63586562 plastics-technology-handbook-volume-2

Plastics
TechnologY
Handbook
edited by
Donald V. Rosato
PhD, MBA, MS, BS, PE
Marlene G. Rosato
BASc (ChE), P Eng
Nick R. Schott
PhD, MS, BS (ChE), PE
UMASS Lowell Professor of Plastics Engineering Emeritus
& Plastics Department Head Retired
V O L U M E 2
Manufacturing • Composites • Tooling • Auxiliaries
ISBN: 978-1-60650-082-8
9 781606 500828
90000
Rosato
Rosato
Schott
VOLUME 2
Plastics
TechnologY
Handbook
MANUFACTURING • COMPOSITES
TOOLING • AUXILIARIES
www.momentumpress.net
This comprehensive two-volume handbook provides a simplified, practical, and
innovative approach to understanding the design and manufacture of plastic
products. It will expand the reader’s understanding of plastics technology by
defining and focusing on past, current, and future technical trends. In Volume
1, plastics behavior is presented so as to help readers fabricate products that
meet performance standards, low cost requirements, and profitability targets.
In this second volume, all major plastics compounding and forming technolo-
gies are presented—from mass production extrusion and injection processes to
specialty techniques like rotational molding, compression molding, spray mold-
ing, encapsulation, potting, ink screening, impregnation, and vacuum-assisted
liquid injection molding, among many others. A chapter on Coating provides all
the major forms of modifying surface properties of plastics for desired thermal,
physical and chemical behavior. A chapter on Casting focuses in all major meth-
ods of forming plastic melts in physical molds, including mold types, removal
molds and quality control issues. A unique chapter on Mold and Die Tooling
offers hard to find information on tool and die design specific to plastics manu-
facture--including detailed explanation on die design and use, tooling materials,
tool casting and machining, and a 41- page glossary of common die and tooling
terms. Finally, an extensive chapter on Auxiliary and Supplementary machines
and systems provides incredibly useful background—for everything from bond-
ing, chemical etching, cutting, and decorating to plastics machining, pelletiz-
ing, printing, polishing, stamping, vacuum debulking, welding, and many more
processes involved in bringing desired plastics products to market. This chapter
also extensively covers various means of mechanical assembly of plastics parts.
Over 15,000 subjects are reviewed with 1800 figures and 1400 tables. This
2,500 page, two-volume handbook will be of interest to a wide range of plas-
tics professionals: from plastics engineers to tool makers, fabricators, designers,
plant managers, materials suppliers, equipment suppliers, testing and quality
control personnel, and cost estimators. Moreover, this handbook provides an ex-
cellent introduction to students studying the plastics field.
Contents Synopsis: Preface, Coating, Casting, Reaction Injection Molding, Rota-
tional Molding, Compression Molding, Reinforced Plastic, Other Processes, Mold
and Die Tooling, Auxiliary and Secondary Equipment, Glossary, Further Reading.
Plastics TechnologY
Handbook
VOLUME 2: Manufacturing • Composites • Tooling • AuxiliarieS
Edited by Donald V. Rosato • Marlene G. Rosato • Nick R. Schott

Aboutthe Authors v
Figures xvii
Tables xxxi
Abbreviations xli
Acknowledgments xlix
Preface li
10. Coating 1
OVERVIEW 1
Different CoatingAspect 8
TERMAND PERFORMANCE INTRODUCTION 11
Paint 14
Water-Based Paint 16
Varnish 17
Lacquer 17
Solvent 17
PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS 21
Thermoplastic Coating 22
TS Coating 23
Contents
imo-rosato2.indb 7 7/27/11 12:12 PM

viii Contents
FUNDAMENTALS OF RESIN FORMATION 23
CondensationType 24
AdditionType 26
Fluorine-Containing Resin 35
Acrylic Resin 35
Cellulosic Resin 35
Copolymer Resin 36
Coumarone-lndene Resin 36
Parylene 36
APPLICATION 39
Coil Coating 40
Strippable Coating 44
Germ-Free Coating 45
EVALUATION METHOD 45
PROCESS 46
Overview 46
Film Solidification 55
Coating Methods 56
Coating Equipment 59
Roll-Coat Finish 59
Spread Coating 60
Floating Knife Coater 60
Fluidized Bed Coating 61
Spray Coating 61
Powder Coating 62
Electrostatic Spraying 62
Coil Coating (Metal Coating) 62
PROPERTY 63
Corrosion and Chemical Resistance 64
Fire Retardant 66
Intumescent Coating 67
Heat Resistant 68
Thermal Control 68
Electrical Insulating 69
SIMULATED SERVICETESTS 70
Abrasion Resistance 70
Adhesion 71
AcceleratedAging in HotAir 71
Accelerated aging in oxygen 72
Blocking 72

Contents ix
Burst Strength 72
Compression Set 72
Curl 72
Elongation 73
Flame Resistance,Vertical 73
Flexibility 73
Hardness 73
Hydrostatic Resistance 74
LowTemperature Cracking 74
Modulus 74
Gas Permeability 75
Liquid Permeability 75
pHValue 75
Resiliency 75
Stretch 75
Swelling 78
Tear Strength 78
Tensile Strength 79
Thickness 79
Wicking 79
Weathering 79
SOLVENTAND COATING 80
Solvent Composition in Coating 80
Solvent and Solvent-Free Coatings 83
Emission 84
CleanAirAct 87
SOLVENT SUBSTITUTION 87
11. Casting 90
INTRODUCTION 90
PLASTIC 91
PROCESSES 92
CASTING OFACRYLIC 96
Introduction 96
Casting Sheet 97
Casting Rod andTube 98
Embedment 99
Filled Casting 99
Prototype Casting 100
CASTING OF NYLON 100

x Contents
Introduction 100
Process 101
SOLVENT CASTING OF FILM 102
12. Reaction Injection Molding 103
INTRODUCTION 103
EQUIPMENT 108
MOLD 109
Runner and Gate Design 115
Cost 115
PROCESSING 120
Process Control 123
MATERIAL 124
Conversion Process 130
TP Polyurethane 133
TS Polyurethane 133
Cure ofTS 133
Polymerization 134
RRIM and ResinTransfer Molding 138
COSTING 138
13. Rotational Molding 140
INTRODUCTION 140
PROCESS 141
PLASTIC 145
PLASTIC BEHAVIOR 153
Effect of theThermalTreatment 155
Effect of Pigmentation and Mixing Method 157
Conclusion 157
PERFORMANCE 158
MACHINES 165
MOLD 169
DESIGN 172
PRODUCTIONAND COST 177
14. Compression Molding 178
INTRODUCTION 178
MOLD 185
MACHINES 188
PLASTIC 193

Contents xi
Polytetrafluoroethylene Billet 196
Hot Compression-Molding PTFE 203
PROCESSING 204
Heating 205
Automation 207
Transfer Molding 211
Compression-Injection Molding 212
Compression and lsostatic Molding 216
15. Reinforced Plastic 223
OVERVIEW 223
DEFINITION 225
Fibrous Composite 240
Laminar Composite 251
Particulate Composites 252
Fillers 252
PROPERTIES 254
ORIENTATION OF REINFORCEMENT 270
Directional Property 274
Hetergeneous/Homogeneous/Anisotropic 279
MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION 279
Prepreg 282
Sheet Molding Compound 283
Bulk Molding Compound 284
Compound 285
FABRICATING PROCESS 286
Preform Process 286
Type Process 288
Compression Molding 288
Hand Layup 291
FilamentWinding 295
Injection Molding 306
Marco Process 307
Pultrusion 307
Reactive Liquid Molding 309
Reinforced RTM 310
Reinforced Rotational Molding 311
SCRIMP Process 311
Soluble Core Molding 312
Spray-Up 312

xii Contents
Stamping 314
SELECTING PROCESSES 315
DESIGN 317
Aspect Ratio 317
Tolerance 329
ENGINEERINGANALYSIS 333
DesignTheory 333
16. Other Processes 335
INTRODUCTION 335
PVC PLASTISOL 336
Introduction 336
Processing Plastisol 338
Processing Organosol 340
Slush Molding 340
Rotational Molding 341
Spray Molding 342
Continuous Coating 342
Open Molding 342
Closed Molding 343
Dip Molding 343
Dip Coating 344
Heating System 344
INK SCREENING 344
ENCAPSULATION 344
POTTING 345
LIQUID INJECTION MOLDING 345
Vacuum-Assisted LIM 346
IMPREGNATION 346
CHEMICAL ETCHING 347
TWIN-SCREW INJECTION MOLDING 347
TEXTILE COVERED MOLDING 348
MELT COMPRESSION MOLDING 348
Back Injection 349
Melt Flow Compression Molding 351
Back Compression (Melt Compression Molding) 352
MCM-IML 352
PROCESSING COMPARISON 353

Contents xiii
17. Mold and DieTooling 366
OVERVIEW 366
MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION 382
STEEL 393
ALUMINUM 399
Preheating 402
Aluminum Zinc 403
COPPER 403
Beryllium Copper 404
Copper Zinc 404
OtherAlloys 404
METAL SPRAY 405
POROUS METAL 405
SOFTTOOLING 406
MANUFACTURING 406
Electric-Discharge Machining 408
Electroforming 408
SURFACE FINISH 408
POLISHING 410
Orange Peel 414
Art of Polishing 414
Hand Polishing 415
PROTECTIVE COATING/PLATING 416
Overview 416
Problems 418
Plating 422
Coating 423
HeatTreatment 425
Cryogenic Processing 426
MAINTENANCE/CLEANING 427
MOLD 429
Introduction 429
Basic Operation 460
Mold Components 460
MoldType 462
Injection Mold Feed System 472
Sprue 472
Runner 473
Gate 475
Cavity 488

xiv Contents
Cold Runner 491
Hot Runner 502
Runner Overview 512
Material of Construction 516
Cooling 519
CavityVenting 529
Ejection 533
Mold/Part Shrinkage 539
Mold Construction 544
ReleaseAgent 553
Faster/Lower-Cost Mold InsertApproach 554
Manufacturing Mold Cavity 554
Polishing 556
Preengineering 557
Safety 567
Moldmakers 569
Imports 570
Directories 570
Summary 572
DIES 573
Material of Construction 574
Terminology 575
Design 585
Melt Flow 585
Extrudate Performance 594
Manifold 598
Process Control 598
DieType 606
Tubular Dies 614
New Die Designs 633
COMPUTERS 634
ToolAnalysis 635
Model Construction 635
Software 636
Material Selection Software 636
TOOLINGAND PROTOTYPING 637
Rapid System 638
RapidTooling 640
Selecting RapidTooling 644
Rapid Prototyping 644

Contents xv
SoftwareTrend 645
REPAIRVERSUS BUYING 646
Welding 646
Storage 647
TOOL BUILDERS 647
GLOSSARY 648
APPENDIX 689
18. Auxiliary and Secondary Equipment 738
INTRODUCTION 738
MATERIAL/PRODUCT HANDLING 756
Material-Handling System 757
Injection Molding 777
Extruding 786
DECORATING 805
JOININGANDASSEMBLING 807
Adhesive and Solvent Bonding 807
MechanicalAssembly 835
Staking 849
WeldingAssembly 863
MACHINING 892
Overview 892
Machining and Cutting Operations 897
Machining andTooling 911
Machining NonmeltTP 919
Laser Machining 922
Other Machining Methods 923
Machining Safety 924
Glossary 925
Further Reading 953

