2. Cinematography : Part 2
All the techniques referred to so far consider the framing when the camera is static. However, as you will
be well aware, cinematography is rarely static in film and the framing outlined previously will work in
combination with movement. The distinguishing factor of film as a visual art above all others is that unlike
theatre or painting, the frame has the capability of fluidity and change, which is able to take us into and
around the make-believe world that is created. This movement of the camera relies on some basic,
common techniques, which you must be able to identify correctly in conjunction with the framing if you
are to describe and analyse the film effectively.
The movement of the camera can add meaning to a scene and encourage the viewer to read a scene in a
particular way. Movement may be actual, or, in the case of a zoom shot, generated by the use of a
particular lens.
CAMERA MOVEMENT
PANNING SHOT: the word ‘pan’ comes from the abbreviation of ‘panoramic’, as this shot can survey the
whole scene with its movement from left to right or right to left. (If it often used in Westerns to capture
the magnificent panorama of the imposing desert
landscape) With a panning shot, the camera tripod
stays in the same position and only the camera
head moves from side to side, or in some cases the
whole 360 degrees.
A pan can be slow or quick depending on the
required effect. If the pan is very quick and
appears to blur the images it is referred to as a whip pan.
TRACKING SHOT: In this shot the camera is mounted on a ‘dolly’ (device with
wheels or runners), which is then mounted onto a track. The whole camera is then
able to move along the track, either from left to right/right to left or
backwards/forwards. This is either done manually, and is pushed along by the
grips (people responsible for the rigging on set) or it is done by remote control.
The cinematographer will usually sit upon the dolly to control the shot and focus.
A similar effect can also be achieved through other means and as the setting up for
tracking shots takes a long time and is expensive, on
low-budget productions the camera may be attached
to any device with wheels to obtain the ’tracking’
motion. Again tracking shots can be quick or slow
depending on the desired effect.
TILT SHOT: In this shot the tripod or base of the camera remains still and only
the head of the camera moves. The movement is up and down only, creating
an angle on the subject being shot. If the camera is tiled down it will obviously be able its subject and if the
camera tilts up, it will be below.
CRANE SHOT: A crane shot is when the camera (and cinematographer) are mounted on a crane and are
lifted high in to the air to get a grand overhead shot. The crane can move in all directions (aided again by

3. the grips), and this can achieve a ‘swooping’ effect like a bird. Cranes come in various sizes with the
smallest ones being called ‘jibs’ which may be just above shoulder height (basically, a little too high for a
tripod shot). Crane shots are complicated and expensive because of the equipment necessary and the time
they take to set up. Hence very low-budget films tend to have fewer, if any, of them and the best examples
are from high budget Hollywood studio films.
AERIAL SHOTS: In an aerial shot, the cameraperson (usually a second unit or specialised crew) will shoot
from a helicopter or small plane. These shots are always shot mute (with no sound) as the noise of the
transport and the wind would render the sound unusable).
CAR MOUNTED SHOTS: The camera can be attached either to the side or windscreen of a moving car when
the car is in shot. In this way speed can be exaggerated or a conversation between two front seat
characters can be filmed without cuts. The camera can also be mounted to a different car which travels
alongside the vehicle in the film to follow the action.
HANDHELD SHOTS: Even though a shot may look handheld, with film it often is not.
In the 1970’s a piece of apparatus was developed which is worn by the
cinematographer and onto which the camera is mounted. This is called the
‘Steadicam’. The apparatus acts as a ‘shock absorber’ as the cameraperson freely
moves around while filming; avoid sharp jarring movements and allowing certain
stability even when running. True handheld shots are jumpy and hard to focus with
a film camera (remember this is not video) but are sometimes used for effect of
chaos.
ZOOM SHOTS: With this type of movement the camera itself does not move at all
but instead it is the lens on the camera that creates the effect. Different types of
zoom can be used to create different meaning. A slow zoom can be an indication of realisation, as in the
slow zoom of a letter as it is being read or the slow zoom into a characters face as an idea dawns. It can
also indicate a growing intimacy with character(s) as it draws the audience in. A fast zoom can also indicate
realisation but with an unsettling effect. When combined with the moving camera and the quick pulling of
focus it can create a disturbing ‘trombone’ effect (see the famous beach shot in Jaws or the balcony scene
in La Haine where the background appears to rush forward).
SPECIAL EFFECTS
The special effects department on a large film works as part of
cinematography and post-production (editing). When a scene is
being shot the cinematographer will know which shots are going
to have special effects added and will shoot accordingly.
Sometimes this will mean shooting in a studio against a ‘blue
screen’ or ‘green screen’ where action will be added later to the
shot. For example, in a scene where someone is hanging over a
cliff, the actor will be shot ‘hanging’ in the studio against a green
screen and a shot of a real cliff will be filmed elsewhere. The two
shots will then be merged optically to create one combined shot.
Other special effects may mean shooting on location knowing
that most of the actual location will be ‘painted’ out or will have
new scenery added by the use of ‘CGI’ (Computer Generated
Imagery). Filmmakers can therefore add or delete unwanted imagery. However, this process is very
expensive and time consuming and is usually reserved only for large-budget productions. Each frame of the
shot has to be ‘composited’ (altered slightly differently, somewhat like the process of animation), and
there are 24 frames in every second of film! The film Gladiator famously used extensive CGI to re-create
the coliseums of ancient Rome.

4. Despite this, it is worth remembering that ‘special effects’ do not just refer to dramatic events using
explosions and rockets etc many films that look as though there would be no need for special ‘effects’
often contain scenes that have been altered. For example, period dramas, where elements of the
contemporary skyline have to be removed to create authenticity.
Types of Special Effects
CGI – Computer Generated Imagery, used to create otherwise impossible sequences. Can you think
of any recent examples?
Wire Work – a technique developed in martial arts films, allowing for the presentation of massive
acrobatic feats
Chroma Key – the actions is filmed against a blue or green screen, so that the background can be
added afterwards
DEPTH OF FIELD
The depth of field is a photographic term, which refers to the amount of focus in the shot. If everything in
the shot is in focus then the depth of field is ‘deep’. However, it is common to ‘pull focus’ to one object or
person and keep the background out of focus. In this case the depth of field would be ‘shallow’ and the
focus for-grounded. There is a credit on the end of feature films for ‘focus puller’; their main job is to assist
the cinematographer and to align focus.
FOCUS
Camera can be equipped with lenses of various focal lengths, and this gives the
filmmaker control over what is or is not in focus at any time.
DEEP FOCUS is used when the detail of an entire scene needs to be shown. It means
that everything that is visible, near to and far from the camera, is in focus.
SELECTIVE FOCUS simplifies the image. It reduces the
importance of certain elements within the frame by
showing them blurred.
PULLING FOCUS changes the subject of selective focus
OTHER ELEMENTS
FILM STOCK - ‘Grainy’ / ‘Speckly’
FILM COLOUR - Black & White (mono) & Colour
Identification of shots is a necessary element of film analysis but is only part of the required knowledge at
this level. Once confident with the types of shots it is even more important that we understand why a
certain type of framing is used at a particular point in the film and what effect it creates. This is how we

5. develop film language. There is no point in knowing what a close up is, if we cannot say when its use is
appropriate or what meaning it conveys.
SUMMARY
Cinematography, then, is just one of the cinematic codes (micro elements), and although these past
lessons we have sought to look at it in isolation, a full analysis of any film requires that all the micro
elements combine to create meaning. It is only when cinematography is considered in conjunction with
lighting, editing, sound and mise-en-scene that we have the full range of film language and expression, and
therefore the most information on which to base a ‘reading’ or interpretation of meaning.