This document provides an overview of radiation safety. It discusses the history of radiation and natural and man-made background sources. It also covers fundamentals, exposure limits and regulations, detection of radiation, safe practices, and biological effects. Specific topics include types of radiation, radioactive sources, allowable exposure limits, ensuring compliance, detection methods, and a summary of biological effects. The goal is to educate about radiation safety practices and regulations.

1. Radiation SafetyRadiation Safety
HAN 476HAN 476
Stony Brook UniversityStony Brook University
School of Health Technology and ManagementSchool of Health Technology and Management

2. OutlineOutline
 History of RadiationHistory of Radiation
 Natural & Man-Made Background Sources ofNatural & Man-Made Background Sources of
RadiationRadiation
 FundamentalsFundamentals
 Exposure Limits & RegulationsExposure Limits & Regulations
 Detection of RadiationDetection of Radiation
 Safe Practices with RadiationSafe Practices with Radiation
 Biological Effects of RadiationBiological Effects of Radiation
 Where to Find Further InformationWhere to Find Further Information

3. First Known Human Use ofFirst Known Human Use of
UraniumUranium
 79 A D79 A D
 Roman artisansRoman artisans
produce yellowproduce yellow
colored glass incolored glass in
mosaic mural nearmosaic mural near
Naples, ItalyNaples, Italy

4. Radium Effects ConfirmedRadium Effects Confirmed
 19251925
 Suspicions developSuspicions develop
around watch dialaround watch dial
painters’ jaw lesionspainters’ jaw lesions
 Dentists diagnose lesionsDentists diagnose lesions
as jaw necrosis due toas jaw necrosis due to
radium deposits in jawradium deposits in jaw
bonebone
 Doctor notes boneDoctor notes bone
changes and anemia inchanges and anemia in
dial paintersdial painters

5. What is Radiation?What is Radiation?
Radiation: energy in motion
Radioactivity: spontaneous emission of radiation from the
nucleus of an unstable atom
Isotope: atoms with the same number of protons, but different
number of neutrons
Radioisotope: unstable isotope of an element that decays or
disintegrates spontaneously, emitting radiation. Approximately
5,000 natural and artificial radioisotopes have been identified

6. Types of RadiationTypes of Radiation
Non-Ionizing Radiation: Radiation that does not have sufficient
energy to dislodge orbital electrons.
Examples of non-ionizing radiation: microwaves, ultraviolet
light, lasers, radio waves, infrared light, and radar.
Ionizing Radiation: Radiation that has sufficient energy to
dislodge orbital electrons.
Examples of ionizing radiation: alpha particles, beta particles,
neutrons, gamma rays, and x-rays.

7. Radiation SpectrumRadiation Spectrum

8. Radioactive
Waste
Radon
X-Rays
Consumer
Products
Nuclear
Power
Nuclear
Medicine
Solar Radiation
Cosmic Rays
Terrestrial
Radiation
Food &
Drink
Each
Other
4
2α ++
RADIOACTIVE SOURCESRADIOACTIVE SOURCES

9. Terrestrial RadiationTerrestrial Radiation
Common radionuclides created during formation of earth:
–Radioactive Potassium (K-40) found in bananas,
throughout the human body, in plant fertilizer and
anywhere else stable potassium exists.
–Radioactive Rubidium (Rb-87) is found in brazil nuts
among other things.
Terrestrial radiation comes from radioactivity emitting from
Primordial radio nuclides - these are radio nuclides left over
from when the earth was created.

10. Terrestrial RadiationTerrestrial Radiation
 Greatest contributor isGreatest contributor is 226226
Ra (Radium) withRa (Radium) with
significant levels also fromsignificant levels also from 238238
U,U, 232232
Th, andTh, and 4040
K.K.
 Igneous rock contains the highest concentrationIgneous rock contains the highest concentration
followed by sedimentary, sandstone and limestone.followed by sedimentary, sandstone and limestone.
 Fly ash from coal burning plants contains moreFly ash from coal burning plants contains more
radiation than that of nuclear or oil-fired plants.radiation than that of nuclear or oil-fired plants.
4
2α ++