Figure 10.1 Example of industrial coating and drying apparatus. 20
Figure 10.2 The basic drying process and typical drying parameters. 20
Figure 10.3 Temperature distribution in strippable vinyl foam. 44
Figure 10.4 High-speed extrusion coating line. 48
Figure 10.5 Example of roller coating processes. 49
Figure 10.6 Knife spread coating. 50
Figure 10.7 Transfer coating of PUR (top) and PVC. 50
Figure 10.8 Cast coating line for coating by transfer from paper carrier. 51
Figure 10.9 Fabric dip coating line. 52
Figure 10.10 Example of a vacuum coater. 53
Figure 10.12 Electrodeposition for application of coating to magnet wire or strip. 53
Figure 10.11 In-mold coating used in the reaction injection molding process. 53
Figure 10.13 Floor covering coating line. 54
Figure 10.14 Foam plastic carpet backing coating line. 54
Figure 10.15 Vacuum-ultraviolet radiation effects on organic coatings. 63
Figure 10.16 Vacuum-ultraviolet radiation effects on stabilized organic coatings. 63
Figure 10.17 Relationship between solar absorbance, total hemispherical emittance,
and pigment ratios. 64
Figure 10.18 Relationship between solar absorbance and pigment ratios. 64
Figure 10.19 Vacuum-ultraviolet radiation effects on inorganic coatings. 65
Figure 10.20 Effects of vacuum-ultraviolet radiation on pigments. 65
Figure 10.21 Emission ofVOCs in the life cycle of a varnish. 87
Figure 10.22 Pressure-temperature and pressure-density behavior of matter. 88
Figure 11.1 Example of the liquid casting process. 92
Figures

xviii Figures
Figure 11.2 Example of a LIM casting process. 95
Figure 11.3 Example of more accurate mixing of components for liquid injection
casting. 95
Figure 12.1 Example of typical PUR RIM process (courtesy of Bayer). 104
Figure 12.2 Diagram highlighting material use and handling in a PUR RIM process
(courtesy of Bayer). 104
Figure 12.3 Example of in-mold coating application. 105
Figure 12.4 Polyurethane RIM product for a computerized tomography (CT) device
Figure 12.5 Refrigerator with PUR foam door with no sheet metal (courtesy of Bayer). 107
Figure 12.6 RIM machine with mold in the open position (courtesy of Milacron). 110
Figure 12.7 RIM machine with mold in the closed position (courtesy of Milacron). 111
Figure 12.8 Example of an auto bumper RIM production line (courtesy of Milacron). 112
Figure 12.9 RIM machine with auxiliary clamping system (courtesy of Battenfeld). 113
Figure 12.10 Example of a RIM production line, where molds are on a moving track
permitting final cure of PUR (courtesy of Battenfeld). 114
Figure 12.11 Gating and runner systems demonstrating laminar melt flow and
uniform flow front (courtesy of Bayer). 115
Figure 12.12 Example of a dam gate and runner system (courtesy of Bayer). 116
Figure 12.13 Examples of triangular and quadratic fan gates (chapter 17; courtesy of
Bayer). 117
Figure 12.14 Example of melt flow around obstructions near the vent (courtesy of
Bayer). 118
Figure 12.15 Examples of various ribbing approaches to aid melt flow (courtesy of
Bayer). 118
Figure 12.16 Example of a low gate position with high vent for best results when
foaming (courtesy of Bayer). 119
Figure 12.17 Example of how to properly split a melt stream from the mixer
Figure 12.18 Basic schematic for mixing two liquid components to produce a PUR. 122
Figure 12.19 TDI is an isomer comprising toluene-2,4-and 2,6-diisocyanate. 126
Figure 12.20 Diphenylmethane-4,4-diisocyanate (MDI). 127
Figure 12.21 Examples of PUR RIM plastic products. 131
Figure 12.22 Density distribution across the thickness of a foamed part. 132
Figure 12.23 Molding pressure with RIM and RTM measures significantly less in other
processes (courtesy of Bayer). 138
Figure 13.1 RM’s four basic steps (courtesy ofThe Queen’s University, Belfast). 142
Figure 13.2 Rotational rate of the two axes is at 7:1 for this product. 146
Figure 13.3 Consumption of plastics for RM. 149
Figure 13.4 RM products in NorthAmerica. 149

Figures xix
Figure 13.5 RM products in Europe. 149
Figure 13.6 Example of RM products including large tank. 150
Figure 13.7 The effect of maximum inner temperature on the impact strength of the
moldings (a = PE and b = PP). 156
Figure 13.8 Effect of heating rate on the optimum processing temperature of PE. 156
Figure 13.9 Effect of the grinding temperature on the optimum processing
temperature of PE. 156
Figure 13.10 Effect of extrusion on the thermal properties of PE. 157
Figure 13.11 Effect of pigmentation on the thermal properties of turboblended PE. 157
Figure 13.12 Effect of pigmentation and mixing on the impact strength of PE. 158
Figure 13.13 Examples of similar-mold RM machine schematics. 160
Figure 13.14 Dual system with different-sized molds. 160
Figure 13.15 Schematic example of a multilayer RM machine. 161
Figure 13.16 Transfer of additional heat using a heat pipe. 165
Figure 13.17 Schematic of a basic three-station RM machine. 166
Figure 13.18 Example of a shuttle machine. 167
Figure 13.19 Example of a clamshell molding machine. 167
Figure 13.20 Example of a rock-and-roll molding machine. 168
Figure 14.1 Schematic of the CM of a plastic material. 178
Figure 14.2 Compression molded ring-shaped part removed from the mold. 179
Figure 14.3 CM using a molding compound. 182
Figure 14.4 CM using an impregnated material. 182
Figure 14.5 Examples of flash in a mold: (a) horizontal, (b) vertical, and (c) modified
vertical. 184
Figure 14.6 Positive compression mold. 186
Figure 14.7 Flash compression mold. 186
Figure 14.8 Semipositive compression mold. 187
Figure 14.9 Example of mold vent locations. 187
Figure 14.10 Example of vent locations in a mold processingTPs. 188
Figure 14.11 Example of land locations in a split-wedge mold (courtesy of National
Tool and ManufacturingAssociation). 189
Figure 14.13 The left side is a better edge design when using a draw angle. 190
Figure 14.12 Optimum draft for shear edges in molding sheet-molding compounds. 190
Figure 14.14 Knife shear edge. 190
Figure 14.15 Press with 4 × 4 in platens and ½-ton clamp pressure (courtesy of
Carver Press). 191
Figure 14.16 A 400-ton press with much larger than normal platens that measure
5 × 10 ft; the press has multiple zones of electrically heated platens, an
automatic bump cycle, an audible alarm to signal the end of the cure
cycle, and front and back safety-light curtains (courtesy ofWabash MPI). 191

xx Figures
Figure 14.17 A 4000-ton press with 5 × 8 ft platens (courtesy of Erie Press). 192
Figure 14.18 A 400-ton press with 18 platens, each measuring 4 × 6 ft (courtesy of
BaldwinWorks). 193
Figure 14.19 An 8000-ton press with 10 × 10 ft platens that have book-type opening
and closing action (courtesy of Krismer, Germany). 194
Figure 14.20 Processing sequence for compression stamping glass fiber–reinforcedTP
sheets. 195
Figure 14.21 Heat-curing cycles forTPs go throughA-B-C stages. 195
Figure 14.22 Transition point and linear thermal expansion of PTFE (courtesy of
DuPont). 199
Figure 14.23 Mechanism of sintering PTFE (courtesy of DuPont). 200
Figure 14.24 Example of a sintering cycle. 202
Figure 14.25 Example of a simple loading tray with a retractable slide plate to deliver
material to multicavity mold. 207
Figure 14.26 CM machine with preplasticizer. 208
Figure 14.27 Three screws of the preplasticizer have been retracted from their barrels
for viewing; not in the operating mode. 209
Figure 14.28 Preheated compounds exiting the preplasticizers prior to guillotine
slicing the required shot sizes. 210
Figure 14.29 Schematic of transfer molding. 211
Figure 14.30 Comparing IM, CM, and transfer molding. 211
Figure 14.31 Detail view of transfer molding with two cavities. 212
Figure 14.32 Example of a screw plasticizer preheating plastic that is delivered into
the transfer molding pot for delivery into the mold cavities. 212
Figure 14.33 A 64-cavity transfer mold about to receive electronic devices from a
work-loading frame. 215
Figure 14.34 Principal steps of isostatic molding. 217
Figure 14.35 Basic isostatic compaction process. 219
Figure 14.36 Three ways of molding PTFE tubes: (a) two flexible bags, (b) inner
flexible bag with outer rigid cylinder, and (c) outer flexible bag with
inner rigid rod. 220
Figure 15.1 Effect of matrix content on strength (F) or elastic moduli (E) of RPs. 223
Figure 15.2 Properties versus amount of reinforcement. 224
Figure 15.3 Glass fiber-TS polyester-filament-wound RP underground gasoline
storage tank. 226
Figure 15.4 Complete primary and secondary bus structure hand layup of glass
fiber-TS polyester RP. 226
Figure 15.5 Glass fiber swirl mat-TS polyester RP vacuum hand layup boat shell. 227
Figure 15.6 Glass fiber-TS polyester RP robot controlled hand layup 28 ft long boat. 227

Figures xxi
Figure 15.8 Glass fiber-TS polyester filament wound RP tank trailer that transports
corrosive and hazardous materials. 228
Figure 15.7 Glass fiber tape-TS polyester hand layup smoke stack liner. 228
Figure 15.9 Pultruded glass fiber roving-TS polyester rods in a 370 ft long lift bridge
supports up to 44T traffic load. 228
Figure 15.10 Glass fiber-TS polyester filament wound RP railroad hopper car body. 229
Figure 15.11 Monsanto House of the future all glass fiber-TS polyester RP hand
layup has four 16 ft long U-shaped (monocoque box girders) cantilever
structures 90° apart producing the main interior. 229
Figure 15.12 Interface of a RP. 230
Figure 15.13 Examples of reinforcement types and processing methods. 230
Figure 15.14 Fishbone diagram for an RP process (courtesy of Plastics FALLO). 231
Figure 15.15 Review of different processes to fabricate RP products. 231
Figure 15.16 Modulus of different materials can be related to their specific gravities
with RPs providing an interesting graph. 232
Figure 15.17 Short and long glass fiber-TP RP data (wt% fiber in parentheses). 246
Figure 15.18 Short to long fibers influence properties of RPs. 247
Figure 15.19 Specific tensile strength to specific tensile modulus of elasticity data f
nylon RPs. 247
Figure 15.20 Flexural fatigue data of woven glass fiber roving RPs. 247
Figure 15.21 Common glass fiber-TS polyester resin RP fatigue data versus other
materials (chapter 19). 248
Figure 15.22 Comparing different fiber material strength properties at elevated
temperatures. 248
Figure 15.23 Comparing whisker reinforcements with other reinforcements. 249
Figure 15.24 Schematic example in the manufacture of glass filaments/fibers. 249
Figure 15.25 Staple glass fiber and continuous glass filament fiber process methods. 272
Figure 15.26 Fiber arrangements and property behavior (courtesy of Plastics FALLO). 272
Figure 15.27 RP density versus percentage glass by weight or volume. 273
Figure 15.28 Fiber orientation provides different directional properties. 274
Figure 15.29 Examples of how fiber orientation influences properties of RPs. 275
Figure 15.30 Parallel/bidirectional layup of woven fabric 181 glass fiber (courtesy of
Plastics FALLO). 280
Figure 15.31 Parallel/unidirectional layup woven fabric 143 glass fiber (courtesy of
Plastics FALLO). 280
Figure 15.32 Ply layup at 0° and 90° woven fabric 143 glass fiber construction
(courtesy of Plastics FALLO). 281
Figure 15.33 Ply layup at 0°, 45°, 90°, and 135° woven fabric 143 glass fiber
construction (courtesy of Plastics FALLO). 281

