a normal brain, while the right images are from a person with Alzheimer’s. The red
and yellow areas in the bottom scans show Amyloid plaques, made visible with Mathis and Klunk’s
traceable dye.
As Alzheimer’s disease progresses, brain tissue shrinks. However, the ventricles, chambers within the
brain that contain cerebrospinal fluid, are noticeably enlarged. In the early stages of Alzheimer's disease,
short-term memory begins to decline when the cells in the hippocampus degenerate.
2

3. NATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE
MAJOR CAUSES OF DEATH - % Change 2000-08
66% Increase in Alzheimer’s during 2000-2008
as a Cause of Death!
Source: Alzheimer’s.org, National Center for health statistics
AD has emerged as the sixth largest killer disease in the US, rapidly growing while deaths from
other diseases are declining. If we make no progress in diagnosis and treatment of AD, the
associated cost will rise to over a trillion dollars a year in 2050. The President recently signed into
law the National Alzheimer’s Project to overcome the disease before 2025. This project
contributes to this national public health goal.
3

4. PREVALENT THEORY: AMYLOID CASCADE
Source: National Institutes of Health website
4

5. PREVALENT THEORY II: MITOCHONDRIAL CASCADE
Source: Alzheimer’s.org, National Center for health statistics 5

6. PREVALENT THEORY III: OXIDATIVE STRESS
OXIDATIVE STRESS
O2
H 2 O2
OH –
NO –
ONOO–
GSSG
Amyloid Plaques Tau Tangles
NEURO-DEGENERATION
NEURO-PROTECTION
CAT
SOD
GSH peroxidase
GSH-S-transferase
GSH
ANTIOXIDANT DEFENSE
Balance of ROS generation and antioxidantive systems is critical for neuronal survival. An
imbalance of both systems due to either excessive production of ROS (left) or reduced antioxidant
defense (right) results in oxidative stress. In AD, increases in oxidative stress, mainly promoted by
the interplay between the reactive species and transition metals, lead to oxidative damage that
induces neuronal damage or death. Antioxidant therapies that increase endogenous antioxidant
defenses or reduce oxidative sources should reduce oxidative damage, and thereby prevent or
delay disease symptoms.

7. PROPOSED THEORY
AMYLOID
TOXICITY ROS
ALZHEIMER’S
MITOCHONDRIAL DYSFUNCTION PROGRRESSION
MITOCHONDRIAL PROTECTION
Source: Thinkquest.org
ANTIOXIDANT CAPACITY
GCLc GENE GLUTATHIONE
GENE EXPRESSION
The research thesis is that in vivo synthesis of Glutathione through over-expression of the GCLc gene
mitigates Oxidative stress, Mitochondrial dysfunction and Amyloid toxicity, thereby slowing down the
progression of AD. The Oxidative stress caused by Amyloid toxicity results in ROS, impairment of the
Electron Transport Chain, further ROS generation and Mitochondrial dysfunction. Switching on the
GCLc gene may protect Mitochondria from damage by improving the Redox balance (GSH/GSSG) which
mitigates Mitochondrial dysfunction and the progression of Alzheimer’s.

8. SUGGESTED SOLUTION:
GCLc_GLUTATHIONE PATHWAY
C10H17N3O6S http://max-one-cure.org/max-one/max-one-qa
Glutathione is the primary endogenous antioxidant. It is the body's most effective detoxifier. Stress
depletes the Glutathione stores. It modulates the immune response. It assists in the regulation
of the cell's vital functions, such as the synthesis and repair of DNA, the synthesis of proteins,
and the activation and regulation of enzymes. As Glutathione is a large molecule the supplements
are not absorbed into the body. Glutathione-rich foods include asparagus, grapefruit and peaches,
garlic, whey protein. We need 250 milligrams of Glutathione a day; the average American
consumes less than 35 mg!
REACTION 1: REACTION 2:
Glutamate ϒ-glutamylcysteine ϒ-glutamylcysteinylglycine
GSH
Cysteine Glycine
GSH
GCL ADP Synthase
ATP ATP ADP
 Glutathione is synthesized de novo by the action of two enzymes: glutamate-cysteine
ligase-catalytic subunit (GCLc) and by GSH synthase.
 The determinants of Glutathione synthesis are the availability of cysteine, activity of 8
GCLc gene and feedback regulation.