11. Let’s Compare BackgroundsLet’s Compare Backgrounds
 Sea level - 30 mrem/yearSea level - 30 mrem/year
from cosmic radiationfrom cosmic radiation
 10,000 ft. altitude - 140 mrem/year10,000 ft. altitude - 140 mrem/year
from cosmic radiationfrom cosmic radiation

12. Consumer Products andConsumer Products and
Radioactive MaterialRadioactive Material
 There are more sources of radiation in theThere are more sources of radiation in the
consumer product category than in any other.consumer product category than in any other.
 Television sets - low energy x-rays.Television sets - low energy x-rays.
 Smoke detectorsSmoke detectors
 Some more products or services:Some more products or services:
treatment of agricultural products; longtreatment of agricultural products; long
lasting light bulbs; building materials;lasting light bulbs; building materials;
static eliminators in manufacturing; andstatic eliminators in manufacturing; and
luminous dials of watches, clocks andluminous dials of watches, clocks and
compassescompasses

13. Annual Dose from
Background Radiation
Total US average dose equivalent = 360 mrem/year
Total exposure Man-made sources
Radon
Internal 11%
Cosmic 8% Terrestrial 6%
Man-Made 18%
55.0%
Medical X-Rays
Nuclear
Medicine 4%
Consumer
Products 3%
Other 1%
11%

14. The Anatomy of the AtomThe Anatomy of the Atom

15. Ionizing radiationIonizing radiation
 Occurs from the addition or removal ofOccurs from the addition or removal of
electrons from neutral atomselectrons from neutral atoms
 Four main types of ionizing radiationFour main types of ionizing radiation
 alpha, beta, gamma and neutronsalpha, beta, gamma and neutrons
αα AlphaAlpha
ββ BetaBeta
γγ Gamma (X-ray)Gamma (X-ray)
nn NeutronNeutron

16. Linear Energy TransferLinear Energy Transfer

17. ALARAALARA
 AAss LLowow AAss RReasonablyeasonably AAchievablechievable
 How?How?
 TimeTime
 DistanceDistance
 ShieldingShielding
 Why?Why?
 Minimize DoseMinimize Dose

18. TimeTime
 Less time = Less radiation exposureLess time = Less radiation exposure
 Use RAM only when necessaryUse RAM only when necessary
 Dry runsDry runs (without radioactive material)(without radioactive material)
 Identify portions of the experiment that can be altered in order toIdentify portions of the experiment that can be altered in order to
decrease exposure timesdecrease exposure times
 Shorten time when near RAMShorten time when near RAM
 Obtaining higher doses in order to get anObtaining higher doses in order to get an
experiment done quicker is NOT “reasonable”!experiment done quicker is NOT “reasonable”!

19. DistanceDistance
 Effective & EasyEffective & Easy
 Inverse Square LawInverse Square Law
 Doubling distance from source,Doubling distance from source,
decreases dose by factor of fourdecreases dose by factor of four
 Tripling it decreases dose nine-foldTripling it decreases dose nine-fold
 More Distance = Less RadiationMore Distance = Less Radiation
ExposureExposure
 Tongs, Tweezers, Pipettes, PliersTongs, Tweezers, Pipettes, Pliers

20. ShieldingShielding
 Materials “absorb” radiationMaterials “absorb” radiation
 Proper shielding = LessProper shielding = Less
Radiation ExposureRadiation Exposure
 Plexiglass vs. LeadPlexiglass vs. Lead

21. Shielding ExamplesShielding Examples

22. •
 Shielding used whereShielding used where
appropriateappropriate
 Significantly reducesSignificantly reduces
radiation effectsradiation effects
LeadLead
PlexiglasPlexiglas
RadiationRadiation
ShieldingShielding

23.  Radiation use will be labeledlabeled on door, work area & storage area
 Research laboratories work with very low levels of radioactive materials
 Safety can check for potential contamination prior to work in a lab that
uses radioactive materials
 As a precaution: wear gloves, safety glasses and wash handswear gloves, safety glasses and wash hands
Radiation PostingsRadiation Postings

24. Inappropriate Lab AttireInappropriate Lab Attire

25. Appropriate Lab AttireAppropriate Lab Attire
 Lab coatLab coat
 Eye protectionEye protection
 Closed toe shoesClosed toe shoes
 Personnel monitoringPersonnel monitoring
 GlovesGloves