xxii Figures
Figure 15.34 Sheet molding compound (SMC) production line using chopped glass
fiber including roving to provide bidirectional properties, cutting
continuous rovings for ease of mold-cavity fit. 282
Figure 15.35 These different SMC production lines produce by using chopped glass
fibers (top), including roving to provide bidirectional properties, cutting
continuous rovings so that they can fit easily in a mold cavity, and
producing thicker SMC (about 4 mm thick by 120 cm wide; bottom). 284
Figure 15.36 Flow of glass fiber rovings traveling through a plenum machine. 287
Figure 15.38 Flow of glass fiber rovings traveling through a water-slurry machine. 287
Figure 15.37 Flow of glass fiber rovings traveling through a direct machine. 287
Figure 15.39 Two-part compression mold. 289
Figure 15.40 Layout of reinforcement is designed to meet structural requirements. 293
Figure 15.41 Automated-integrated RP vacuum hand layup process that uses prepreg
sheets that are in the B-stage (chapter 1). 293
Figure 15.42 Schematic of hand-layup bag molding in an autoclave. 294
Figure 15.43 Early-twentieth-century tape-wrapping patent of a tube-making machine
by Hoganas-BillesholmsA.B., Sweden. 297
Figure 15.44 Views of fiber filament-wound isotensoid pattern of the reinforcing
fibers without plastic (left) and with resin cured. 301
Figure 15.45 Box winding machine with position changes of clamp tooling. 301
Figure 15.46 Schematics of “racetrack” filament-winding machines.Top view shows
machine in action; other view is a schematic of a machine built to
fabricate 150,000 gal rocket motor tanks. 304
Figure 15.47 Conventional single stage IMM. 306
Figure 15.48 IM with a preloader usually providing heat to the RP compound. 307
Figure 15.49 Schematics of ram and screw IMM. 308
Figure 15.50 Use is made of vacuum, pressure, or pressure-vacuum in the Marco
process. 309
Figure 15.51 Cutaway view of a reinforced RTM mold. 311
Figure 15.52 Lost-wax process fabricated a high-strength RP structural beam. 312
Figure 15.53 Nonatomized, dispensed Glass-Craft spray gun is easy to use and
produces low styrene emissions and is economic to maintain. 313
Figure 15.54 Example of the effect of shrinkage in the longitudinal and transverse
directions of a molded part. 319
Figure 15.55 Tensile stress-strain curves for epoxy-unreinforced and epoxy-reinforced
RPs and other materials. 322
Figure 15.56 Example of crack propagation to fracture that can occur, resulting in
product failure under load. 329
Figure 16.1 Effect of temperature on macromolecular characteristics of PVC plastisol. 337
Figure 16.2 Example of time-dependent viscosity of PVC plastisol. 338

Figures xxiii
Figure 17.1 Flow chart for typical tool activity. 379
Figure 17.2 Example of a steam chest mold for producing expandable polystyrene
(EPS) foams. 381
Figure 17.3 Examples of dimensional changes of tool materials subjected to heat treatment. 396
Figure 17.4 Terms identifying tool surface roughness perASA B46.1 standard. 411
Figure 17.5 Symbols identified on tool perASA B46.1 standard. 411
Figure 17.6 Illustrating roughness at a given point on a tool surface perASA B46.1
standard. 411
Figure 17.7 Polishability versus hardness. 412
Figure 17.8 Comparison of polishing tool hardness. 413
Figure 17.9 Cost of polishing tool steels. 413
Figure 17.10 Flow of the molding from the process that includes the mold to the
product. 430
Figure 17.11 Mold operation and types. 430
Figure 17.12 Examples of mold layouts, configurations, and actions. 431
Figure 17.13 Sequence of mold operations. 433
Figure 17.14 Mold action during a fabricating molding cycle. 433
Figure 17.15 Examples of precision mold half alignment. 434
Figure 17.16 Examples to simplify mold design and action. 436
Figure 17.17 Examples of different actions in molds. 438
Figure 17.18 Examples of unscrewing molds. 447
Figure 17.19 Examples of mold parts and molds. 450
Figure 17.20 Examples of mold force based on determining clamp force required for
melt flow. 456
Figure 17.21 Examples of melt flow’s path length as a function of part wall thickness
and injection pressures. 457
Figure 17.22 Example of an IM mold and a listing of its principal component parts. 461
Figure 17.23 Examples of two-plate molds. 463
Figure 17.24 Examples of three-plate molds. 466
Figure 17.25 Examples of stacked molds. 469
Figure 17.26 Examples of micromolded products compared to a US coin. 471
Figure 17.27 View of plastic flow from sprue to runner to gate to cavity. 472
Figure 17.28 Examples of cold and heated sprue designs. 473
Figure 17.29 Examples ofTP balanced cold runners that include primary and
secondary runners. 474
Figure 17.30 Example of a cold runner mold for processingTS plastics. 475
Figure 17.31 Examples of various gate types. 476
Figure 17.32 Melt flow pattern in cavity can relate to gate-flow pattern based on
single gate (left) or multiple gates. 477

xxiv Figures
Figure 17.33 Gate temperature/pressure/temperature relationships for amorphous
and crystalline plastics are shown. 478
Figure 17.34 Schematic of gate land location. 479
Figure 17.35 Schematic of heated single-edge gate. 481
Figure 17.36 Schematic of heated double-edge gate. 482
Figure 17.37 These molded test specimens highlight melt flow direction from a gate
or gates. 483
Figure 17.38 Cavity arrangement in balanced and unbalanced runner layouts. 489
Figure 17.39 Example of a melt flow fountain (or balloon) pattern across the thickness
in a mold cavity. 490
Figure 17.40 Examples of cold runner feed systems. 492
Figure 17.41 Common runner configurations. 493
Figure 17.42 Equivalent hydraulic diameters for common runner configurations. 494
Figure 17.43 Balanced cold runner with edge gates. 495
Figure 17.44 Example of dissimilar cavities in a family mold. 495
Figure 17.45 Examples of unbalanced cold runner molds. 496
Figure 17.46 Examples of melt viscosity data. 497
Figure 17.47 Balanced runner system in an eight-cavity mold. 498
Figure 17.48 Unbalanced runner system in a six-cavity mold. 501
Figure 17.49 Unbalanced runner system in a ten-cavity mold. 502
Figure 17.50 Schematics of hot runner mold systems. 503
Figure 17.51 Internally heated hot manifold. 504
Figure 17.52 Insulated hot runner systems. 505
Figure 17.53 Examples of direct hot runner gates. 506
Figure 17.54 Advanced types of hot runner gates. 506
Figure 17.55 Example of a hot manifold support system. 507
Figure 17.56 Example of a hot manifold stack mold with ninety-six cavities. 508
Figure 17.57 Example of a twelve-cavity hot manifold stack mold. 509
Figure 17.58 Heated manifold forTP hot runner system. 514
Figure 17.59 Cooling arrangements for cores of various sizes. 520
Figure 17.60 Cooling channel considerations. 521
Figure 17.61 Poor and good cooling channel layouts. 522
Figure 17.62 Schematic of laminar flow (left) and turbulent flow (right) in coolant
channels. 522
Figure 17.63 Heat-transfer characteristics in a typical hot runner mold (courtesy of
Husky Injection Molding Systems Inc.). 525
Figure 17.64 Examples of mold-cooling components. 526
Figure 17.65 Nomogram guide for determining cooling channels. 527
Figure 17.66 Without proper venting, air entrapment can occur in the mold cavity. 529

Figures xxv
Figure 17.67 Examples of recommended vent dimensions for PP (top view) and other
TPs. 530
Figure 17.68 Examples of vents. 531
Figure 17.69 Example of a vent pin used to break the vacuum between core and plastic. 532
Figure 17.70 Sequence in ejection molded parts using ejection pins. 534
Figure 17.71 Operation of ejector pins (courtesy of Husky Injection Molding
Systems Inc.). 536
Figure 17.72 Operation of stripper plate (courtesy of Husky Injection Molding
Systems Inc.). 536
Figure 17.73 Hydraulic operation of stripper plate (courtesy of Husky Injection
Molding Systems Inc.). 537
Figure 17.74 Chain operation of stripper plate. 537
Figure 17.75 Ejection system incorporating blades. 538
Figure 17.76 Flexible molded parts can easily be ejected from the mold cavity. 538
Figure 17.77 View of undercut that ensures molded part is retained in female cavity.
Data on undercuts that are strippable. 539
Figure 17.78 Examples of dimensional changes of annealed nylon 6/6 versus
temperature at various humidities. 540
Figure 17.79 Nylon 6/6 shrinkage due to annealing versus mold temperature. 541
Figure 17.80 This nomograph for nylon estimates shrinkages. 543
Figure 17.81 Shrinkage as a function of part thickness and gate area. 544
Figure 17.82 Molds can be cored to eliminate or reduce shrinkage. 544
Figure 17.83 Example of shrinkage control and mold dimensions. 545
Figure 17.84 Example of a simplified unscrewing bottle cap mold. 545
Figure 17.85 Examples of sprue pullers. 550
Figure 17.86 Example of the location for a mold pressure transducer sensor. 551
Figure 17.87 Guide to mold alignment. 551
Figure 17.88 Examples of only a few of the many preengineered mold component
parts and devices. 559
Figure 17.89 Preengineered spiral flow test mold. 567
Figure 17.90 Example of an extrusion line that includes a die and downstream
equipment. 573
Figure 17.91 Some identifying terms for dies; other terms are described in the text. 576
Figure 17.92 Location of the extrusion die land. 582
Figure 17.93 Examples of melt flow patterns in a coat hanger die. 586
Figure 17.94 Examples of melt distribution with die geometry via their manifold
channels. Each die has limitations for certain types of melts. 586
Figure 17.95 Examples of melt flow patterns based on minimum die and process
control. 587
Figure 17.96 Schematic of wall-thickness control for extruding blow molded parisons. 589

