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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006
Learning
Chapter Five
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Slide author:
Cynthia K.
Shinabarger Reed
Book authors:
Samuel Wood
Ellen G. Wood
Denise Boyd

Chapter Five Overview
Classical Conditioning: The Original View
• Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
• The Process of Classical Conditioning
• Changing Conditioned Responses
• John Watson and Emotional Conditioning

Classical Conditioning: The Contemporary
View
• The Cognitive Perspective
• Biological Predispositions
• Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life
• Factors Influencing Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning
• Thorndike and the Law of Effect
• B.F. Skinner: A Pioneer in Operant Conditioning
• The Process of Operant Conditioning
• Reinforcement
• Schedules of Reinforcement

Operant Conditioning (continued)
• Factors Influencing Operant Conditioning
• Punishment
• Escape and Avoidance Learning
• Applications of Operant Conditioning

Cognitive Learning
• Learning by Insight
• Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps
• Observational Learning

Learning
• A relatively permanent change in
behavior, knowledge, capability, or
attitude that is acquired through
experience and cannot be attributed to
illness, injury, or maturation

Classical Conditioning
• Classical conditioning is a type of learning
through which an organism learns to associate
one stimulus with another.
• Stimulus (the plural is stimuli): any event or
object in the environment to which an organism
responds.
• Classical conditioning is sometimes referred to
as respondent conditioning, or Pavlovian
conditioning.

Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
• Ivan Pavlov organized and directed
research in physiology at the Institute of
Experimental Medicine in St. Petersburg,
Russia, from 1891 until his death 45 years
later.
• The Institute of Experimental Medicine is
where he conducted his classic
experiments on the physiology of
digestion, which won him a Nobel Prize in
1904.

Classical Conditioning: The Original
View
Pavlov and Classical Conditioning (continued)
• Pavlov conducted a study on dogs where he
collected the saliva that the dogs would
secrete naturally in response to food placed
inside the mouth; he observed saliva
collecting when the dogs heard their food
dishes rattling, when they heard the
laboratory assistants coming to feed them,
and when they saw the attendant who fed
them.

Pavlov and Classical Conditioning (continued)
Ivan Pavlov’s laboratory
• The dogs were isolated inside
soundproof cubicles and placed in
harnesses to restrain their movements.
• The experimenter observed the dogs
through a one-way mirror.
• Food and other stimuli were presented
and the flow of saliva measured by
remote control.

The Process of Classical Conditioning
• Reflex: an involuntary response to a particular
stimulus, such as the eyeblink response to a
puff of air or salivation when food is placed in
the mouth
• Two types of reflexes
• Conditioned reflexes (learned): a
learned reflex rather than a naturally
occurring one.
• Unconditioned reflexes (unlearned):
inborn, automatic, unlearned response to
a particular stimulus.

View
The Conditioned and Unconditioned Stimulus
and Response
• Pavlov used tones, bells, buzzers, lights,
geometric shapes, electric shocks, and
metronomes in his conditioning experiments.
• Food powder was placed in the dog’s mouth,
causing salivation.
• Because dogs do not need to be conditioned to
salivate to food, salivation to food is an
unlearned response.

The Conditioned and Unconditioned
Stimulus and Response (continued)
• Unconditioned response (UR): a
response that is elicited by an
unconditioned stimulus without prior
learning.
• Unconditioned stimulus (US): any
stimulus, such as food, that without prior
learning will automatically elicit, or bring
forth, an unconditioned response.

The Conditioned and Unconditioned Stimulus and
Response (continued)
• Pavlov demonstrated that dogs could be
conditioned to salivate to a variety of stimuli never
before associated with food.
• During the conditioning process, the researcher
would present a neutral stimulus such as a musical
tone shortly before placing the food powder in the
dog’s mouth.
• Pavlov found that after the tone and the food were
paired many times, usually 20 or more, the tone
alone would elicit salivation.