9. RESEARCH DESIGN
Home Lab
GENETIC INCREASED
H1: MODULATION Aβ42-GCLc GLUTATHIONE LIFESPAN
PRODUCTION
Home Lab
INCREASED
H2: RESISTANCE TO Stressed RESISTANCE TO LIFESPAN
REDOX STRESS
Aβ42-GCLc REDOX STRESS
Genetics Lab
INCREASED
H3: MITOCHONDRIAL
BIOENERGETICS Aβ42-GCLc MITOCHONDRIAL ETC
BIOENERGETICS ACTIVITY

10. HYPOTHESES
Hypothesis 1: IF lifespans of Alzheimer’s model Aβ42 Drosophila and
Aβ42-GCLc are studied, THEN the Aβ42-GCLc group will outlive the
Aβ42 group of flies; all groups will exhibit shorter lifespans compared to
the control group of yellow-white Drosophila melanogaster.
Hypothesis 2: IF Aβ42 and Aβ42-GCLc Drosophila are subjected to
continuous oxidative stress, THEN the Aβ42-GCLc flies will be able to
better resist stress, as exhibited by longer lifespan; all groups will
exhibit shorter lifespans compared to the control group of yellow-white
Drosophila melanogaster.
Hypothesis 3: IF the Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain of Aβ42
and Aβ42-GCLc groups of Drosophila are analyzed, THEN Aβ42-GCLc
will exhibit more enzymatic activity in the mitochondrial complexes
compared to Aβ42; all groups will exhibit lower enzyme activity
compared to the control group of yellow-white Drosophila
melanogaster.
10

11. MATERIALS
11

12. Home Lab: Lifespan and Oxidative stress
Experiments
Source: All Charts and Photographs by the Researcher
Oscillator For inducing Oxidative Stress
University Lab: ETC studies
12

13. TRANSGENIC DROSOPHILA http://sanpatricio.co.uk/Innexins/pg2%20dev.php
Neuronal network of Natural (A) and Transgenic (B) Drosophila visualized by immuno-staining technique .
• Drosophila melanogaster is an ideal animal model widely used in human longevity and disease studies for
several reasons. About 75% of the known human disease genes have a recognizable match in the genetic code
of fruit flies and 50% of fly protein sequences have human analogues (Culliton, 2000; Reiter et al, 2001; UCSD,
2001). It has a relatively short life cycle, is easily reared in the laboratory, and the fecund females produce large
populations that make statistical studies easy and reliable.
• Drosophila melanogaster is ideal for genetic intervention studies in neurodegenerative diseases. Several genes
have been identified that are preferentially expressed inneurons, and have been used to drive transgene
expression in tissues. In this research, elav-GAL4 technique for pan-neuronal expression was used in the A β42-
GCLc Drosophila.
• A yeast transgene for the transcription factor GAL4 (elav) is inserted in an arbitrary location in the Drosophila
genome. There, the expression of GAL4 is controlled by flanking Drosophila enhancers (GCLc) and suppressors
that normally regulate a Drosophila gene in the neighborhood. The resulting expression pattern of GAL4 might
include certain cells and tissues. As GAL4 is itself a transcription factor, it can drive the expression of other
genes that are placed downstream of a DNA sequence that binds GAL4. Hence the combination of GAL4 driver
and effector gene is a way to target the effector to tissues that happen to express GAL4 in a particular driver
line. 13

14. METHODS 1
SUBJECT PREPARATION
1. Breeding: Male and female natural yellow-white Drosophila melanogaster and the transgenic
GAL4-GCLc flies were obtained from the Southern Methodist University Biology lab in Dallas.
Alzheimer model Aβ42 (elav-GAL4 ; UAS Aβ42/cyo) Drosophila melanogaster flies were
obtained from Thomas Jefferson Universities in Philadelphia to be used as the parent
population.
2. The Alzheimer’s/GCLc crosses were made by cross breeding virgin female Azheimer elav-
Aβ42 flies with male GAL4-GCLc flies. Multiple culture bottles were maintained till a large
sample subject population was obtained
http://www.nature.com/nrg/journal/v3/n3/box/nrg751_BX2.html
14