26. Route of Entry for ExposureRoute of Entry for Exposure

27. Laboratory Wipe TestsLaboratory Wipe Tests
 Fill out form RS-8Fill out form RS-8
 Draw map of laboratoryDraw map of laboratory
 Take wipes of surfaces (10 cmTake wipes of surfaces (10 cm22
) throughout lab) throughout lab
 Run wipesRun wipes monthlymonthly for possible contaminationfor possible contamination
 Document all information on form and place inDocument all information on form and place in
Radiation Safety BinderRadiation Safety Binder

28. Common UnitsCommon Units
 RadioactivityRadioactivity
 ExposureExposure
 Absorbed DoseAbsorbed Dose
 Dose EquivalentDose Equivalent
Units are Cool

29. RadioactivityRadioactivity
 Rate of Decay / Potential to DecayRate of Decay / Potential to Decay
 ““Strength”Strength”
 Curie (Ci) - 1 gram of radiumCurie (Ci) - 1 gram of radium
disintegratesdisintegrates
 3.7 X 103.7 X 101010
disintegration/disintegration/
second (dps)second (dps)
 Becquerel (Bq)Becquerel (Bq)
= 1 disintegration/second (dps)= 1 disintegration/second (dps)
 1 mCi = 37 MBq1 mCi = 37 MBq

30. ExposureExposure
 Radioactivity is measured in Roentgens (R)Radioactivity is measured in Roentgens (R)
 Charge produced in air from ionization byCharge produced in air from ionization by
gamma and x-raysgamma and x-rays
 ONLY for photons in airONLY for photons in air
 Rather infrequently used unitRather infrequently used unit
 A measure of what is emittedA measure of what is emitted

31. Absorbed DoseAbsorbed Dose
 Energy deposited by any form of ionizingEnergy deposited by any form of ionizing
radiation in a unit mass of materialradiation in a unit mass of material
 Roentgen Absorbed Dose (rad)Roentgen Absorbed Dose (rad)
 Gray (Gy)Gray (Gy)
 1 Gy = 100 rad1 Gy = 100 rad

32. Dose EquivalentDose Equivalent
 Scale for equating relative hazards ofScale for equating relative hazards of
various types of ionization in terms ofvarious types of ionization in terms of
equivalent riskequivalent risk
 Damage in tissue measured inDamage in tissue measured in remrem

(Roentgen Equivalent Man)(Roentgen Equivalent Man)
 Q:risk of biological injuryQ:risk of biological injury
 rem = Q * radrem = Q * rad
 Sievert (Sv)Sievert (Sv)
 1 Sv = 100 rem1 Sv = 100 rem

33. What do we really need toWhat do we really need to
know?know?
 1 R1 R ≈≈ 1 rad = 1 rem1 rad = 1 rem
 For gammas & betas*For gammas & betas*
 1 rad1 rad ≠≠ 1 rem1 rem
 For alphas, neutrons & protonsFor alphas, neutrons & protons
 1 rem = 1 rad * Q1 rem = 1 rad * Q

34. And why do we want to know it?And why do we want to know it?
 Dosage and dosimetry are measuredDosage and dosimetry are measured
andand reported in rems.reported in rems.
 All the Federal and State regulations areAll the Federal and State regulations are
written in rems.written in rems.
 The regulators must be placated withThe regulators must be placated with
reports in rems.reports in rems.

35. Annual Radiation ExposureAnnual Radiation Exposure
LimitsLimits
Occupationally Exposed Worker:Occupationally Exposed Worker:
remrem mremmrem
Whole bodyWhole body 55 50005000
EyeEye 1515 15,00015,000
ShallowShallow 5050 50,00050,000
MinorMinor 0.50.5 500500
Pregnant WorkerPregnant Worker 0.5*0.5* 500*500*
_____________*9_____________*9
months_months_

36. Why Establish OccupationalWhy Establish Occupational
Exposure Limits?Exposure Limits?
 We want to eliminate ability ofWe want to eliminate ability of
non-stochastic effectsnon-stochastic effects (Acute) to(Acute) to
occuroccur
 Example: Skin ReddeningExample: Skin Reddening
 We want to reduce theWe want to reduce the
probability of the occurrence ofprobability of the occurrence of
stochastic effectsstochastic effects (Chronic)(Chronic)
to same level as otherto same level as other
occupationsoccupations
 Example: LeukemiaExample: Leukemia
 Established fromEstablished from
Accident DataAccident Data