xxvi Figures
Figure 17.97 Examples of nonstreamlined and streamlined entrances in dies. 590
Figure 17.98 Flow coefficients calculated at different aspect ratios for various shapes
using the same equation. 593
Figure 17.99 Calculation for the volumetric melt flow rate for this specific shape. 594
Figure 17.100 Shown are the (more conventional) rigid and die-lip lands. 595
Figure 17.101 Example of the land in an extrusion blow molding die that is usually
from 10:1 to 20:1 ratio. 596
Figure 17.102 Examples of different profiles that include using lands of different
configurations. 597
Figure 17.103 Honing extrusion coater die land. 599
Figure 17.104 Schematic of feedblock sheet die. 599
Figure 17.105 Example of a dual chamber of a feedblock and die assembly. 600
Figure 17.106 Specially designed Proteus feedblock (courtesy of EDI). 601
Figure 17.107 Example of heating different dies. 602
Figure 17.108 Melt flow rates versus melt pressure in die openings. 603
Figure 17.109 Examples of flat dies with its controls. 609
Figure 17.110 Examples of deckles that are adjusted during processing (top) and
manually adjusted off-line. 610
Figure 17.111 Examples of a flat die’s automatic control systems. 611
Figure 17.112 Cutaway view of a coat hanger sheet die with a restrictor bar. 612
Figure 17.113 Example of a straight coating or laminating manifold die. 613
Figure 17.114 Examples of a crosshead coating dies. 613
Figure 17.115 Examples of single-layer blown-film dies include side-fed typex (top
left), bottom-fed types with spiders (top center), and spiral-fed types. 614
Figure 17.116 Examples of different pipe die designs. 617
Figure 17.117 Different views of assembled and disassembled profile dies. 618
Figure 17.118 Examples of wire coating dies. 619
Figure 17.119 Schematic for determining wire coated DRB in dies. 620
Figure 17.120 Schematic for determining wire coating DDR in dies. 621
Figure 17.121 Examples of netting and other special forms. 622
Figure 17.122 Examples of underwater pelletizer dies. 624
Figure 17.123 Examples of coextruded dies. 625
Figure 17.124 Examples of feedblock multimanifold coextrusion dies. 629
Figure 17.125 Schematic of the RV feedblock showing melt paths and assembled
RV feedblock with layer control plates and skin flow inserts in the
foreground (courtesy of Davis-Standard). 630
Figure 17.126 Example of a coextrusion combining adapter. 631
Figure 17.127 Examples of layered plastics based on four modes of die rotation. 632
Figure 17.128 Example of the multilayer blown-film die. 632
Figure 17.129 Displacement of layers leaving an extruder film die. 633

Figures xxvii
Figure 17.130 New coextrusion die design (left) is compared to the traditional flat-
plate die. 634
Figure 18.1 Example ofAE required for plastics going from a railcar to a silo. 744
Figure 18.2 Closeup view of a piping system to and from silos, with each having a
capacity of 2000 lb. 745
Figure 18.3 Examples of plant layout with extrusion and injection molding primary
andAE. 746
Figure 18.4 Example of an extrusion laminator withAE. 747
Figure 18.5 Example of a blow-molding extruder withAE (rolls, turret winder, etc.). 748
Figure 18.6 Example of an extruder coater withAE. 749
Figure 18.7 Example of plant layout with injection molding primary andAE. 749
Figure 18.8 Example of extruded products requiringAE. 750
Figure 18.9 Example of ventilationAE used with an injection molding machine
(courtesy of Husky Injection Molding Systems Inc.). 751
Figure 18.10 Examples of material handling AE used with an injection molding
machine (courtesy of Husky Injection Molding Systems Inc.). 752
Figure 18.11 Example of a pneumatic vacuum venturi flow system. 757
Figure 18.12 Example of continuous pressure pellets with rates based on polystyrene
at 35 lb/ft3 (560 kg/m3). 760
Figure 18.13 Example of continuous vacuum pellets with rates based on polystyrene
at 35 lb/ft3 (560 kg/m3). 761
Figure 18.14 Example of continuous vacuum powder with rates based on polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) at 35 lb/ft3 (560 kg/m3). 762
Figure 18.15 Example of a 10 hp vacuum system conveying polystyrene at 35 lb/ft3
(560 kg/m3). 763
Figure 18.16 Example of a 25 hp vacuum system conveying polystyrene at 35 lb/ft3
(560 kg/m3). 764
Figure 18.17 Example of a single pneumatic material-handling line-feeding hoppers. 768
Figure 18.18 Example of the front and side views of a basic hopper. 769
Figure 18.19 Introduction to hopper mixers. 770
Figure 18.20 Example of a dump-type hopper loader. 770
Figure 18.21 Example of a screw-controlled feeding loader (courtesy of Spirex
Corporation). 771
Figure 18.22 Detail view of a hopper screw-controlled feeding loader. 771
Figure 18.23 Example of components in a hopper blender. 772
Figure 18.24 Example of metering a color additive in a blender. 773
Figure 18.25 Example of a hopper power-pump loader. 773
Figure 18.26 Example of a vacuum hopper-loading cycle. 774
Figure 18.27 Systems utilizing a rotary air lock feeder to separate pressure and
vacuum airflow. 775

xxviii Figures
Figure 18.28 Examples of coarse, dusty, and powder material-filtering systems. 776
Figure 18.29 Example of a positive take-out and transfer mechanism for molded
products (courtesy of Husky Injection Molding Systems Inc.). 778
Figure 18.30 Example of a positive take-out system to handle and pack molded
Figure 18.31 Example of a free-drop take-out and transfer mechanism of molded
products. 780
Figure 18.32 Example of an unscramble-and-orient system for molded products
(courtesy of Husky Injection Molding Systems Inc.). 781
Figure 18.33 Example of bulk filling with automatic carton indexing of molded
Figure 18.34 Example of flow of material to shipping of molded products. 782
Figure 18.35 Example of a robot removing parts from a mold and depositing them in
orderly fashion in a container. 783
Figure 18.36 Mold base en route manually to injection molding press. 788
Figure 18.37 Mold base placed manually to the right in injection molding press. 789
Figure 18.38 Fully automatic horizontal mold change (courtesy of Staubli Corp.,
Duncan, South Carolina). 790
Figure 18.39 Fully automatic overhead-crane mold change. 790
Figure 18.40 Examples of tension-control rollers in a film, sheet, or coating line. 791
Figure 18.41 Example of laminating with an adhesive. 791
Figure 18.42 Example of roll-change-sequence winder (courtesy of Black Clawson). 791
Figure 18.43 Closeup view of a tension roll that is processing plastic film. 792
Figure 18.44 Example herringbone idler reducing wrinkles of web. 792
Figure 18.45 Examples of drum-cooling designs with shell cooling being the best
design. 793
Figure 18.46 Examples of matted and unmatted embossing rolls. 793
Figure 18.47 Example of a wood-grain embossing roll. 794
Figure 18.48 Example of ultrasonically sealing a decorative pattern. 794
Figure 18.50 Example of a dancer roll controlling tension in an extruded sheet line. 795
Figure 18.51 Example of an extruded sheet line turret wind-up reel change system. 795
Figure 18.49 Guide to sheet-polishing roll sizes with a 450°F (230°C) melt temperature. 795
Figure 18.52 View of a large single winder at the end of an extruder sheet line
(courtesy ofWelex). 796
Figure 18.53 View of a large dual-turret winder at the end of an extruder sheet line. 797
Figure 18.54 View of a sheet roll stock extruder winder with triple fixed shafts
(courtesy ofWelex). 798
Figure 18.55 View of downstream extruder-blown film line going through control
rolls and dual wind-up turrets (courtesy ofWindmoeller & Hoelscher
Corporation). 799

Figures xxix
Figure 18.56 Examples of pipe-extrusion caterpillar puller with rollers and conveyor
belts. 800
Figure 18.57 Description of a caterpillar belt puller used in an extruder line (courtesy
of Conair). 801
Figure 18.58 Description of a vacuum sizing tank used in an extruder line (courtesy of
Conair). 801
Figure 18.59 Description of a water-and-spray tank used in an extruder line (courtesy
of Conair). 802
Figure 18.60 Description of a rotary knife cutter used in an extruder line (courtesy of
Conair). 802
Figure 18.61 Description of a pneumatic-stop rotary knife cutter used in an extruder
line (courtesy of Conair). 803
Figure 18.62 Description of a traveling up-cut saw used in an extruder line (courtesy
of Conair). 803
Figure 18.63 Description of a product takeaway conveyor used in an extruder line
(courtesy of Conair) 804
Figure 18.64 Examples in the use of masking for paint spraying. 814
Figure 18.65 Examples of paint spray-and-wipe. 815
Figure 18.66 Examples of screen printing. 815
Figure 18.67 Example of hot stamping using a roll-on technique. 815
Figure 18.68 Example of pad transfer printing. 816
Figure 18.69 Joining and bonding methods. 830
Figure 18.70 Examples of joint geometries. 831
Figure 18.71 Examples of corona treatments in extrusion lines. 839
Figure 18.72 Guide for molding threads. 852
Figure 18.73 Examples of assembling all plastic and plastic to different materials
where thermal stresses can become a problem when proper design is not
used (chapter 19). 853
Figure 18.74 Examples of self-tapping screws. 855
Figure 18.75 Molded-in insert designs. 856
Figure 18.76 Examples of metal-expansion types of slotted and nonslotted inserts. 859
Figure 18.77 Examples of press-fit-stress analyses (courtesy of Bayer). 861
Figure 18.78 Examples of cantilever beam snap-fits. 863
Figure 18.79 Example of cold staking of plastic. 864
Figure 18.80 Example of hot staking of plastic. 864
Figure 18.81 Example of hot-plate welding. 869
Figure 18.82 Film-welded, 8-ply arrangement using a Doboy thermal welder. 872
Figure 18.83 Example of a manual hot-gas welding. 874
Figure 18.84 Example of an automatic hot-gas welder; hot gas blown between sheets,
which melt and flow together. 874

xxx Figures
Figure 18.85 Example of design joints for hot-gas welding. 875
Figure 18.86 Examples of visually examining hot-gas weld quality. 875
Figure 18.87 Example of linear-vibration welding. 876
Figure 18.88 Penetration-versus-time curve showing the four phases of vibration welding. 876
Figure 18.89 Spin welding, where one part does not move and the other part rotates. 881
Figure 18.90 Example of a joint used in spin welding. 881
Figure 18.91 Components of an ultrasonic welder. 882
Figure 18.92 Stages in ultrasonic welding. 883
Figure 18.93 Examples of plastic mating joints to be ultrasonically welded. 884
Figure 18.94 Example of induction heat produced during induction welding. 886
Figure 18.95 Example of induction welding a lid to a container. 886
Figure 18.96 The three steps in resistance welding. 890
Figure 18.97 Example of an extrusion-welding system, where the hot air melts the
plastic to be welded prior to the extruded melt flows into the area. 891
Figure 18.98 Examples of cutting and punching in-line, extrudedTPs. 895
Figure 18.99 Example of extrusion in-line shear cutter with sheets being stacked. 897
Figure 18.100 Guide to slitting extruded film or coating. 909
Figure 18.101 Schematics of cutting-tool actions. 911
Figure 18.102 Basic schematic of a cutting tool. 913
Figure 18.103 Example of forces acting on a tool. 914
Figure 18.104 Example of wear pattern. 915
Figure 18.105 Nomenclature for single-point tools. 918
Figure 18.106 Nomenclature of twist drills. 918
Figure 18.107 Nomenclature of milling cutters. 919
Figure 18.108 Cutting tool for machining (skiving) tape from a molded plastic block. 922