15. ALZHEIMER’S MODEL DROSOPHILA
The dominating role of the mouse in modeling Alzheimer's disease has been challenged by Drosophila melanogaster. Its
well organized brain permits the study of complex behaviors such as learning and memory. Transgenic flies have been
established that express human Aβ42 in the nervous system using the UAS-GAL4 system. These flies developed age-
dependent short-term memory impairment and neurodegeneration. Transgenic flies with overexpression of Abeta42
peptides in the nervous system results in phenotypes associated with neuronal degeneration in a dose- and age-dependent
manner. It is these peptides that accumulate in human disease and are thought to be the initiating factor in Alzheimer's
disease. The flies exhibit a clear phenotype from a few days of age, including reduced locomotor function, impaired
olfactory memory and shortened lifespan. Therapeutic agents that interfere with the generation of toxic aggregates of
beta-amyloid peptides have been shown to rescue the flies.
Spatial targeting of transgene expression in Drosophila. GAL4/UAS system. Driver lines expressing the transcriptional
activator GAL4 in a tissue-specific fashion are crossed to UAS-lines with genomic inserts of a target gene fused to
five GAL4-binding sites arrayed in tandem (5 × UAS) (shown here as UAS-Aβ42).
Source: Adapted from Development, Brand and Perrimon, 118: 401-415, 1993 15

16. METHODS – Phase 2
EXPERIMENTS
PROCEDURE
1) Breeding: Male and female yellow-white Drosophila, Alzheimer model “c155-elav/elav GAL4; UAS-
Aβ42/cyo” Drosophila and GCLc-GAL4 Drosophila melanogaster parent flies were obtained from the SMU
biology Department and Thomas Jefferson Universities. A total of about 1000 subject Drosophila were used
for this research study.
2) Mating: They were bred at the home lab in Drosophila glass culture bottles with Carolina blue medium 424
formula, activated yeast and water. The Alzheimer’s/GCLc transgenic fly crosses were made in the home
lab by breeding virgin female Alzheimer’s elav-GAL4;UAS-Aβ42 flies with male GCLc-GAL4 flies.
3) Anesthetizing: Once the larvae hatched, they were immediately isolated, anesthetized by a CO2 anesthetizer,
and divided on an ice pack by gender. Only male flies were used as the subject population.
4) Grouping: The research subject flies were divided into 100 flies each in four vials of about 25 each. There
were 3 types of flies consisting of Male Yellow White, Male Aβ42 Alzheimer’s and Male Aβ42/GCLc flies.
There were three study groups in each type of fly, one group was used for natural lifespan, one for redox
stress lifespan and one for the mitochondrial ETC assays.
5) Redox Stress: The 24 hr Redox stress was achieved by constant oscillation, noise and light in each group.
The non stressed flies were in an insect culture incubator with no movement, natural noise and light.
1) Life Span: The 40 vials of 25 flies each were changed every other day. This consists of making the right
food for every vial (Carolina 424 blue formula with dry activated yeast and water) and transferring the flies
from one vial to the other and the number of flies that died each time was recorded. This was continued
until the last fly died in each vial. The average 50%survival life spans for each group of flies in each group
(in each of the 4 vials) were recorded, tabulated and graphed.
7) The ETC subject group of flies were collected and frozen, 15 each time, at four weeks for further testing at the
genetics laboratory
16