37. Whole BodyWhole Body
 Total Effective Dose Equivalent (TEDE)Total Effective Dose Equivalent (TEDE)
 TEDE = Internal + ExternalTEDE = Internal + External
 Assume Internal Contribution ZeroAssume Internal Contribution Zero
 Unless Ingestion, Absorption or InhalationUnless Ingestion, Absorption or Inhalation
SuspectedSuspected
 Limit = 5 rem / yrLimit = 5 rem / yr

38. Ensuring Compliance toEnsuring Compliance to
Radiation Exposure LimitsRadiation Exposure Limits
 Use the established activity limit for each isotopeUse the established activity limit for each isotope
 Compare with similar situationsCompare with similar situations
 Estimate with meterEstimate with meter
 CalculateCalculate
 Time, Distance, Shielding, Type, Energy, GeometryTime, Distance, Shielding, Type, Energy, Geometry
 MeasureMeasure
 TLD Chip, LuxelTLD Chip, Luxel
 BioassayBioassay

39. Who should wear radiationWho should wear radiation
dosimeters or badges?dosimeters or badges?
 Those “likely” to exceed 10% of theirThose “likely” to exceed 10% of their
annual limit are requiredannual limit are required
 Those who would like a badgeThose who would like a badge
 Minors & Declared Pregnant Workers*Minors & Declared Pregnant Workers*

40. Types of Badges AvailableTypes of Badges Available

41. Rules, Rights & Responsibilities asRules, Rights & Responsibilities as
a Radiation Workera Radiation Worker
 Department of State Health ServicesDepartment of State Health Services
 Radiation ControlRadiation Control
 Texas Regulations for Control ofTexas Regulations for Control of
RadiationRadiation
 In Accordance with Texas RadiationIn Accordance with Texas Radiation
Control Act, Health & Safety Code, ChControl Act, Health & Safety Code, Ch
401401
 25 TAC (Texas Administrative Code) 28925 TAC (Texas Administrative Code) 289

42. Detection of RadiationDetection of Radiation

43. Radiation DetectorsRadiation Detectors
 General Classes ofGeneral Classes of
DetectorsDetectors
 Gas-Filled DetectorsGas-Filled Detectors
 Solid DetectorsSolid Detectors
 Liquid DetectorsLiquid Detectors

44. Gas-Filled DetectorsGas-Filled Detectors
 Proportional CounterProportional Counter
 Ion ChambersIon Chambers
 Geiger-MuellerGeiger-Mueller
CountersCounters
 Main Difference -Main Difference -
ChargeCharge
MultiplicationMultiplication

45. Liquid Scintillation Counter (LSC)Liquid Scintillation Counter (LSC)

47. More Radiation MisconceptionsMore Radiation Misconceptions
 Radiation does not
give you super human
powers
 Radiation will not
make you glow in
the dark

48. Summary of Biological EffectsSummary of Biological Effects
of Radiationof Radiation
 Radiation may…Radiation may…
 Deposit Energy in BodyDeposit Energy in Body
 Cause DNA DamageCause DNA Damage
 Create Ionizations in BodyCreate Ionizations in Body
 Leading to Free RadicalsLeading to Free Radicals
 Which may lead to biological damageWhich may lead to biological damage

49. Radiation Effects on CellsRadiation Effects on Cells
 Radio sensitivity Theory of Bergonie &Radio sensitivity Theory of Bergonie &
Tribondeau.Tribondeau.
 Cell are radiosensitive if they :Cell are radiosensitive if they :
 Have a high division rateHave a high division rate
 Have a long dividing futureHave a long dividing future
 Are of an unspecialized typeAre of an unspecialized type
 These are the underlying premise for ALARAThese are the underlying premise for ALARA

50. Response to radiation depends on:Response to radiation depends on:
 Total doseTotal dose
 Dose rateDose rate
 Radiation qualityRadiation quality
 Stage of development at the time ofStage of development at the time of
exposureexposure