Table 10.1 Examples of different coating materials 3
Table 10.2 Important coating compounds and applications 6
Table 10.3 Environmental performance of some coating materials 9
Table 10.4 Survey of often-used coating systems for concrete 11
Table 10.5 Wet coating materials for metals 11
Table 10.6 Examples of coating materials including those containing solvents 12
Table 10.7 Typical release coating systems and applications 14
Table 10.8 Example of paint and varnish coating compositions 16
Table 10.9 Examples of solvents and their behaviors 18
Table 10.10 Examples of coating performances 21
Table 10.11 General performance comparisons 29
Table 10.12 General composition of dispersion coatings 30
Table 10.13 Example of advantages using dispersion coatings 30
Table 10.14 Examples of properties for Parylenes N and C 38
Table 10.15 Effect of various sterilization methods for Parylenes N and C 38
Table 10.16 Guide for applying paint coatings to plastic substrates 40
Table 10.17 Surface energy of plastics as a result of fluorination 40
Table 10.18 Typical plastics used in coil coatings 41
Table 10.19 Coil coating plastic characteristics and applications 42
Table 10.20 Plastic properties of coil coatings 43
Table 10.21 Coating methods related to performances 46
Table 10.22 Examples of spray coating methods related to transfer efficiency 55
Table 10.23 Plastic coating property guide 66
Table 10.24 Examples of acids and bases pH 76
Tables

xxxii Tables
Table 10.25 Color indicators of acids and bases pH 77
Table 10.26 Classifications and definitions of solvents 81
Table 10.27 Examples of basic calculations ofVOC-emissions during applications of
emulsion paints 86
Table 10.28 Critical properties of solvents 89
Table 12.1 Information on computerized tomography (CT) devices (courtesy of
Bayer) 106
Table 12.2 Information on GMP’s patented refrigerator door technique 108
Table 12.3 Calculations for determining dimensions for a dam gate (courtesy of
Bayer) 120
Table 12.4 Calculations for determining dimensions for a quadratic gate (courtesy
of Bayer) 121
Table 12.5 Terminology of chemical and other terms 125
Table 12.6 Structural foam information for large, complex products 128
Table 12.7 John Deere rear shield made from a soy-based structural foam PUR RIM
formulation 129
Table 12.8 Chemical reaction review 135
Table 12.9 Example of cost analysis of PUR RIM and injection molding of products
with large surface areas 139
Table 13.1 Comparison of different processes 141
Table 13.2 Tack temperatures for different plastics 142
Table 13.3 Relative time to reach two tack temperatures at different oven
temperatures 143
Table 13.4 Heat transfer coefficients during mold cooling 143
Table 13.5 Steps taken during the RM fabrication process 144
Table 13.6 Effect of oven heat time on RM plastics 145
Table 13.7 Examples of rotational ratios for different shapes 146
Table 13.8 Effect of oven condition on foaming high-density PE (HDPE) 147
Table 13.9 Examples of RM products 148
Table 13.10 Examples of PVC plastics used in RM 150
Table 13.11 Sieve sizes 151
Table 13.12 Classifying particle shape for irregular particles 151
Table 13.13 Typical powder bulk density 152
Table 13.14 Comparing powders with micropellets 153
Table 13.15 Types of powder flow 154
Table 13.16 Property changes with increasing PE density (chapter 2) 159
Table 13.17 Property changes with increasing melt index (chapter 22) 159
Table 13.18 Recommended draft angles for RM plastics 163
Table 13.19 Recommended draft angles for smooth and textured (0.1 mm texture
depth) molds 163

Tables xxxiii
Table 13.20 Examples of warpage standards for RM plastics 164
Table 13.21 Guide for inner and outer radiuses in RM dimensions 164
Table 13.22 Properties of mold materials 169
Table 13.23 Plaster casting materials 169
Table 13.24 Heating cycle times for aluminum molds 170
Table 13.25 Steel sheet-metal gauge 170
Table 13.26 RM mechanical design aspects 173
Table 13.27 Wall-thickness range for RM plastics 176
Table 13.28 Guide to linear shrinkage values for RM plastics 176
Table 14.1 Example of applications for compression molded thermoset (TS) plastics 180
Table 14.2 Comparing compression molded properties with other processes 180
Table 14.3 Relating materials to properties to processes 181
Table 14.4 Examples of the effect of preheating and part depth of phenolic parts on
CM pressure (psi) 183
Table 14.5 Examples of OD, ID, height, and weight relationships of different PTFE
billet CMs 197
Table 14.6 Examples of PTFE sintering conditions 201
Table 14.7 Effect of cooling rate on crystallinity, typical for granular molding
powders (courtesy of DuPont) 202
Table 14.8 Effect of CM processes on properties (courtesy of DuPont) 204
Table 14.9 Guide to wall-thickness tolerance for CM different plastics 205
Table 14.10 Guide in the use of reinforcements and fillers in different molding
compounds 206
Table 14.11 Transfer molding compared to CM 213
Table 14.12 Transfer molding compared to reinforced plastic molding 214
Table 14.13 Examples of isostatically molded parts 217
Table 14.14 Isostatic mold design considerations 222
Table 15.1 Types of composites 224
Table 15.2 Examples of composite ablative compounds 224
Table 15.3 Examples of reinforcement types and processing methods 232
Table 15.4 Examples of RTP properties 233
Table 15.5 TP-glass fiber RPs injection molding (IM) temperatures 234
Table 15.6 Examples of properties and processes of RTS plastics 235
Table 15.7 Properties of the popularTS polyester-glass fiber RPs 235
Table 15.8 Different properties of RTPs and RTSs perASTM standards 236
Table 15.9 Properties of fiber reinforcements 240
Table 15.10 Reinforcement thermal properties 240
Table 15.11 Properties of glass-fiber RPs 241
Table 15.12 Comparative yarn properties 242
Table 15.13 Examples of different carbon fibers 242

xxxiv Tables
Table 15.14 Aramid fiber-TP RP properties 242
Table 15.15 Properties of unidirectional hybrid-nylon RPs 243
Table 15.16 Charpy impact test results of square woven fabric using hybrid fibers-
nylon RPs 244
Table 15.17 Damage propagation of aramid and E-glass RPs using tensile-notched
test specimens 244
Table 15.18 Examples of different glass fiber yarns 244
Table 15.19 Examples of glass fiber staple fiber yarn data 245
Table 15.20 Examples of glass fiber cloth constructions 246
Table 15.21 Examples of fillers used inTP RPs (chapter 1) 253
Table 15.22 Examples of fillers used inTS RPs (chapter 1) 253
Table 15.23 Comparison of tensile properties in RPs, steel, and aluminum 254
Table 15.24 Mechanical properties of resins that are reinforced to increase properties 255
Table 15.25 Properties perASTM of 30 wt% glass-fiber RTPs 256
Table 15.26 Properties of glass-fiber RTPs with different glass fiber contents and
other reinforcements 257
Table 15.27 Properties of short and long glass fiber-nylon 6/6 RPs at elevated
temperatures 257
Table 15.28 Examples of obtaining desired properties ofTP-RPs 258
Table 15.29 Properties of RPs with 30 wt% to 50 wt% glass fiber-TS polyester based
on fabricating process 259
Table 15.30 Properties ofTS polyester RPs with different amounts of glass fibers 260
Table 15.31 Properties of glass fiber mats RPs with different types ofTS polyesters 261
Table 15.32 General properties ofTS RPs perASTM testing procedures 262
Table 15.33 Examples of mechanical properties ofTS RPs at ambient and elevated
temperatures 264
Table 15.34 Flexural modulus of glass-polyester–RPs exposed to various
environmental elements 265
Table 15.35 Strength and modulus for glass fiber-TS RPs at low temperature 266
Table 15.36 Coefficients of thermal expansion for parallel glass fiber-TS RPs 267
Table 15.37 Example ofTS RPs for electrical applications 268
Table 15.38 Mechanical properties of glass fabric-TS polyester RPs exposed to
various intensities of near-UV radiation in a vacuum 269
Table 15.39 Mechanical properties of glass fiber fabric-TS polyester RPs after
irradiation at elevated temperatures 270
Table 15.40 Properties of different materials 271
Table 15.41 Properties of unidirectional RPs using different types of fibers 276
Table 15.42 Properties of unidirectional graphite fiber-thermoplastic RPs varying in
resin content by weight and varying in void content by volume (at 72°F
and 350°F) 277

Tables xxxv
Table 15.43 Comparing properties of SMC with steel 283
Table 15.44 Filament-wound structures for commercial and industrial applications 296
Table 15.45 Filament-wound structures for aerospace, hydrospace, and military
applications 297
Table 15.46 Different FW patterns meet different performance requirements 298
Table 15.47 RP processing guide to RP process selection 316
Table 15.48 RP processing guide to RP size 317
Table 15.49 Examples of a few processes to material comparisons 318
Table 15.50 RP resin transfer, SMC compression, and IM processes compared 319
Table 15.51 Examples of RTS plastic processes 320
Table 15.52 Comparing uses of different plastics with different RP and other processes 321
Table 15.53 Examples of interrelating product-RP material-process performances 322
Table 15.54 Comparison of RP design aspects and processes to cost 323
Table 15.55 Examples of processing variables 325
Table 15.56 Product design versus processing methods 326
Table 15.57 Other product design considerations versus processing methods 327
Table 15.58 Product design shapes versus processing methods 328
Table 15.59 Examples of the efficiency RPs fiber orientation 329
Table 15.60 Example ofTS polyester volume shrinkage during curing 330
Table 15.61 RPs wall-thickness tolerances 331
Table 15.62 Comparing unreinforced and RP mold shrinkage rates 332
Table 15.63 Composite efficiency of RPs 334
Table 15.64 Examples of loading conditions 334
Table 16.1 Example of a PVC blend formulation 343
Table 16.2 Automotive industry objectives for decorative plastics 349
Table 16.3 Definitions applicable to low-pressure decorating molding 350
Table 16.4 Example of an MCM-IML molding cycle 352
Table 16.5 Examples of MCM-IML advantages and applications 353
Table 16.6 Examples of valid reasons for using MCM-IML 354
Table 16.7 Examples of invalid reasons for using MCM-IML 354
Table 16.8 Process and materials composition 355
Table 16.9 Processing, materials, and geometry 355
Table 16.10 Geometry function and complexity 356
Table 16.11 Listing of abbreviations used in the following tables 357
Table 16.12 Reactive liquid composite molding 358
Table 16.13 Multimaterial multiprocess (MMP) technology 359
Table 16.15 TP sheet composite 360
Table 16.14 Fusible core IM 360
Table 16.16 Gas-assisted IM: process and simulation 361
Table 16.17 Low-pressure molding 362

xxxvi Tables
Table 16.18 Advanced blow molding 363
Table 16.19 Microcellular plastic: formation and shaping 364
Table 16.20 Lamellar IM 365
Table 17.1 Types of tools and materials 367
Table 17.2 American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and some BS numbers without
their “B” prefix (BH10A/H10A) with comparableWerkstoff numbers
and their mean (average) chemical compositions 371
Table 17.3 Werkstoff numbers with comparableAISI numbers or a near-matching
chemical composition 374
Table 17.4 Elements and their symbols 376
Table 17.5 Examples of different metals used in tools 377
Table 17.6 Examples of mold and die tools for different fabricating processes 378
Table 17.7 Examples of cost comparison of molds in terms of the properties of plastic 380
Table 17.8 Typical properties of various RP mold bag materials 381
Table 17.9 Examples of the properties of different tool materials 383
Table 17.10 Guide to different tool materials, where 5 is best 384
Table 17.11 Examples of improving/changing properties of tool materials via alloying 384
Table 17.12 Example of costs and properties of tool materials, including alloys 385
Table 17.13 Hardness of tool materials for a few different plastic materials and
processes 385
Table 17.14 Example of tool materials arranged in order of hardness 386
Table 17.15 Different hardness conversions 387
Table 17.16 Thermal conductivity of tool materials 388
Table 17.17 Thermal-expansion coefficients of tool materials 389
Table 17.18 HRC file check 389
Table 17.19 Example of a schedule, in weeks, for purchasing of a mold 390
Table 17.20 Guide for mold construction 390
Table 17.22 Example of a mold progress report 391
Table 17.21 Example of a mold checklist 391
Table 17.23 Example of a detailed mold progress report 392
Table 17.25 Properties of the more popular tool materials 394
Table 17.26 Examples of tool steels with applications 395
Table 17.27 Examples of tool steel alloys (first two digits denote type of steel; second
two digits indicate carbon weight percentage) 396
Table 17.28 Property comparison of aluminum and steel 401
Table 17.29 Strength of aluminum based on thickness 401
Table 17.30 Wrought aluminum performance 402
Table 17.31 Properties of beryllium copper versus other tool materials 404
Table 17.32 Various heat treatments versus finish of Uddeholm tool steels 409
Table 17.34 Identification of surface finish based on manufacturing process 409