17. METHODS – Phase 3
The Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain (ETC) colorimetric enzymatic assays and analysis was
The Mitochondrial Electron Transport Chain (ETC) colorimetric enzymatic assays and analysis was
performed at a Human Genetics Lab in a Medical College.
performed at a Human Genetics Lab in a Medical College.
HOMOGENIZING:
HOMOGENIZING:
For each group of Drosophila studied, (YW, Aβ42, and Aβ42-GCLc) 15 flies each were frozen at four weeks of their lifespan. They were
For each group of Drosophila studied, (YW, Aβ42, and Aβ42-GCLc) 15 flies each were frozen at four weeks of their lifespan. They were
taken on dry ice to the Baylor Medical Genetics Lab to do the Electron Transport Chain Complex Enzymatic Assays using the
taken on dry ice to the Baylor Medical Genetics Lab to do the Electron Transport Chain Complex Enzymatic Assays using the
Spectrophotometer.
Spectrophotometer.
Flies were homogenized and Drosophila lysate transferred to eppendorph tubes.
Flies were homogenized and Drosophila lysate transferred to eppendorph tubes.
Whole fly lysate was spun at 2500rpms for 10 minutes and supernatant containing mitochondria was separately placed into new tubes.
Whole fly lysate was spun at 2500rpms for 10 minutes and supernatant containing mitochondria was separately placed into new tubes.
STANDARDIZING:
STANDARDIZING:
Bradford protein reagent was used to measure diluted concentrations of Drosophila lysate described above.
Bradford protein reagent was used to measure diluted concentrations of Drosophila lysate described above.
BSA was used to create a standard curve, to which each sample was measured against.
BSA was used to create a standard curve, to which each sample was measured against.
Each Drosophila lysate was standardized to 1ug/ul.
Each Drosophila lysate was standardized to 1ug/ul.
SET-UP:
SET-UP:
The activities of complex II (succinate dehydrogenase), total and rotenone sensitive complex I+III (NADH: Cytochrome C Oxido reductase),
The activities of complex II (succinate dehydrogenase), total and rotenone sensitive complex I+III (NADH: Cytochrome C Oxido reductase),
and complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase), and CS (Citrate Synthase) was measured using appropriate electron acceptors/donors according to
and complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase), and CS (Citrate Synthase) was measured using appropriate electron acceptors/donors according to
published procedures. Each assay was performed in duplicate.
published procedures. Each assay was performed in duplicate.
COLORIMETRIC ASSAY:
COLORIMETRIC ASSAY:
ETC enzymes will be assayed at 30 °C using a temperature-controlled spectrophotometer; Ultraspec 6300 pro, Biochrom Ltd.,
ETC enzymes will be assayed at 30 °C using a temperature-controlled spectrophotometer; Ultraspec 6300 pro, Biochrom Ltd.,
(Cambridge, England).
(Cambridge, England).
The increase or decrease in the absorbance of cytochrome C at 550 nm will be measured for complexes I+III, II+III, and complex IV. For
The increase or decrease in the absorbance of cytochrome C at 550 nm will be measured for complexes I+III, II+III, and complex IV. For
complex II, the reduction of 2,6-dichloroindophenol (DCIP) at 600 nm was measured.
complex II, the reduction of 2,6-dichloroindophenol (DCIP) at 600 nm was measured.
Citrate Synthase (CS) was used as a marker for mitochondrial content and was measured by reduction of Ellman's reagent at 412 nm.
Citrate Synthase (CS) was used as a marker for mitochondrial content and was measured by reduction of Ellman's reagent at 412 nm.
Enzyme activities are expressed as nmol/min/mg protein.
Enzyme activities are expressed as nmol/min/mg protein.
Data was recorded, graphed, tested for statistical significance using the two tailed T test, analyzed and conclusions drawn.
Data was recorded, graphed, tested for statistical significance using the two tailed T test, analyzed and conclusions drawn.
(Complete protocol in research folder)
(Complete protocol in research folder)
Sources: Kirby M. Biochemical assays of respiratory chain complex activity. Methods in Cell Biology. 2007;80:93-119.
Sources: Kirby M. Biochemical assays of respiratory chain complex activity. Methods in Cell Biology. 2007;80:93-119.
Medja F. Development and implementation of standardized spectrophotometric assays for clinical diagnosis. Mitochondrion. 2009
Medja F. Development and implementation of standardized spectrophotometric assays for clinical diagnosis. Mitochondrion. 2009
Sept; 9(5); 331-339.
Sept; 9(5); 331-339.
17

18. RESULTS: HYPOTHESIS 1
Results: There was a dramatic decrease in lifespan as hypothesized. The
increase was 40% in the Aβ42 Alzheimer model flies compared to the natural
yellow whites. GCLc overexpression in the Aβ42-GCLc flies increased lifespan
by 28%!
* +28%
* -40%
*
T
* Statistically Significant at 99% level; using two-tailed t-tests; SE shown on the bars.
Charts conceived and created by researcher
18

19. RESULTS: HYPOTHESIS 2
Results: As hypothesized, stress was extremely significant in the Alzheimer
model flies. Stress decreased average lifespan from 25 days to 11 days! But
the lifespan of the Aβ42-GCLc flies was 26 days (136% increase compared
to Aβ42) showing that increased Glutathione can mitigate redox stress
especially in Alzheimer’s.
* +136%
-62% **
*
T
* Statistically Significant at 99% level; using two-tailed t-tests; SE shown on the bars.
Charts conceived and created by researcher
19

20. RESULTS: HYPOTHESIS 3
Hypothesis 3: As hypothesized Aβ42-GCLc exhibited more activity in mitochondrial complexes I+III, and IV compared
to Aβ42. As hypothesized Aβ42-GCLc exhibited dramatically more activity in mitochondrial complex IV compared to
Aβ42. The GCLc activity in the Alzheimer flies restored and even increased complex IV activity compared to the
control group of yellow-white.
+63%
-34%
* Two trials; Each trial done in duplicate; SD shown
on bars
Original ETC Assay readings in nmol/min/mg protein;
converted to percentages to adjust for Citrate
Synthase variations
+116%
-50%
Charts conceived and created by researcher