View
The Conditioned and Unconditioned Stimulus
and Response (continued)
• Conditioned stimulus (CS): a neutral stimulus
that, after repeated pairing with an
unconditioned stimulus, becomes associated
with it and elicits a conditioned response.
• Conditioned response (CR): the learned
response that comes to be elicited by a
conditioned stimulus as a result of its repeated
pairing with an unconditioned stimulus.

Higher-order conditioning
• Conditioning that occurs when
conditioned stimuli are linked
together to form a series of
signals

Changing Conditioned Responses
• Extinction: in classical conditioning, the
weakening and eventual disappearance of a
conditioned response as a result of
repeated presentation of the conditioned
stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus.
• Spontaneous recovery: the reappearance
of an extinguished response (in a weaker
form) when an organism is exposed to the
original conditioned stimulus following a rest
period.

Changing Conditioned Responses (continued)
• When a conditioned response is extinguished in
one setting, it can still be elicited in other settings
where extinction training has not occurred.
• Pavlov found that a tone similar to the original
conditioned stimulus would produce the
conditioned response (salivation).
• Generalization: in classical conditioning, the
tendency to make a conditioned response to a
stimulus similar to the original conditioned
stimulus.

Changing Conditioned Responses
(continued)
• Discrimination: the learned ability to
distinguish between similar stimuli so that
the conditioned response occurs only to the
original conditioned stimulus, but not to
similar stimuli.
• Generalization and discrimination have
survival value.
• Discriminating between a rattlesnake and a
garter snake could save your life.

John Watson and Emotional Conditioning
• John Watson and his assistant, Rosalie
Rayner, conducted a study to prove that
fear could be classically conditioned.
• The subject of the study, known as Little
Albert, was a healthy and emotionally stable
11-month-old infant.
• Little Albert showed no fear except of the
loud noise Watson made by striking a
hammer against a steel bar near Albert’s
head.

John Watson and Emotional Conditioning
(continued)
• Rayner presented Little Albert with a white
rat; as Albert reached for the rat, Watson
struck the steel bar with a hammer.
• This procedure was repeated several times.
• This procedure caused Albert to begin to
cry at the sight of a rat.

John Watson and Emotional
Conditioning (continued)
• Watson also had ideas for removing
fears and laid the groundwork for
some behavior therapies used today.
• Watson and a colleague, Mary Cover
Jones, found 3-year-old Peter, who
was afraid of rabbits, and tried
Watson's fear-removal techniques on
him.

John Watson and Emotional
Conditioning (continued)
• Peter was put in a high chair and given
candy while a rabbit was in a cage at a
safe distance from him.
• The rabbit was moved closer with each
session and eventually placed in Peter’s
lap.
• By the final session, Peter had grown
fond of the rabbit.

Classical Conditioning:
The Contemporary View
The Cognitive Perspective
• Robert Rescorla is largely responsible for
changing how psychologists view classical
conditioning.
• Rescorla demonstrated that the critical element in
classical conditioning is not the repeated pairing
of the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned
stimulus.
• Rather, the important factor is whether the
conditioned stimulus provides information that
enables the organism to reliably predict the
occurrence of the unconditioned stimulus.

The Cognitive Perspective (continued)
• Using rats as his subjects, Rescorla used a
tone as the conditioned stimulus and a shock
as the unconditioned stimulus.
• For one group of rats, the tone and shock were
paired 20 times – the shock always occurred
during the tone.
• The other group of rats also received a shock
20 times while the tone was sounding, but this
group also received 20 shocks that were not
paired with the tone.

The Cognitive Perspective (continued)
• Only the first group, for which the tone
was a reliable predictor of the shock,
developed a conditioned fear response
to the tone.
• The second group showed little evidence
of conditioning, because the shock was
just as likely to occur without the tone as
with it.

Biological Predispositions
• Research has shown that humans are more
easily conditioned to fear stimuli, such as snakes,
that can have very real negative effects on their
well-being
• Martin Seligman said that most common fears
“are related to the survival of the human species
through the long course of evolution.”
• He suggested that humans and other animals are
prepared to associate only certain stimuli with
particular consequences.

