1. [Slide 1: Title]
How can the concepts of order in creation and eschatological hope help in
an ethical response to the financial, economic and ecological crises?
Paper presented at International conference on the occasion of the 75th anniversary of the
Association for Reformational Philosophy, “The Future of Creation Order “, August 16 -19, 2011,
Free University Amsterdam, The Netherlands
by
Martin P. de Wit
School of Public Leadership
Faculty Economics and Management Sciences
Stellenbosch University
and
De Wit Sustainable Options (Pty) Ltd
[Slide 2: Outline of presentation]
In the ongoing quest for human autonomy and material progress, humanity has
reached a point of a deeply-rooted moral crises that keeps on eroding the
foundations of our economic culture and one that impacts heavily on the natural
environment in which we life. It is time for a deep reflection on the meaning of
Christian environmental ethics, to which this paper hopes to contribute. We will
contrast this approach to environmental ethics and ecological economic ethics.
The realisation that not only instrumental or even structural changes will be
enough, but that individual and communal responsibility is also important, is
back. New rules are drafted to limit carbon dioxide, whether one may drive an
SUV or not and which wood species to import. Businesses are urged to be
socially responsible, consumers to recycle and minimise. Ethics courses are back
in swing at Universities and business schools and some companies even have
Chief Ethics Officers. It is high time to reflect what a Christian environmental
ethics can bring to the table and what it means for the behaviour and lifestyles of
those who name themselves Christian.
In this presentation we will explore how the concepts of creation order, the
cosmos and eschatological hope for creation may be helpful in understanding
and formulating an ethical response to the financial, economic and ecological
crises.
The reason is that creation order in the literature of reformational philosophy,
and the cosmos and eschatology in the literature of eco-theology are treated as
important resources in constructing an ethical response to the ecological crises.
It is also in these areas that Christianity’s contribution to the ecological crises
was most severely critiqued. Lynn White, for example, argued that the biblical
view that humans are made in the image of God and are given dominion over the
earth introduced a dualism between humans and nature and a license for
exploitation. Ideas on what some Christians are expecting in the last days and
what they are hoping for are also argued to negatively influence views on
responding to the ecological crises.
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2. This critique has not gone unanswered, mostly apologetic reactions that the
Bible is in fact much more environmentally friendly than what it was given credit
for, leading for example to publications like the Green Bible. This argument is
not generally accepted though especially by those who argue for a more careful
reading of the Scriptures. Furthermore, the implication of the reformational
philosophical concept of creation order may be a promising resource to explore
in the formulation of an environmental ethic. These are enough issues to start
working on for a start. We do take a particular approach to this work, namely to
evaluate the importance of these concepts within the context of a Christ-centered
environmental ethics.
Given the early days of this research programme, the paper aims only to
progress towards the development on an intermediate theory, a conceptual
framework, on the importance of creation and eschatology for Christian
environmental ethics. In a sense, the outcome generates a set of working
hypotheses that are still very much work in progress and may serve to support
future research on the topic.
[Slide 3: Environmental ethics]
The word ethics is derived from the Greek word ethos, or in short – morality.
Aristotle used it to refer to a good desire. Human beings are seen as the agents of
moral change.
Environmental ethicists go one step further to include non-human entities in
their ethical reflection, but in general, the debate on the source of value of the
planet’s inhabitants is rooted within human intuition or in human reason.
Secular environmental ethics does not explicitly appeal to a revelation from God
as a source of environmental ethics. The same applies to an ecological economic
ethic that includes some form of anthropocentrism, but is softened to include
values of nature in different forms.
[Slide 4: Christian ethics]
As opposed to any other ethical theory, the important insight from Christian
ethics is that the person and work of Jesus Christ makes Christian ethics possible,
and so distinguishes itself from an ethics as based on nature or reason.
The major distinguishing factor of Christian ethics is God’s work of creation,
ordening and redemption, a realisation that transcends all humanistic forms of
morality.
Christian ethics is not one final idea though and Christian ethicists work with
several sources of ethics namely: God’s works in covenant and Christ, God as
creator and orderer, the realisation of God’s Kingdom, as well as God’s law and
commands (James Gustafson, retired American theological ethicist).
This paper starts to critically discuss the concepts of God as creator and orderer
as well as exposing some ideas on the realisation of God’s Kingdom as specific,
potential sources of Christian environmental ethics.
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3. [Slide 5: Creation order as source of ethics]
We will start with a discussion on creation order and eschatological hope from
the perspectives of both reformational philosophy and ecotheology.