21. RESULTS: HYPOTHESIS 3
Hypothesis 3: As hypothesized Aβ42-GCLc exhibited more activity in mitochondrial
complexes II and II+III compared to Aβ42. Complex II and II+III Aβ42-GCLc exhibited lower
enzyme activity compared to the yellow-white Drosophila melanogaster.
T
T +141%
-68%
T
* Two trials; Each trial done in duplicate; SD shown on bars
Original ETC Assay readings in nmol/min/mg protein;
converted to percentages to adjust for Citrate
Synthase variations
T
+151%
T
-69%
Charts conceived and created by researcher
T

22. CONCLUSIONS
Hypothesis 1: STRONGLY SUPPORTED. The Alzheimer flies had a 40% decrease in lifespan
compared to the Yellow Whites. But it was found that the Aβ42-GCLc group had a 28%
increased lifespan compared to the Aβ42 group! The increased average lifespan was found
significant at the 99% confidence level.
Hypothesis 2: STRONGLY SUPPORTED. The Alzheimer flies had a 62% decrease in lifespan
when stressed. But the Aβ42-GCLc group under stress had an increase of 136% in lifespan
compared to the stressed Alzheimer’s group! The increased average lifespan was found
significant at the 99% confidence level.
Hypothesis 3: SUPPORTED. The Mitochondrial activities in all four complexes tested were
significantly lower in the Alzheimer flies compared to the yw, reduced by 34-69%. But in each
complex tested, the Aβ42-GCLc flies enzyme activity increased 63-151% compared to the
Alzheimer’s flies! In complex I+III and IV, the enzyme activities in Aβ42-GCLc flies were even
higher than the YW flies, suggesting increased protection for mtDNA.
The research findings underscore the importance of an integrated model on Alzheimer’s and the
key role of antioxidant genes, like GCLc in redox stress management. The dramatic change in
lifespan and mitochondrial function when Glutathione was increased in the Alzheimer’s flies
(Aβ42-GCLc), opens new research avenues in the field of antioxidants in Alzheimer’s as
preventive and therapeutic agents.
AD therapies designed to reduce Aβ42 thus far have had very limited clinical benefits. This
research identifies alternative therapeutic targets. Since it is increasingly accepted that
mitochondria play an important role in the late-onset forms Alzheimer’s, this could potentially
advance our understanding especially of sporadic, late-onset AD, making mitochondria an
ideal diagnostic and therapeutic target. This is consistent with the Mitochondrial Cascade
Hypothesis.
This study also shows that novel animal models such as Aβ42-GCLc are valuable tools in
investigating AD diagnostics and therapies. 22

23. SCIENTIFIC INSIGHTS
This study offers support for an integrated approach toward Alzheimer’s. An
improper mitochondrial complex function leads to a decreased mitochondrial
membrane potential of the organelle impairing ATP formation. Increased ROS
levels act at multiple levels to impair mitochondrial function, and increase
Amyloid accumulation.
Also the critical role of mitochondria in the early pathogenesis of AD may make
them attractive as a preferential target for treatment strategies. In view of the
increasing interest in mitochondrial protection as a treatment strategy in
dementia, besides strategies with regard to the treatment and/or removal of both
Aβ and tau pathology, the findings of a substantial protection of mitochondria
against Aβ-induced dysfunction deserve further attention.
This project underscores efforts to develop therapies aimed at modulating GSH
levels so as to modulate disease risk and progression. Increasing the neuronal
GSH level, whether endogenously or exogenously, would prevent the
progression of Alzheimer’s by protecting against oxidative stress. It is unclear
whether exogenous GSH supplements are clinically effective, whereas genetic
pathways inducing GSH synthesis might be an alternative strategy against neuro-
degenerative diseases.
23