Biological Predispositions (continued)
• Taste aversions: the intense dislike and/or
avoidance of particular foods that have
been associated with nausea or discomfort.
• Taste aversions can be classically
conditioned when the delay between the
conditioned stimulus (food or drink) and the
unconditioned stimulus (nausea) is as long
as 12 hours.

• Garcia and Koelling exposed rats to a three-
way conditioned stimulus: a bright light, a
clicking noise, and flavored water.
• For one group of rats, the unconditioned
stimulus was being exposed to X-rays or
lithium chloride, either of which produces
nausea and vomiting several hours after
exposure; for the other group, the
unconditioned stimulus was an electric
shock to the feet.

Biological Predispositions
(continued)
• The rats in one group associated
nausea only with the flavored water;
those in the other group associated
electric shock only with the light and
the sound.

• Garcia and Koelling’s research established two
exceptions to traditional ideas of classical
conditioning.
– First, the finding that rats formed an
association between nausea and flavored
water ingested several hours earlier
contradicted the principle that the conditioned
stimulus must be presented shortly before the
unconditioned stimulus.

– Second, the finding that rats associated
electric shock only with noise and light and
nausea only with flavored water revealed that
animals are apparently biologically
predisposed to make certain associations and
that associations cannot be readily
conditioned between just any two stimuli.

• Gustavson and others used taste aversion
conditioning to stop wild coyotes from attacking
lambs in the western United States.
• They set out lamb flesh laced with lithium
chloride, a poison that made the coyotes
extremely ill, but was not fatal.
• After only one or two experiences, the coyotes
would get sick even at the sight of a lamb.

• Bernstein and others devised a
technique to help cancer patients avoid
developing aversions to desirable foods.
• A group of cancer patients were given a
novel-tasting, maple-flavored ice cream
before chemotherapy.

• The nausea caused by the treatment
resulted in a taste aversion to the ice
cream.
• Researchers found that when an unusual or
unfamiliar food becomes the “scapegoat,” or
target for a taste aversion, other foods in
the patient's diet may be protected and the
patient will continue to eat them regularly.

Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life
• Research suggests that the inability to acquire
classically conditioned responses may be the
first sign of Alzheimer’s disease, a sign that
appears prior to any memory loss.
• Through classical conditioning, environmental
cues associated with drug use can become
conditioned stimuli and later produce the
conditioned responses of drug craving.

(continued)
• Research indicates that even the immune
system is subject to classical conditioning.
• In the mid-1970s Robert Ader was
conducting an experiment with rats,
conditioning them to avoid saccharin-
sweetened water.
• After drinking the sweet water, the rats
were injected with a tasteless drug that
causes severe nausea.

(continued)
• The conditioning worked, and the rats would
not drink sweet water.
• Attempting to reverse the conditioned response,
Ader had to force-feed the sweet water to the
rats for many days; many of them died.
• Ader learned that the tasteless drug suppresses
the immune system.

Classical conditioning in everyday life
(continued)
• A few doses of an immune-suppressing
drug paired with sweetened water had
produced a conditioned response.
• As a result, the sweet water alone continued
to suppress the immune system, causing
the rats to die.

(continued)
• Bovbjerg and others found that in some cancer
patients undergoing chemotherapy, environmental
cues in the treatment setting eventually came to
elicit nausea and immune suppression.
• Other researchers showed that classical
conditioning could be used to suppress the immune
system in order to prolong the survival of mice
heart tissue transplants.
• Classically conditioned stimuli can also be used to
boost the immune system.

Neurological Basis of Classical Conditioning
• An intact amygdala is required for the
conditioning of fear in both humans and
animals, and context fear conditioning also
depends on the hippocampus.
• Research clearly indicates that the cerebellum
is the essential brain structure for motor
(movement) conditioning and also the storage
site for the memory traces formed during such
conditioning.

Factors Influencing Classical Conditioning
• How reliably the conditioned stimulus
predicts the unconditioned stimulus
• The number of pairings of the conditioned
stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus
• The intensity of the unconditioned stimulus
• The temporal relationship between the
conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned
stimulus

Thorndike and the Law of Effect
• Edward Thorndike believed trial-and-
error learning was the basis of most
behavioral changes.
• Trial-and-error learning: learning
that occurs when a response is
associated with a successful solution
to a problem after a number of
unsuccessful responses.