51. Whole Body EffectsWhole Body Effects
 Acute or NonstochasticAcute or Nonstochastic
 Occur when the radiation dose is large enough toOccur when the radiation dose is large enough to
cause extensive biological damage to cells so thatcause extensive biological damage to cells so that
large numbers of cells die off.large numbers of cells die off.
 Evident hours to a few months after exposure (Early).Evident hours to a few months after exposure (Early).
 Late or Stochastic (Delayed)Late or Stochastic (Delayed)
 Exhibit themselves over years after acute exposure.Exhibit themselves over years after acute exposure.
 GeneticGenetic
 SomaticSomatic
 TeratogenicTeratogenic

52. Most and Least Radiosensitive CellsMost and Least Radiosensitive Cells
Low SensitivityLow Sensitivity Mature red blood cellsMature red blood cells
Muscle cellsMuscle cells
Ganglion cellsGanglion cells
Mature connective tissuesMature connective tissues
High SensitivityHigh Sensitivity Gastric mucosaGastric mucosa
Mucous membranesMucous membranes
Esophageal epitheliumEsophageal epithelium
Urinary bladder epitheliumUrinary bladder epithelium
Very High SensitivityVery High Sensitivity Primitive blood cellsPrimitive blood cells
Intestinal epitheliumIntestinal epithelium
SpermatogoniaSpermatogonia
Ovarian follicular cellsOvarian follicular cells
LymphocytesLymphocytes

53. Comparison of Administrative, Regulatory andComparison of Administrative, Regulatory and
Biological Effect DosesBiological Effect Doses
100% of People Die,100% of People Die,
CNS SyndromeCNS Syndrome
Permanent InfertilityPermanent Infertility
Whole Body Regulatory Limit (5 rem/yr)Whole Body Regulatory Limit (5 rem/yr)Eye Regulatory Limit (15 rem/yr)Eye Regulatory Limit (15 rem/yr)
50% of People Die (450 – 500 rad)50% of People Die (450 – 500 rad)
Nausea & Vomiting (10% of People)Nausea & Vomiting (10% of People)
Whole Body UTHSCH AdministrativeWhole Body UTHSCH Administrative
Limit (0.125 rem/month)Limit (0.125 rem/month)
Whole Body ExposureWhole Body ExposurePartial Body ExposurePartial Body Exposure
Extremities Regulatory Limit (50 rem/yr)Extremities Regulatory Limit (50 rem/yr)
Eye UTHSCH AdministrativeEye UTHSCH Administrative
Limit (0.375 rem/month)Limit (0.375 rem/month)
Rad or RemRad or Rem
Extremities UTHSCH AdministrativeExtremities UTHSCH Administrative
Limit (1.275 rem/month)Limit (1.275 rem/month)
General Public Whole Body RegulatoryGeneral Public Whole Body Regulatory
Limit (0.100 rem/yr)Limit (0.100 rem/yr)
No Clinical Symptoms Seen Below 10 remNo Clinical Symptoms Seen Below 10 rem
Cataract FormationCataract Formation
Loss of HairLoss of Hair
Skin ReddeningSkin Reddening
Decreased White Blood Cell CountDecreased White Blood Cell Count
Ulcers on the SkinUlcers on the Skin
Molecular Death (> 100,000 rad)Molecular Death (> 100,000 rad)
Gastrointestinal SyndromeGastrointestinal Syndrome

54. Medical TreatmentMedical Treatment
 External DecontaminationExternal Decontamination
 Mild cleaning solution applied toMild cleaning solution applied to
intact skinintact skin
 Betadine, Soap, Rad-Con for handsBetadine, Soap, Rad-Con for hands
 Never use harsh abrasive or steelNever use harsh abrasive or steel
woolwool
 Internal DecontaminationInternal Decontamination
 Treatment which enhancesTreatment which enhances
excretion of radionuclidesexcretion of radionuclides

55. How Often Does This Happen?How Often Does This Happen?
Results of reported exposure-related incidents in TexasResults of reported exposure-related incidents in Texas
1956 – 20001956 – 2000
Source: Emery, et. al.Source: Emery, et. al.
Only 2% at theOnly 2% at the
Level that ClinicalLevel that Clinical
Effects FromEffects From
Radiation Can beRadiation Can be
SeenSeen
(n=3,148)