Tables xxxvii
Table 17.33 Different grain standards used for surface finishes 409
Table 17.35 Diamond-particle compound relates to surface finish 410
Table 17.36 Polishing sequences 412
Table 17.37 Examples of coatings based on material used 418
Table 17.38 Examples of coatings based on process used 419
Table 17.39 Guide to tool surface enhancements and coatings commonly used
(courtesy of Eastman Chemical Co./431) 420
Table 17.40 Examples of coating materials for tools 423
Table 17.41 Examples of cleaning methods 428
Table 17.42 Examples of tapers for cavity sidewalls 434
Table 17.43 Examples of pressures applied to molds 456
Table 17.44 Examples of plastic mold temperatures and pressure requirements 456
Table 17.45 Basic mold component operations 458
Table 17.46 Guidelines for melt shear rates (courtesy of Synventive Molding Solutions) 485
Table 17.47 TP melt temperatures (°C) 486
Table 17.48 Guide to size of round runners 493
Table 17.49 Property comparison of some mold construction materials 517
Table 17.50 Applications of principal mold steels 518
Table 17.51 Guide to cooling channel diameters for PP (see Fig. 17.61) 522
Table 17.52 Examples of factors that influence PP shrinkage 545
Table 17.53 Guide for mold shrinkage of ¼ and ½ in thick specimens perASTM
D 955 546
Table 17.54 Guide for mold shrinkage for different thickness dimensions 547
Table 17.55 Examples of error in mold size as a result of using incorrect shrinkage
formulas 548
Table 17.56 Checklist and guideline for operating a mold 568
Table 17.57 SPI Moldmakers Division quotations guide 571
Table 17.58 Examples of operational effects and geometrical variables on melt flow
conditions in a die 592
Table 17.59 Examples of melt shear rates 604
Table 17.60 Examples of the effect of shear rate on the die swell ofTPs 604
Table 17.61 Examples of extrusion dies from Extrusion Dies Inc. 607
Table 17.62 Guide to different pellets that are fabricated from different performing
dies 623
Table 17.63 Examples of blown-film applications for coextrusion 628
Table 17.64 Rapid prototyping processes 638
Table 17.65 Checklist procedure for mold repair (courtesy of Synventive Molding
Solutions) 670
Table 17.66 Example of SPI’s moldmakers directory for services 671
Table 17.24 Tool materials with near-matching chemical compositions 689

xxxviii Tables
Table 18.1 Example of manufacturing cycle that includes equipment 739
Table 18.2 SPE auxiliaries buyer’s guide (courtesy of SPE) 740
Table 18.3 Introduction to auxiliary and SE performances 754
Table 18.4 Examples of auxiliary and SE 755
Table 18.5 Estimated annual savings for energy-efficient electric motors (Electrical
Apparatus ServiceAssociation) 765
Table 18.6 Examples of the usual functions of robots and perimeter guarding 784
Table 18.7 Examples of comparing robots with other parts-handling systems 786
Table 18.8 Examples of types of robots manufactured 787
Table 18.9 Examples of different rolls used in different extrusion processes 806
Table 18.10 Guide to decorating 808
Table 18.11 Examples of methods for decorating plastic products after fabrication 810
Table 18.12 Examples of methods for decorating plastic products in a mold 811
Table 18.13 Guide in comparing a few decorating methods from size to cost 812
Table 18.14 Review of a few decorating methods 813
Table 18.15 Examples of joining methods 817
Table 18.16 Examples of joiningTPs andTSs 817
Table 18.17 Examples of descriptions for different joining methods 818
Table 18.18 Directory of companies that provide joining and assembling methods 820
Table 18.19 Examples of adhesives for bonding plastics to plastics 826
Table 18.20 Examples of bondingTPs to nonplastics 829
Table 18.21 Examples of bondingTS plastics to nonplastics 829
Table 18.22 Adhesive terminology 832
Table 18.23 Example of adhesives classified by composition 834
Table 18.24 Plasma treatment 836
Table 18.26 Peel strength of plastics after plasma treatment perASTM test methods 837
Table 18.25 Lap shear strength of plastics after plasma treatment perAmerican
Society forTesting Materials (ASTM) test methods 837
Table 18.27 Shear strength of PP to PP adhesive bonds in psi (MPa) perASTM D 4501 838
Table 18.28 Shear strength of polyethylene (PE) to PE in psi (MPa) 840
Table 18.29 Shear strength ofABS toABS in psi (MPa) 841
Table 18.30 Shear strength of PP to PP in psi (MPa) 842
Table 18.31 Shear strength of PVC to PVC in psi (MPa) 843
Table 18.32 Shear strength of polycarbonate (PC) to PC in psi (MPa) 844
Table 18.33 Shear strength of PUR to PUR in psi (MPa) 845
Table 18.34 Shear strength of PA to PA in psi (MPa) 846
Table 18.35 Shear strength of polyimide to polyimide in psi (MPa) 847
Table 18.36 Shear strength of acetal to acetal in psi (MPa) 848
Table 18.37 Shear strength of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) to PMMA in
psi (MPa) 849

Tables xxxix
Table 18.38 Shear strength of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) to PET in psi (MPa) 850
Table 18.39 Shear strength of polyetheretherketone (PEEK) to PEEK in psi (MPa) 850
Table 18.40 Shear strength of liquid crystal polymer (LCP) to LCP in psi (MPa) 851
Table 18.41 Shear strength of fluoroplastic to fluoroplastic in psi (MPa) 851
Table 18.42 Guide relating molded wall thicknesses to insert diameters (in [mm]) 862
Table 18.43 Examples of welding methods versus tensile-strength retention 865
Table 18.44 Examples of welding characteristics 865
Table 18.45 Examples of ultrasonic welding applications 866
Table 18.46 Comparison of a few welding methods 866
Table 18.47 Comparing welding of different plastics, each to itself 867
Table 18.48 Economic guide to a few welding processes 868
Table 18.49 Tensile strength of hot-plate welding PP copolymerized with ethylene
pipe 870
Table 18.50 Impact and tensile strength of hot-plate welding high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) 870
Table 18.51 Tensile strength of different hot-plate welds of PP copolymerized with
ethylene pipe 870
Table 18.52 Tensile strength of hot-plate weldingABS 871
Table 18.53 Properties of vibration welds of PC to itself and other plastics 877
Table 18.54 Properties of vibration welds of PC/ABS to itself and other plastics 877
Table 18.55 Properties of vibration welds of PC/polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) to
itself and to PC 878
Table 18.56 Properties of vibration welds ofABS to itself and other plastics 878
Table 18.57 Properties of vibration welds of acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylate (ASA) to
itself 879
Table 18.58 Properties of vibration welds of PS-modified PPE/PA to itself and other
plastics 879
Table 18.59 Properties of vibration welds of modified polypropylene oxide (PPO) to
itself and other plastics 880
Table 18.60 Properties of vibration welds of PBT to itself and other plastics 880
Table 18.61 Example of a boss-hole design for the use of ultrasonically installed
inserts using styrene maleic anhydride copolymer 884
Table 18.62 Optimum ultrasonic welding conditions for impact-modified PET-PC
blend 884
Table 18.63 Weld strength of ultrasonic bonds of medical plastics; three letters in
each box represent bonds subjected to no sterilization, ethylene-oxide
sterilization, and gamma-radiation sterilization, respectively 885
Table 18.64 Guide to bonding plastic to plastic via induction welding 886
Table 18.65 Properties of radio-frequency welding of flexible PVC to itself and other
plastics 888

xl Tables
Table 18.66 Properties of radio-frequency welding of rigid PVC to itself and other
plastics 889
Table 18.67 Properties of radio-frequency welding of aromatic polyester PUR to
itself and other plastics 889
Table 18.68 Properties of laser-welded PE joints 892
Table 18.69 Properties of laser-welded PP joints 892
Table 18.70 Examples of machining operations 893
Table 18.71 Examples of finishing operations 893
Table 18.72 Examples of supplementary machining operations 894
Table 18.73 Guide to single-point box-tool machining (chapter 17 reviews tool
materials) 898
Table 18.74 Guide to turning, cutoff, and form-tool machining 899
Table 18.75 Guide to drilling 900
Table 18.76 Guide to end milling: Slotting machining 901
Table 18.77 Guide to end milling: Peripheral machining 902
Table 18.78 Guide to side and slot milling arbor-mounted cutter machining 903
Table 18.79 Guide to face-milling machining 904
Table 18.80 Guide to power band sawing 905
Table 18.81 Guide to tappingTPs andTS plastics 905
Table 18.82 Guide to reamingTPs andTS plastics 906
Table 18.83 Guide to standard tolerances for punched holes and slots in sheet stock 907
Table 18.84 NEMA guide to standard tolerances for punched holes and slots in high-
pressure composite laminated grades of sheet stock, rods, and tubes 908
Table 18.85 Guide to cutting equipment capabilities 908
Table 18.86 Guide to drill geometry 908
Table 18.87 Examples of cutting-tool geometries 912
Table 18.88 Guide for drilling 1/2 to 3/8 in holes inTPs 919