The idea of creation order, or the nomos or law order of creation, is rooted in the
insight that reality is God’s creation, finding meaning from God. God’s
sovereignity is seen as His action with regards to the world, which carries the
character of a law that provides order and structure to the world. There are
natural laws and cultural laws and both are manifestations of God’s ordinances
to the world, a point I probably do not have to elaborate much more on in this
gathering.
Reformational philosophers generally emphasise that God reveals Himself in
creation, a revelation we can better understand through science, which in turn,
provides the basis for a responsible way to till, keep and mind the earth.
[Pieter] Stoker, [Professor in Natural Sciences at North West University,
Potchefstroom] for example, argued that ethical responsibilities derived from a
better understanding of creation through science would require an acceptance of
what he refers to as a ‘transcendental revealed principle of creation’, a revelation
that he argues makes scientific thought more open.
Egbert Schuurman [Dutch philosopher, engineer and politician] similarly points
towards a cosmology of the reality as God’s creation (as opposed to objects of
manipulation), but explicitly adds the commandments of love (as opposed to
power), i.e. to appreciate everything according to its nature, as sources of
normative principles to redirect ethics.
Andre Troost [Former Dutch theologian and professor of Calvinistic philosophy
(1916-2008)] goes further and argued that in creation the totality of revealed
principles can be found, reducing ethics to moral responsibilities in specific new
situations.]
[Slide 6: Critique on creation order as source of ethics]
To accept that God reveals Himself in the order of creation implies an acceptance
of God’s universal revelation in creation. The idea of universal revelation
instilling a creational pistic function in all people remains contentious.
The idea that faith is perceived as something that is worked in humans through
the Word of God and not through creation is a general position in many
Protestant-Reformed circles.
In a Christ-centered view, science, whether closed or open, whether classical or
emerging, is never a source of ethics on its own. In such a view it can only be
judged by the norms as rooted in the person and works of Christ as revealed in
Scripture.
Whether to accept order in creation as a source of Christian ethics therefore
remains contentious and sensitive to theological arguments on universal
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4. revelation and the place of the Word of God as a comprehensive revelation and
norm.
[Slide 7: Cosmos as a source of ethics]
Creation order and cosmology are here distinguished from each other; the
former a focus of reformational philosophy and the latter a focus of eco-theology.
Eco-theology has been described as a theology that focuses on the
interrelationships of religion and nature, particularly in the light of
environmental concerns.
In a study performed on Christian environmentalism in the US, three main
responses to Lynn White’s [Former Professor of Medieval History, 1907-1987]
call for a rethink on a new religion, was indentified. The first can broadly be
described as the ‘Christian stewardship ethic’, the second one as ‘Eco-justice
ethic’ and the third as a ‘Creation-spirituality’ ethic.
Christian stewardship emphasises the biblical mandate for humans to take care
of the earth, the eco-justice ethic links environmental concerns with church
perspectives on justice issues such as the just sharing of limited resources and the
real cost of environmental problems and a creation-spirituality ethic focuses on
reorienting humans to see their place as one part of a larger, panentheistic
creation.
These are all very different ethical strategies, but they do share a common
concern on how to develop a practical environmental theology or eco-theology
to account for the emerging ecological crises.
[Slide 8: Critique on cosmos as a source of ethics]
Recent critique on eco-theology is first, that the focus is mainly on cosmology,
underplaying concepts of salvation, and second, that it can benefit from a more
cautious hermeneutical strategy.
First, creation and salvation are accepted as works of God in both reformational
philosophy and biblically focused eco-theology, but the critique is that it holds an
implicit hierarchy tending towards the cosmological. This situation has led some
eco-theologians more recently to lament the lack of attention to soteriology, with
renewed focus on the meaning of salvation for environmental ethics.
Second, the kind of ethical requirements from various approaches to reading the
bible differ a lot. David Horrel [Professor New Testament Studies, University of
Exeter], primarily, argue for a cautious approach in jumping from biblical
interpretation to theology and ethics. Horrel and co-authors argue that the
Bible… is ambivalent and ambiguous in terms of its ecological implications. The
message is clear: there are no easy solutions to a Christian environmental ethic.
[Slide 9: Eschatological hope as a source of ethics: Contributions from
Reformational Philosophy]
According to Peter Steen (Former theologian and philosopher, 1934-1985), and
as quoted by Philip Blosser [Catholic philosopher], Dooyeweerd never mentions
the new earth in all his works… It seems as if such a ‘verticalised eschatology’ is
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5. not shared by all reformational philosophers though and later scholars in this
tradition had a more ‘horisontal eschatology’ where creation order continued
into a new creation.