Thorndike and the Law of Effect (continued)
• Law of effect: Thorndike’s law of learning,
which states that the consequence, or effect,
of a response will determine whether the
tendency to respond in the same way in the
future will be strengthened or weakened.
• In Thorndike’s best-known experiments, a
hungry cat was placed in a wooden box with
slats, which was called a puzzle box.

Thorndike and the Law of Effect (continued)
• The box was designed so that the animal had
to manipulate a simple mechanism – pressing
a pedal or pulling down a loop – to escape and
claim a food reward that lay just outside the
box.
• After many trials, the cat learned to open the
door almost immediately after being placed in
the box.

B.F. Skinner: A Pioneer in Operant
Conditioning
• Skinner believed that the causes of
behavior are in the environment and do not
result from inner mental events, such as
thoughts, feelings, or perceptions.
• He claimed that these inner mental events
are themselves behaviors and, like any
other behaviors, are shaped and
determined by environmental forces.

The Process of Operant Conditioning
• Operant conditioning: a type of learning in
which the consequences of behavior are
manipulated in order to increase or
decrease the frequency of an existing
response or to shape an entirely new
response.
• Reinforcer: anything that strengthens or
increases the probability of the response
that it follows.

Shaping Behavior
• Shaping: an operant conditioning technique
that consists of gradually molding a desired
behavior (response) by reinforcing any
movement in the direction of the desired
response, thereby gradually guiding the
responses toward the ultimate goal.
• B.F. Skinner demonstrated that shaping is
particularly effective in conditioning complex
behaviors.

Shaping Behavior (continued)
• Skinner box: a soundproof apparatus
with a device for delivering food to an
animal subject; designed by Skinner.
• Successive approximations: a
series of gradual steps, each of which
is more like the final desired response.

Superstitious Behavior
• Superstitious behavior occurs if an
individual falsely believes that a
connection exists between an act and
its consequences.
• It is not confined to humans.

Superstitious Behavior (continued)
• Skinner developed superstitious behavior in
pigeons by giving food rewards every 15
seconds regardless of the pigeons’ behavior.
• Whatever response the pigeons happened to be
making was reinforced, and before long each
pigeon developed its own ritual, such as turning
counterclockwise in the cage several times or
making pendulum movements with its head.

Extinction
• Extinction occurs when reinforcers are
withheld and the conditioned response
weakens and eventually disappears.
• In humans and other animals, the
withholding of reinforcement can lead to
frustration or even rage.
• Spontaneous recovery also occurs in
operant conditioning.

Generalization and Discrimination
• Skinner found that generalization occurs in
operant conditioning, just as in classical
conditioning.
• Discrimination in operant conditioning involves
learning to distinguish between a stimulus that
has been reinforced and other stimuli that may
be very similar.
• Discriminative stimulus: a stimulus that
signals whether a certain response or behavior
is likely to be rewarded, ignored, or punished.

Reinforcement
Positive and Negative Reinforcement
• Reinforcement: any event that follows a
response and strengthens or increases the
probability of the response being repeated.
• Positive reinforcement: any pleasant or
desirable consequence that follows a
response and increases the probability that
the response will be repeated.

Positive and Negative Reinforcement
(continued)
• Negative reinforcement: a person’s or
animal’s behavior is reinforced by the
termination or avoidance of an unpleasant
condition.

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
• Primary reinforcer: a reinforcer that
fulfills a basic physical need for
survival and does not depend on
learning.
• Food, water, sleep and termination of
pain are examples of primary
reinforcers.

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
(continued)
• Secondary reinforcer: a reinforcer that is
acquired or learned through association with
other reinforcers.
• Some secondary reinforcers (money, for
example) can be exchanged at a later time for
other reinforcers.

Schedules of Reinforcement
• Continuous reinforcement: reinforcement
that is administered after every desired or
correct response; the most effective method
of conditioning a new response.
• Partial reinforcement: a pattern of
reinforcement in which some, but not all,
correct responses are reinforced.