24. APPLICATIONS
This research has medical implications for diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of Alzheimer’s.
Diagnostic tools can be developed to map mitochondrial function and test enzymatic assay levels
as a biomarker for susceptibility to disease. Biotechnology research may be developed and
targeted at the 15 million Americans who are at risk of Alzheimer’s.
a.This research confirmed the importance of redox stress on health and longevity. Antioxidant genes like
GCLc may be able to mitigate some of the negative effects of stress on health and longevity, especially in
people with neurodegenerative diseases of aging.
b.People with Alzheimer’s with decreased Glutathione levels may have a decreased innate capacity to
withstand stress. Over-expressing the GCLc genes through epigenetic intervention may be a potential
Biotechnology application for the future.
c.Physicians may want to test serum Glutathione levels in patients who suffer from stress, sleep
deprivation and Alzheimer’s. As Glutathione oxidizes quickly outside the body, blood tests may not reveal
the antioxidant deficiency; this research suggests that genetic testing may produce more reliable results.
d.We need 250 milligrams of Glutathione a day; the average American consumes less than 35 mg! Over
the counter, Glutathione supplements could substitute the 60 million prescriptions every year for sleep
disorders and may be a valuable supplement in delaying Alzheimer’s disease.
e.As Glutathione is not absorbed well into the body, Glutathione precursors such as N-acetyl-cysteine
(NAC), Selenium and Vitamin C may be taken. Glutathione-rich foods such as asparagus, mangoes, eggs,
garlic and whey protein would also help.
f.Future studies may explore genetic intervention in the brain to treat Alzheimer’s. Increasing Glutathione
(GSH) levels in the brain by exploring new molecular targets and transcription factors may be a focus
area for such research.
24

25. AD DIAGNOSIS: CURRENT VS. PROPOSED
BIOMARKERS FOR AD > CURRENT - PROPOSED
Plasma Biomarkers: ApoE
MILD COGNITIVE Age, Genetics,
genotype status; Plasma Abeta
1 IM PAIRMENT: metabolic, traumatic
Risk Factors Biomarkers
Beta Amyloid Cleaving Mitochondrial
Enzyme (BACE1) Cerebrospinal Fluid Biomarkers Dysfunction using ETC
MILD AD: Early Enzymatic Assays
2 Molecular activity; Brain Abeta; such as T-tau, P-tau and Abeta42
Mechanisms Tau
Complex I+III: NADH-
Cytochrome C Reductase
Complex II: Succinate-
CoQ Reductase
Complex II+III:
Ubiquinol - Cytochrome
Cerebrospinal Fluid Biomarkers C Reductase
MODERATE AD: Tau, Neurofibrillary Complex IV:
such as T-tau, P-tau and Abeta42
3 Neuro- degeneration Tangles, Volume loss Cytochrome C Oxidase
Biomarkers
SEVERE AD: Tau, Neurofibrillary Cerebrospinal Fluid Biomarkers
4 Neuro- degeneration Tangles, Volume loss such as T-tau, P-tau and Abeta42
Biomarkers
Source: Adapted from Hampel, H et al. (2011), Biomarkers for Alzheimer’s disease therapeutic
trials, Progress in Neurobiology 95 (2011) 579–593.

26. AD TREATMENT: CURRENT VS. PROPOSED
THERAPEUTIC TARGETS FOR AD > CURRENT - PROPOSED
MITOCHONDRIAL
1 DY SFUNCTION MitoQ; CoQ10; Creatine; Idebenone, SS31
2 OXIDATIVE Vitamin E; Vitamin C; Melatonin; Pycnogenol;
STRESS SOD2
GCLc-Glutathione
Pathway targeted on
Mitochondria:
Anti-Abeta – Rifampicin; 8-hidroxy-3R-methyl-2R, • Gene Regulation
AMYLOID
3 TOXICITY Type IV collagen; Danuomycin; Fullerine; Tannic
acid; Savianolic acid • Epigenetics
• Gene Therapy
Hormone therapy using Estrogen; Gene therapy
4 OTHER
using Lentiviral vectors; Stem cell transplantation;
Neurosteroids; NMDA receptor antagonists –
Memantine; Prednisone.
Source: Tarawneh R and Galvin JE (2010), Potential Future Neuroprotective Therapies For Neurodegnerative Disorders, Clinical
Geriatric Medicine, February; 26 (1): 125-147.
Bolognesi ML, Matera R, Minarini A et al. (2009) Alzheimer’s Disease: New Approaches to Drug Discovery. Current Opinions in
Chemical Biology 2009; 13:303.

27. REFERENCES & ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
James Michael Luchak,
This research was made possible with the Baylor Genetics Laboratory.
access to the Genetics Labs at three research
institutions.
The project idea, research design and Professor Lee-Jun Wong,
methodology are original and independent, and Dept of Molecular Medicine.
not a part of any ongoing projects at any of
these institutions.
Professor Koichi Iijima,
A patent application has been filed by the Dept of Molecular Biology.
researcher with USPTO on the novel animal
model created for the project, and the
diagnostic tool proposed for Alzheimer's Professor. William Orr,
Disease based on the findings from this Chairman of the Dept of Biology.
research.
I thankfully acknowledge the guidance of the