Albert M. Wolters [Professor Religion & Theology, Redeemer University College,
Ontario], for example, argued that future cataclysm is not a “burnup” but rather a
“meltdown.” Wolters concludes that there is a permanence in the created earth,
and despite the coming judgment, maintains a belief in the continuity of creation
order.
It appears as if a continuity between the old and the new is expected by several
working in the reformational philosophical tradition. In this view, in a new
heavens and new earth creation order is seen to remain intact and will be
revealed in its full splendour.
[Slide 10: Eschatological hope as a source of ethics: Contributions from eco-
theology]
The eco-theological focus is strongly on continuity and renewal of creation as
well. Some commentators in eco-theology point towards a continuity of creation
already in the here and now.
However, this is not a universal position in ecotheology. Those who tend to
emphasise the importance of a cautious hermeneutic, point towards a radical
transformation of existing creation in the last days with some form of continuity
for the righteous (Edward Adams, Senior Lecturer New Testament Studies,
King’s College London). Others caution against speculation on how such a
continuity will look like, pointing towards God’s loyalty and promise of a new
heaven and new earth.
[Slide 11: Eschaton and Christian ethics]
The critical question remains what Christian hope means for our life here and
now. Tom Wright [a leading New Testament scholar and former bishop of
Durham in the Church of England] argues that the ultimate future hope remains
a surprise, but there is a powerful intermediate hope – ‘the things which happen
in the present time which implement Easter and anticipate the final day’. In this
view it is the resurrection of Christ that transforms, that makes a Christian ethic
possible, rather than what we as fallible human beings think might happen in
future.
A Christian environmental ethic is possible in the expectation of a renewal and
recreation of the entire cosmos, and in accepting that the continuity of the
cosmos is not in contrast to visions of judgement and discontinuity. The
continuity between the old and the new does not lie in creation, but in the
resurrected Christ whom has ascended to heaven. The practical and ethical
implications of a new creation that has already started in Christ, creating the
space for real Christian hope, are topics that need far more attention.
It is only through God’s faithfulness and His promises that the tensions between
a new creation and a world of crises and eminent final judgement, holds together
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6. in a sense of mystery and surprise. The Christian faith leaves the end of things
wide open, a future far greater than what we can remotely comprehend, and far
greater than what a naturally deterministic or teleological worldview supposes.
A reliable source of Christian ethics is thus an unwavering trust in God, knowing
that the future He has in mind for His children is one far beyond our imagination.
[Slide 12: Christian environmental ethics: towards an intermediate theory]
In order to give coherence to research on such a complex topic, our strategy is to
first develop an intermediate theory - that is linking a conceptual framework to
an initial review of the literature on the topic and later to the operationalisation
of this conceptual framework (Shields & Tajalli). Such an intermediate theory
should only seen as a tool to do better research while conceptual elements of
methodology are exposed rather than hidden in the choice of a theoretical
approach.
[Slide 13: Critical tensions in the development of Christian environmental
ethics]
The preliminary review of the literature on sources of a Christian environmental
ethics as presented here revealed some critical tensions that need further
attention. In this section it is attempted to highlight these critical tensions that,
in turn, will serve as a basis in the development of an intermediate theory on
Christian environmental ethics.
First there is the tension between the focus of Christian ethics in general and the
focus of environmental and ecological economic ethics. Christian ethics is theo-
or christocentric in its approach, transcending the antropo- or ecocentric
approaches of environmental and ecological economic ethics.
Second, within Christian ethics there is quite some tension between the ultimate
sources of ethics, whether in God’s works through Covenant and/or in Christ, in
God as creator and orderer, in the realization of God’s Kingdom here and now or
in future, or in God’s laws and commands.
Third, the idea of accepting creation order as a source of ethics invokes tension
between the universal and particular revelation of God, between the cosmos and
the Word of God as resources of revelation and between the perceived
importance of reason and science in relation to faith and the workings of the
Holy Spirit.
[Slide 14: tensions ctd]
Fourth, there is a tension between cosmology and soteriology as ultimate
sources of ethics. Attempts to unify approaches to cosmos and salvation need
further critical reflection.
Fifth, there is a tension in how to responsibly use and interpret Scripture in
forming Christian ethical viewpoints. When accepting the Word of God as the
only ultimate source of ethical conduct the questions looms how to read the
6

7. word of God. This raises the need for following a biblically responsible
hermeneutic.