Schedules of Reinforcement (continued)
• Partial reinforcement may be
administered according to any of several
types of schedules of reinforcement.
• Different schedules produce distinct rates
and patterns of responses, as well as
varying degrees of resistance to
extinction when reinforcement is
discontinued.

(continued)
• Ratio schedules: require that a
certain number of responses be made
before one of the responses is
reinforced.
• Interval schedules: a given amount
of time must pass before a reinforcer
is administered.

(continued)
• Fixed-ratio schedule: A schedule in which
a reinforcer is given after a fixed number of
correct responses.
• The fixed-ratio schedule is a very effective
way to maintain a high response rate,
because the number of reinforcers depends
directly on the response rate.

• Variable-ratio schedule: a schedule in which a
reinforcer is given after a varying number of
nonreinforced responses based on an average
ratio.
• Variable-ratio schedules result in higher, more
stable rates of responding than fixed-ratio
schedules.
• In general, the variable-ratio schedule produces
the highest response rate and the most
resistance to extinction.

• Fixed-interval schedule: a schedule in which a
specific period of time must pass before a
response is reinforced.
• Reinforcement does not depend on the number
of responses made, only on the one correct
response made after the time interval has
passed.
• Characteristic of the fixed-interval schedule is a
pause or a sharp decline in responding
immediately after each reinforcement and a rapid
acceleration in responding just before the next
reinforcer is due.

• Variable-interval schedule: a schedule in which
a reinforcer is given after the first correct
response following a varying time of
nonreinforced responses, based on an average
time.
• This schedule maintains remarkably stable and
uniform rates of responding, but the response
rate is typically lower than that of the ratio
schedules, because reinforcement is not tied
directly to the number of responses made.

The Effect of Continuous and Partial
Reinforcement on Extinction
• On a continuous schedule, a reinforcer is expected
without fail after each correct response; when a
reinforcer is withheld, it is noticed immediately.
• On a partial-reinforcement schedule, a reinforcer is
not expected after every response; no immediate
difference is apparent between the partial-
reinforcement schedule and the onset of extinction.
• Partial reinforcement results in a greater resistance
to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

The Effect of Continuous and Partial
Reinforcement on Extinction
(continued)
• There is an inverse relationship between
the percentage of responses that have
been reinforced and resistance to
extinction.
• The lower the percentage of responses
that are reinforced, the longer extinction
will take when reinforcement is withheld.

Factors Influencing Operant
Conditioning
1. The magnitude of reinforcement
2. The immediacy of reinforcement
3. The level of motivation of the
learner

Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning
• Processes of generalization, discrimination,
extinction, and spontaneous recovery occur in
both classical and operant conditioning.
• Both types of conditioning depend on associative
learning.
• In classical conditioning, an association is formed
between two stimuli.
• In operant conditioning, the association is
established between a response and its
consequences.

Comparing Classical and Operant
Conditioning
• In classical conditioning, the focus is on what
precedes the response.
• In operant conditioning, the focus is on what
follows the response.
• In classical conditioning, the subject is passive
and responds to the environment rather than
acting on it.
• In operant conditioning, the subject is active
and operates on the environment.

Punishment
• Punishment is the opposite of
reinforcement.
• Punishment can be accomplished by
either adding an unpleasant stimulus or
removing a pleasant stimulus.
• It is common to confuse punishment and
negative reinforcement.

Punishment (continued)
• With punishment, an unpleasant condition
may be added, but with negative
reinforcement, an unpleasant condition is
terminated or avoided.
• The two have opposite effects.
• Unlike punishment, negative reinforcement
increases the probability of a desired
response.

Disadvantages of Punishment
1. According to Skinner, punishment
does not extinguish an undesirable
behavior; rather, it suppresses that
behavior when the punishing agent is
present. But the behavior is apt to
continue when the threat of
punishment is removed and in
settings where punishment is
unlikely.

Disadvantages of Punishment (continued)
2. Punishment indicates that a behavior is
unacceptable, but does not help people
develop more appropriate behaviors. If
punishment is used, it should be
administered in conjunction with
reinforcement or rewards for appropriate
behavior.