AA acrylic acid
AAE AmericanAssociation of Engineers
AAES AmericanAssociation of Engineering
Societies
ABR polyacrylate
ABS acrylontrile-butadiene-styrene
AC alternating current
ACS American Chemical Society
ACTC Advanced CompositeTechnology
Consortium
ad adhesive
ADC allyl diglycol carbonate (also CR-39)
AFCMA Aluminum Foil Container Manufactur-
ers’Association
AFMA American Furniture Manufacturers’
Association
AFML Air Force Material Laboratory
AFPA American Forest and PaperAssociation
AFPR Association of Foam Packaging Recyclers
AGMA American Gear Manufacturers’Association
AIAA American Institute ofAeronautics and
Astronauts
AIChE American Institute of Chemical Engineers
AIMCAL Association of Industrial Metallizers,
Coaters, and Laminators
AISI American Iron and Steel Institute
AMBA American Mold Builders Association
AMC alkyd molding compound
AN acrylonitrile
ANSI American National Standards Institute
ANTEC AnnualTechnical Conference (of the Soci-
ety of the Plastic Engineers)
APC American Plastics Council
APET amorphous polyethylene terephthalate
APF Association of Plastics Fabricators
API American Paper Institute
APME Association of Plastics Manufacturers in
Europe
APPR Association of Post-Consumer Plastics
Recyclers
AQL acceptable quality level
AR aramid fiber; aspect ratio
ARP advanced reinforced plastic
ASA acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylate
ASCII american standard code for information
exchange
ASM American Society for Metals
Abbreviations

xlii Abbreviations
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASNDT American Society for Non-Destructive
Testing
ASQC American Society for Quality Control
ASTM American Society forTesting Materials
atm atmosphere
bbl barrel
BFRL Building and Fire Research Laboratory
Bhn Brinell hardness number
BM blow molding
BMC bulk molding compound
BO biaxially oriented
BOPP biaxially oriented polypropylene
BR polybutadiene
Btu British thermal unit
buna polybutadiene
butyl butyl rubber
CA cellulose acetate
CAB cellulose acetate butyrate
CaCO3 calcium carbonate (lime)
CAD computer-aided design
CAE computer-aided engineering
CAM computer-aided manufacturing
CAMPUS computer-aided material preselection
by uniform standards
CAN cellulose acetate nitrate
CAP cellulose acetate propionate
CAS Chemical Abstract Service (a division of the
American Chemical Society)
CAT computer-aided testing
CBA chemical blowing agent
CCA cellular cellulose acetate
CCV Chrysler composites vehicle
CEM Consorzio Export Mouldex (Italian)
CFA Composites FabricatorsAssociation
CFC chlorofluorocarbon
CFE polychlorotrifluoroethylene
CIM ceramic injection molding; computer inte-
grated manufacturing
CLTE coefficient of linear thermal expansion
CM compression molding
CMA Chemical Manufacturers’Association
CMRA Chemical Marketing Research Association
CN cellulose nitrate (celluloid)
CNC computer numerically controlled
CP Canadian Plastics
CPE chlorinated polyethylene
CPET crystallized polyethylene terephthalate
CPI Canadian Plastics Institute
cpm cycles/minute
CPVC chlorinated polyvinyl chloride
CR chloroprene rubber; compression ratio
CR-39 allyl diglycol carbonate
CRP carbon reinforced plastics
CRT cathode ray tube
CSM chlorosulfonyl polyethylene
CTFE chlorotrifluorethylene
DAP diallyl phthalate
dB decibel
DC direct current
DEHP diethylhexyl phthalate
den denier
DGA differential gravimetric analysis
DINP diisononyl phthalate
DMA dynamic mechanical analysis
DMC dough molding compound
DN Design News publication
DOE Design of Experments
DSC differential scanning calorimeter
DSD Duales System Deutschland (German Recy-
cling System)
DSQ German Society for Quality
DTA differential thermal analysis
DTGA differential thermogravimetric analysis
DTMA dynamic thermomechanical analysis
DTUL deflection temperature under load
DV devolatilization
DVR design value resource; dimensional velocity
research; Druckverformungsrest (German

Abbreviations xliii
compression set); dynamic value research;
dynamic velocity ratio
E modulus of elasticity;Young’s modulus
EBM extrusion blow molding
Ec modulus, creep (apparent)
EC ethyl cellulose
ECTFE polyethylene-chlorotrifluoroethylene
EDM electrical discharge machining
E/E electronic/electrical
EEC European Economic Community
EI modulus × moment of inertia (equals stiffness)
EMI electromagnetic interference
EO ethylene oxide (also EtO)
EOT ethylene ether polysulfide
EP ethylene-propylene
EPA Environmental ProtectionAgency
EPDM ethylene-propylene diene monomer
EPM ethylene-propylene fluorinated
EPP expandable polypropylene
EPR ethylene-propylene rubber
EPS expandable polystyrene
Er modulus, relaxation
Es modulus, secant
ESC environmental stress cracking
ESCR environmental stress cracking resistance
ESD electrostatic safe discharge
ET ethylene polysulfide
ETFE ethylene terafluoroethylene
ETO ethylene oxide
EU entropy unit; European Union
EUPC EuropeanAssociation of Plastics Converters
EUPE European Union of Packaging and
Environment
EUROMAP Eu^ropean Committee of Machine
Manufacturers for the Rubber and Plastics
Industries (Zurich, Switzerland)
EVA ethylene-vinyl acetate
E/VAC ethylene/vinyl acetate copolymer
EVAL ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer (trade-
name for EVOH)
EVE ethylene-vinyl ether
EVOH ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer (or
EVAL)
EX extrusion
F coefficient of friction; Farad; force
FALLO follow all opportunities
FDA Food and Drug Administration
FEA finite element analysis
FEP fluorinated ethylene-propylene
FFS form, fill, and seal
FLC fuzzy logic control
FMCT fusible metal core technology
FPC flexible printed circuit
fpm feet per minute
FRCA Fire Retardant Chemicals Association
FRP fiber reinforced plastic
FRTP fiber reinforced thermoplastic
FRTS fiber reinforced thermoset
FS fluorosilicone
FTIR Fourier transformation infrared
FV frictional force × velocity
G gravity; shear modulus (modulus of rigidity);
torsional modulus
GAIM gas-assisted injection molding
gal gallon
GB gigabyte (billion bytes)
GD&T geometric dimensioning and tolerancing
GDP gross domestic product
GFRP glass fiber reinforced plastic
GMP good manufacturing practice
GNP gross national product
GP general purpose
GPa giga-Pascal
GPC gel permeation chromatography
gpd grams per denier
gpm gallons per minute
GPPS general purpose polystyrene
GRP glass reinforced plastic
GR-S polybutadiene-styrene
GSC gas solid chromatography

xliv Abbreviations
H hysteresis; hydrogen
HA hydroxyapatite
HAF high-abrasion furnace
HB Brinell hardness number
HCFC hydrochlorofluorocarbon
HCl hydrogen chloride
HDPE high-density polyethylene (also PE-HD)
HDT heat deflection temperature
HIPS high-impact polystyrene
HMC high-strength molding compound
HMW-HDPE high molecular weight–high density
polyethylene
H-P Hagen-Poiseuille
HPLC high-pressure liquid chromatography
HPM hot pressure molding
HTS high-temperature superconductor
Hz Hertz (cycles)
I integral; moment of inertia
IB isobutylene
IBC internal bubble cooling
IBM injection blow molding; International Busi-
ness Machines
IC Industrial Computing publication
ICM injection-compression molding
ID internal diameter
IEC International Electrochemical Commission
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers
IGA isothermal gravimetric analysis
IGC inverse gas chromatography
IIE Institute of Industrial Engineers
IM injection molding
IMM injection molding machine
IMPS impact polystyrene
I/O input/output
ipm inch per minute
ips inch per second
IR synthetic polyisoprene (synthetic natural
rubber)
ISA Instrumentation, Systems, andAutomation
ISO International Standardization Organiza-
tion or International Organization for
Standardization
IT information technology
IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry
IV intrinsic viscosity
IVD in vitro diagnostic
J joule
JIS Japanese Industrial Standard
JIT just-in-time
JIT just-in-tolerance
Jp polar moment of inertia
JSR Japanese SBR
JSW Japan SteelWorks
JUSE Japanese Union of Science and Engineering
JWTE JapanWeatheringTest Center
K bulk modulus of elasticity; coefficient of thermal
conductivity; Kelvin; Kunststoffe (plastic in
German)
kb kilobyte (1000 bytes)
kc kilocycle
kg kilogram
KISS keep it short and simple
Km kilometer
kPa kilo-Pascal
ksi thousand pounds per square inch (psi × 103)
lbf pound-force
LC liquid chromatography
LCP liquid crystal polymer
L/D length-to-diameter (ratio)
LDPE low-density polyethylene (PE-LD)
LIM liquid impingement molding; liquid injection
molding
LLDPE linear low-density polyethylene (also
PE-LLD)
LMDPE linear medium density polyethylene
LOX liquid oxygen
LPM low-pressure molding
m matrix; metallocene (catalyst); meter

Abbreviations xlv
mµ micromillimeter; millicron; 0.000001 mm
µm micrometer
MA maleic anhydride
MAD mean absolute deviation; molding area
diagram
Mb bending moment
MBTS benzothiazyl disulfide
MD machine direction; mean deviation
MD&DI Medical Device and Diagnostic Industry
MDI methane diisocyanate
MDPE medium density polyethylene
Me metallocene catalyst
MF melamine formaldehyde
MFI melt flow index
mHDPE metallocene high-density polyethylene
MI melt index
MIM metal powder injection molding
MIPS medium impact polystyrene
MIT Massachusetts Institute ofTechnology
mLLDPE metallocene catalyst linear low-density
polyethylene
MMP multimaterial molding or multimaterial
multiprocess
MPa mega-Pascal
MRPMA Malaysian Rubber Products Manufactur-
ers’Association
Msi million pounds per square inch (psi × 106)
MSW municipal solid waste
MVD molding volume diagram
MVT moisture vapor transmission
MW molecular weight
MWD molecular weight distribution
MWR molding with rotation
N Newton (force)
NACE NationalAssociation of Corrosion
Engineers
NACO NationalAssociation of CAD/CAM
Operation
NAGS NorthAmerica Geosynthetics Society
NASA NationalAeronautics SpaceAdministration
NBR butadiene acrylontrile
NBS National Bureau of Standards (since 1980
renamed the National Institute Standards and
Technology or NIST)
NC numerical control
NCP National Certification in Plastics
NDE nondestructive evaluation
NDI nondestructive inspection
NDT nondestructive testing
NEAT nothing else added to it
NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers’
Association
NEN Dutch standard
NFPA National Fire ProtectionAssociation
NISO National Information Standards
Organization
NIST National Institute of Standards and
Technology
nm nanometer
NOS not otherwise specified
NPCM National Plastics Center and Museum
NPE National Plastics Exhibition
NPFC National Publications and Forms Center
(US government)
NR natural rubber (polyisoprene)
NSC National Safety Council
NTMA NationalTool and Machining Association
NWPCA NationalWooden Pallet and Container
Association
OD outside diameter
OEM original equipment manufacturer
OPET oriented polyethylene terephthalate
OPS oriented polystyrene
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health
Administration
P load; poise; pressure
Pa Pascal
PA polyamide (nylon)
PAI polyamide-imide
PAN polyacrylonitrile

xlvi Abbreviations
PB polybutylene
PBA physical blowing agent
PBNA phenyl-β-naphthylamine
PBT polybutylene terephthalate
PC permeability coefficient; personal computer;
plastic composite; plastic compounding;
plastic-concrete; polycarbonate; printed cir-
cuit; process control; programmable circuit;
programmable controller
PCB printed circuit board
pcf pounds per cubic foot
PCFC polychlorofluorocarbon
PDFM Plastics Distributors and Fabricators
Magazine
PE plastic engineer; polyethylene (UK polythene);
professional engineer
PEEK polyetheretherketone
PEI polyetherimide
PEK polyetherketone
PEN polyethylene naphthalate
PES polyether sulfone
PET polyethylene terephthalate
PETG polyethylene terephthalate glycol
PEX polyethylene crosslinked pipe
PF phenol formaldehyde
PFA perfluoroalkoxy (copolymer of tetrafluoro-
ethylene and perfluorovinylethers)
PFBA polyperfluorobutyl acrylate
phr parts per hundred of rubber
PI polyimide
PIA Plastics Institute ofAmerica
PID proportional-integral-differential
PIM powder injection molding
PLASTEC PlasticsTechnical Evaluation Center
(US Army)
PLC programmable logic controller
PMMA Plastics Molders and Manufacturers’Asso-
ciation (of SME); polymethyl methacrylate
(acrylic)
PMMI Packaging Machinery Manufacturers’
Institute
PO polyolefin
POE polyolefin elastomer
POM polyoxymethylene or polyacetal (acetal)
PP polypropylene
PPA polyphthalamide
ppb parts per billion
PPC polypropylene chlorinated
PPE polyphenylene ether
pph parts per hundred
ppm parts per million
PPO polyphenylene oxide
PPS polyphenylene sulfide
PPSF polyphenylsulfone
PPSU polyphenylene sulphone
PS polystyrene
PSB polystyrene butadiene rubber (GR-S, SBR)
PS-F polystyrene-foam
psf pounds per square foot
PSF polysulphone
psi pounds per square inch
psia pounds per square inch, absolute
psid pounds per square inch, differential
psig pounds per square inch, gauge (above atmo-
spheric pressure)
PSU polysulfone
PTFE polytetrafluoroethylene (orTFE)
PUR polyurethane (also PU, UP)
P-V pressure-volume (also PV)
PVA polyvinyl alcohol
PVAC polyvinyl acetate
PVB polyvinyl butyral
PVC polyvinyl chloride
PVD physical vapor deposition
PVDA polyvinylidene acetate
PVdC polyvinylidene chloride
PVDF polyvinylidene fluoride
PVF polyvinyl fluoride
PVP polyvinyl pyrrolidone