Sixth, the tension between an expected continuity and/or discontinuity of
creation in the last days. Those positions that focus on cosmology as a source of
ethics tends to accept a position of continuity while positions that accept a more
radical soteriology tends to accept positions of discontinuity.
Seventh, there is a tension between visions on when and how the Kingdom of
God is realized, either here and now, or as a distinct future event. Positions of a
Kingdom here and now, a realized eschatology, tend to expect a lot from
Christian ethics while positions on a future Kingdom expect very little from
Christian ethics.
These tensions set the stage for further research on the topic of Christian
environmental ethics.
[Slide 15: Christian environmental ethics: Working hypotheses]
The purpose of further research is to investigate if and how a Christian
environmental ethic is possible and would look like. We define four main
working hypotheses supported by several sub-hypotheses on a lower level (see
Appendix).
1. A distinct Christian ethical response to the ecological and economic crises is
possible
2. The person and work of Christ as revealed in the Word of God, is the ultimate
source of Christian ethics
3. Responsible hermeneutical strategies to understand God’s revelation in
Scripture are critical for a Christian ethic
4. A Christian environmental ethic goes beyond a situational ethic of love or a
legalistic ethic of law.
[Slide 15: Conclusions]
Returning to our question: How can the concepts of order in creation and
eschatological hope help in an ethical response to the financial, economic and
ecological crises?
In one sense the outcome of this initial review may be disappointing. There is
substantial critique on the position that a theology and philosophy of the cosmos
and/or a theology of radical continuity of humans and cosmos as well as a
realized Kingdom of God here and now, are able sources of a Christian
environmental ethic. This does not mean that such positions do not bring helpful
resources to the table, but the key to unlocking the ethical implications of
resources on creation order, cosmology and eschatology, lies in the person and
work of Jesus Christ. What that means and what the implications are for human
culture and economy and humankind’s relationship with God’s creation needs
far more research.
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8. In another sense, the outcome of this initial review provides renewed focus on
and hope for the possibility of a Christian environmental ethic. What we do not
know or cannot comprehend point us to God’s faithfulness and promises. Jesus
Christ has already risen from the death and in Him it is indeed possible again
that God will be all in all. The transformative implications of this enormous
happening on human culture, economy and humankind’s relation with God’s
creation needs to be far more exposed and acted on. In my opinion, the
formation of a Christian environmental ethic would at least require a focus on
the transformative implications of the work of Christ on our ethics, a scripturally
responsible hermeneutic and the serious engagement of believers in the church,
the body of Christ.
Chair, ladies and gentlemen, I thank you for your attention.
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Appendix: Working Hypotheses
Working Hypotheses Literature support
1. A distinct Christian ethical response to the ecological and
economic crises is possible
1.1 A Christian environmental ethic is radically different from an Gustafson
environmental- and ecological economic ethic
1.2 Tensions between the sources of Christian ethics are driven by Berkhouwer, Calvin,
different theological positions on who God is, and what God’s Luther, Moltmann, Barth
relationship with humans and the rest of creation is throughout the
entire history of creation, fall, covenant, salvation, redemption and
consummation
2. The person and work of Christ as revealed in the Word of God, is Gustafson
the ultimate source of Christian ethics
2.1 Order in creation or eschatology are not primary sources of Dooyeweerd,
Christian ethics on their own Berkhouwer, Douma
2.2 Radical soteriological theories ignore the ethical consequences Santmire, Bouma-
of God’s work as creator and orderer of the cosmos Prediger
2.3 Unification of cosmological, soteriological and eschatological Conradie, Kuyper,
concepts can only be attempted through faith in the person and Bavinck, Jenkins
work of Christ
3 Responsible hermeneutical strategies to understand God’s Horrel, Conradie,
revelation in Scripture are critical for a responsible Christian ethic Thiselton, Silva
3.1 Hermeneutical strategies and ethical positions are clearly linked Horrel, Conradie,
Thiselton, Silva
3.2 Scriptural eschatology includes aspects of continuity as well as Wright, Adams,
discontinuity and instill a living hope O’Donovan, Bauckman,
Hart
3.3 Scriptural Kingdom theology includes aspects of both a realized Wright, O’Donovan, Floor
and a future Kingdom
4. A Christian environmental ethic goes beyond a situational ethic of Spykman, Fletcher,
love or a legalistic ethic of law Troost
4.1 Faith in what God has done, is doing and will do in Christ Hendriks, Burger
transforms current Christian ethical positions
4.2 The church has a major role in developing a Christian Wright, Floor
environmental ethic
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