Disadvantages of Punishment (continued)
3. The person who is severely punished often
becomes fearful and feels angry and
hostile toward the punisher. These
reactions may be accompanied by a desire
to retaliate or to avoid or escape from the
punisher and the punishing situation.
4. Punishment frequently leads to
aggression. Those who administer
physical punishment may become models
of aggressive behavior.

Alternatives to Punishment
• Many psychologists believe that removing
the rewarding consequences of undesirable
behavior is the best way to extinguish a
problem behavior.
• Using positive reinforcement, such as
praise, will make good behavior more
rewarding for children.
• It is probably unrealistic to believe that
punishment will ever become unnecessary.

Making Punishment More Effective
1. Punishment is most effective when it is
applied during the misbehavior or as soon
afterward as possible. Interrupting the
problem behavior is most effective because
doing so abruptly halts its rewarding aspects.
2. Ideally, punishment should be of the minimum
severity necessary to suppress the problem
behavior. The intensity of the punishment
should match the seriousness of the misdeed.

Making Punishment More Effective
(continued)
3. To be effective, punishment must be
applied consistently. A parent cannot
ignore misbehavior one day and
punish the same act the next.

Culture and Punishment
• Punishment is used in every culture to
control and suppress people’s
behavior.
• U.S. citizens traveling in other
countries need to be aware of how
different cultures view and administer
punishment.

Culture and Punishment (continued)
• Michael Fay, an American living in Singapore,
was arrested and charged with 53 counts of
vandalism.
• He was fined approximately $2,000, sentenced
to 4 months in jail, and received four lashes
with a rattan cane, an agonizingly painful
experience.

Escape and Avoidance Learning
• Escape learning: learning to perform a
behavior because it prevents or terminates
an aversive event.
• Avoidance learning: learning to avoid
events or conditions associated with
aversive consequences or phobias.
• Many avoidance behaviors are maladaptive
and occur in response to phobias.

• Learned helplessness: a passive
resignation to aversive conditions,
learned by repeated exposure to
aversive events that are inescapable
or unavoidable.

• Overmeier and Seligman did an experiment
with dogs in which the dogs learned to be
helpless after exposure to inescapable
shocks.
• Seligman reasoned that humans who have
suffered painful experiences they could
neither avoid nor escape may also
experience learned helplessness.

Applications of Operant Conditioning
Shaping the behavior of animals
• The principles of operant conditioning
are used effectively to train animals
not only to perform entertaining tricks,
but also to help physically challenged
people lead more independent lives.

Applications of Operant Conditioning
Shaping the behavior of animals
• When an animal’s instinctual behavior
runs counter to the behavior being
conditioned, the animal will eventually
resume its instinctual behavior, a
phenomenon known as instinctual
drift.

Applications of operant conditioning
(continued)
Biofeedback
• Biofeedback is the use of sensitive equipment
to give people precise feedback about internal
physiological processes so that they can learn,
with practice, to exercise control over them.
• It has been used to regulate heart rate and to
control migraine and tension headaches,
gastrointestinal disorders, asthma, anxiety
tension states, epilepsy, sexual dysfunctions,
and neuromuscular disorders.

(continued)
Behavior modification
• Behavior modification is a method of
changing behavior through a systematic
program based on learning principles of
classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or
observational learning.
• Token economy: a program that motivates
socially desirable behavior by reinforcing it with
tokens that can later be exchanged for desired
items or privileges.

(continued)
Behavior modification (continued)
• Token economies have been used effectively in
mental hospitals to encourage patients to attend
to grooming, to interact with other patients, and to
carry out housekeeping tasks.
• Many classroom teachers and parents use time
out – a behavior modification technique in which
a child who is misbehaving is removed for a short
time from sources of positive reinforcement.

Cognitive Learning
• Cognitive processes: mental
processes such as thinking, knowing,
problem solving, remembering, and
forming mental representations.
• According to cognitive theorists, these
processes are critically important in a
more complete, more comprehensive
view of learning.

Cognitive Learning
Learning by Insight
• Wolfgang Köhler
• Wrote The Mentality of Apes
• Did experiments on chimpanzees confined
in caged areas
• Observed the chimps’ unsuccessful
attempts to reach a bunch of bananas
inside the caged area that were overhead,
out of reach of the chimps
• Eventually the chimps solved the problem
by piling the boxes one on top of the other
and climbing on the boxes until they could
reach the bananas

Cognitive Learning
Learning by Insight (continued)
• Insight: the sudden realization of the
relationship between elements in a problem
situation, which makes the solution apparent.
• A solution gained through insight is more
easily learned, less likely to be forgotten, and
more readily transferred to new problems
than a solution learned through rote
memorization.

Cognitive Learning
Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps
• Edward Tolman believed that learning could
take place without reinforcement.
• Latent learning is learning that occurs
without apparent reinforcement, but that is
not demonstrated until the organism is
motivated to do so.
• Cognitive map: a mental representation of
a spatial arrangement, such as a maze.

Cognitive Learning
Observational Learning
• Albert Bandura contends that many
behaviors or responses are acquired
through observational learning, or as he
more often calls it now, social-cognitive
learning.
• Observational learning (sometimes
called modeling): learning by observing
the behavior of others and the
consequences of that behavior; learning by
imitation.

Cognitive Learning
Observational Learning (continued)
• A model is the individual who
demonstrates a behavior or serves as
an example in observational learning.
• The effectiveness of a model is related
to his or her status, competence, and
power.

Cognitive Learning
• Recent research has also shown that
observational learning is improved when
several sessions of observation precede
attempts to perform the behavior and are
also repeated in the early stages of
practicing it.
• An observer must also be physically and
cognitively capable of performing the
behavior in order to learn it.

Cognitive Learning
• Modeling effect: learning a new behavior from a
model through the acquisition of new responses.
• Elicitation effect: exhibiting a behavior similar to
that of a model in an unfamiliar situation.
• Disinhibitory effect: displaying a previously
suppressed behavior because a model does so
without receiving punishment.
• Inhibitory effect: suppressing a behavior
because a model is punished for displaying the
behavior.

Cognitive Learning
Learning from Television and Other Media
• Albert Bandura
– Suspected that aggression and violence on
television programs tend to increase aggression
in children
– Demonstrated how children are influenced by
exposure to aggressive models
– His research sparked interest in studying the
effects of violence and aggression portrayed in
other entertainment media

Cognitive Learning
Learning from Television and Other Media
• Recently published longitudinal evidence
shows that the effects of childhood exposure
to violence persist well into the adult years.
• Just as children imitate the aggressive
behavior they observe on television, they also
imitate the prosocial, or helping, behavior
they see there.

Review of Learning Objectives
1. What kind of learning did Pavlov discover?
2. How is classical conditioning accomplished?
3. What kinds of changes in stimuli and learning
conditions lead to changes in conditioned
responses?
4. How did Watson demonstrate that fear could
be classically conditioned?

Classical Conditioning: The Contemporary
View
1. According to Rescorla, what is the critical
element in classical conditioning?
2. What did Garcia and Koelling discover about
classical conditioning?
3. What types of everyday responses can be
subject to classical conditioning?
4. Why doesn’t classical conditioning result every
time unconditioned and conditioned stimuli
occur together?

1. What did Thorndike conclude about learning by
watching cats try to escape from his puzzle
box?
2. What was Skinner’s major contribution to
psychology?
3. What is the process by which responses are
acquired through operant conditioning?
4. What is the goal of both positive reinforcement
and negative reinforcement, and how is that
goal accomplished with each?

5. What are the four types of schedules of
reinforcement, and which type is most effective?
6. Why don’t consequences always cause changes in
behavior?
7. How does punishment differ from negative
reinforcement?
8. When is avoidance learning desirable, and when is it
maladaptive?
9. What are some applications of operant conditioning?

Cognitive Learning
1. What is insight, and how does it affect
learning?
2. What did Tolman discover about the
necessity of reinforcement?
3. How do we learn by observing others?

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