Abbreviations xlvii
PVT pressure-volume-temperature (also P-V-T or
pvT)
PW Plastics World magazine
QA quality assurance
QC quality control
QMC quick mold change
QPL qualified products list
QSR quality system regulation
R Reynolds number; Rockwell (hardness)
rad Quantity of ionizing radiation that results
in the absorption of 100 ergs of energy per
gram of irradiated material.
radome radar dome
RAPRA Rubber and Plastics ResearchAssociation
RC Rockwell C (Rc)
RFI radio frequency interference
RH relative humidity
RIM reaction injection molding
RM rotational molding
RMA Rubber Manufacturers’Association
RMS root mean square
ROI return on investment
RP rapid prototyping; reinforced plastic
RPA Rapid PrototypingAssociation (of SME)
rpm revolutions per minute
RRIM reinforced reaction injection molding
RT rapid tooling; room temperature
RTM resin transfer molding
RTP reinforced thermoplastic
RTS reinforced thermoset
RTV room temperature vulcanization
RV recreational vehicle
Rx radiation curing
SAE Society ofAutomotive Engineers
SAMPE Society for theAdvancement of Material
and Process Engineering
SAN styrene acrylonitrile
SBR styrene-butadiene rubber
SCT soluble core technology
SDM standard deviation measurement
SES Standards Engineering Society
SF safety factor; short fiber; structural foam
s.g. specific gravity
SI International System of Units
SIC Standard Industrial Classification
SMC sheet molding compound
SMCAA Sheet Molding Compound Automotive
Alliance
SME Society of Manufacturing Engineers
S-N stress-number of cycles
SN synthetic natural rubber
SNMP simple network management protocol
SPC statistical process control
SPE Society of the Plastics Engineers
SPI Society of the Plastics Industry
sPS syndiotactic polystyrene
sp. vol. specific volume
SRI Standards Research Institute (ASTM)
S-S stress-strain
STP SpecialTechnical Publication (ASTM); stan-
dard temperature and pressure
t thickness
T temperature; time; torque (orTt)
TAC triallylcyanurate
T/C thermocouple
TCM technical cost modeling
TD transverse direction
TDI toluene diisocyanate
TF thermoforming
TFS thermoform-fill-seal
Tg glass transition temperature
TGA thermogravimetric analysis
TGI thermogravimetric index
TIR tooling indicator runout
T-LCP thermotropic liquid crystal polymer
TMA thermomechanical analysis;Tooling and
Manufacturing Association (formerlyTDI);
Toy Manufacturers of America
torr mm mercury (mmHg); unit of pressure equal
to 1/760th of an atmosphere

xlviii Abbreviations
TP thermoplastic
TPE thermoplastic elastomer
TPO thermoplastic olefin
TPU thermoplastic polyurethane
TPV thermoplastic vulcanizate
Ts tensile strength; thermoset
TS twin screw
TSC thermal stress cracking
TSE thermoset elastomer
TX thixotropic
TXM thixotropic metal slurry molding
UA urea, unsaturated
UD unidirectional
UF urea formaldehyde
UHMWPE ultra-high molecular weight polyethyl-
ene (also PE-UHMW)
UL Underwriters Laboratories
UP unsaturated polyester (alsoTS polyester)
UPVC unplasticized polyvinyl chloride
UR urethane (also PUR, PU)
URP unreinforced plastic
UV ultraviolet
UVCA ultra-violet-light-curable-cyanoacrylate
V vacuum; velocity; volt
VA value analysis
VCM vinyl chloride monomer
VLDPE very low-density polyethylene
VOC volatile organic compound
vol% percentage by volume
w width
W watt
W/D weight-to-displacement volume (boat
hull)
WIT water-assist injection molding technology
WMMA Wood Machinery Manufacturers of
America
WP&RT World Plastics and RubberTechnology
magazine
WPC wood-plastic composite
wt% percentage by weight
WVT water vapor transmission
XL cross-linked
XLPE cross-linked polyethylene
XPS expandable polystyrene
YPE yield point elongation
Z-twist twisting fiber direction

Undertaking the development through to the completion of the Plastics Technology Handbook required
the assistance of key individuals and groups.The indispensable guidance and professionalism of our
publisher, Joel Stein, and his team at Momentum Press was critical throughout this enormous proj-
ect.The coeditors, Nick R. Schott, Professor Emeritus of the University of Massachusetts Lowell
Plastics Engineering Department, and Marlene G. Rosato, President of Gander International Inc.,
were instrumental to the data, information, and analysis coordination of the eighteen chapters of
the handbook. A special thank you is graciously extended to Napoleao Neto of Alphagraphics for
the organization and layout of the numerous figure and table graphics central to the core handbook
theme. Finally, a great debt is owed to the extensive technology resources of the Plastics Institute
of America at the University of Massachusetts Lowell and its Executive Director, Professor Aldo
M. Crugnola.
Dr. DonaldV. Rosato, Coeditor and President, PlastiSource, Inc.
Acknowledgments

This book, as a two-volume set, offers a simplified, practical, and innovative approach to under-
standing the design and manufacture of products in the world of plastics. Its unique review will
expand and enhance your knowledge of plastic technology by defining and focusing on past, cur-
rent, and future technical trends. Plastics behavior is presented to enhance one’s capability when
fabricating products to meet performance requirements, reduce costs, and generally be profitable.
Important aspects are also presented to help the reader gain understanding of the advantages of
different materials and product shapes.The information provided is concise and comprehensive.
Prepared with the plastics technologist in mind, this book will be useful to many others.The
practical and scientific information contained in this book is of value to both the novice, including
trainees and students, and the most experienced fabricators, designers, and engineering person-
nel wishing to extend their knowledge and capability in plastics manufacturing including related
parameters that influence the behavior and characteristics of plastics.The toolmaker (who makes
molds, dies, etc.), fabricator, designer, plant manager, material supplier, equipment supplier, test-
ing and quality control personnel, cost estimator, accountant, sales and marketing personnel, new
venture type, buyer, vendor, educator/trainer, workshop leader, librarian, industry information
provider, lawyer, and consultant can all benefit from this book.The intent is to provide a review
of the many aspects of plastics that range from the elementary to the practical to the advanced and
more theoretical approaches. People with different interests can focus on and interrelate across
subjects in order to expand their knowledge within the world of plastics.
Over 20000 subjects covering useful pertinent information are reviewed in different chapters
contained in the two volumes of this book, as summarized in the expanded table of contents and
index. Subjects include reviews on materials, processes, product designs, and so on. From a prag-
matic standpoint, any theoretical aspect that is presented has been prepared so that the practical
person will understand it and put it to use.The theorist in turn will gain an insight into the practical
Preface

lii Preface
limitations that exist in plastics as they exist in other materials such as steel, wood, and so on.There
is no material that is“perfect.”The two volumes of this book together contain 1800-plus figures and
1400-plus tables providing extensive details to supplement the different subjects.
In working with any material (plastics, metal, wood, etc.), it is important to know its behavior
in order to maximize product performance relative to cost and efficiency. Examples of different
plastic materials and associated products are reviewed with their behavior patterns. Applications
span toys, medical devices, cars, boats, underwater devices, containers, springs, pipes, buildings,
aircraft, and spacecraft.The reader’s product to be designed or fabricated, or both, can be related
directly or indirectly to products reviewed in this book. Important are behaviors associated with
and interrelated with the many different plastics materials (thermoplastics [TPs], thermosets [TSs],
elastomers, reinforced plastics) and the many fabricating processes (extrusion, injection molding,
blow molding, forming, foaming, reaction injection molding, and rotational molding). They are
presented so that the technical or nontechnical reader can readily understand the interrelationships
of materials to processes.
This book has been prepared with the awareness that its usefulness will depend on its simplicity
and its ability to provide essential information.An endless amount of data exists worldwide for the
many plastic materials, which total about 35000 different types. Unfortunately, as with other mate-
rials, a single plastic material that will meet all performance requirements does not exist. However,
more so than with any other materials, there is a plastic that can be used to meet practically any
product requirement. Examples are provided of different plastic products relative to critical factors
ranging from meeting performance requirements in different environments to reducing costs and
targeting for zero defects.These reviews span products that are small to large and of shapes that are
simple to complex.The data included provide examples that span what is commercially available.
For instance, static physical properties (tensile, flexural, etc.), dynamic physical properties (creep,
fatigue, impact, etc.), chemical properties, and so on, can range from near zero to extremely high
values, with some having the highest of any material.These plastics can be applied in different envi-
ronments ranging from below and on the earth’s surface to outer space.
Pitfalls to be avoided are reviewed in this book.When qualified people recognize the poten-
tial problems, these problems can be designed around or eliminated so that they do not affect
the product’s performance. In this way, costly pitfalls that result in poor product performance or
failure can be reduced or eliminated. Potential problems or failures are reviewed, with solutions
also presented.This failure-and-solution review will enhance the intuitive skills of people new to
plastics as well as those who are already working in plastics. Plastic materials have been produced
worldwide over many years for use in the design and fabrication of all kinds of plastic products.To
profitably and successfully meet high-quality, consistency, and long-life standards, all that is needed
is to understand the behavior of plastics and to apply these behaviors properly.
Patents or trademarks may cover certain of the materials, products, or processes presented.
They are discussed for information purposes only and no authorization to use these patents or
trademarks is given or implied. Likewise, the use of general descriptive names, proprietary names,
trade names, commercial designations, and so on does not in any way imply that they may be used

Preface liii
freely.While the information presented represents useful information that can be studied or ana-
lyzed and is believed to be true and accurate, neither the authors, contributors, reviewers, nor
the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors, omissions, inaccuracies, or other
factors. Information is provided without warranty of any kind. No representation as to accuracy,
usability, or results should be inferred.
Preparation for this book drew on information from participating industry personnel, global
industry and trade associations, and the authors’ worldwide personal, industrial, and teaching
experiences.
DON & MARLENE ROSATOAND NICK SCHOTT, 2011

Chapter 10
Coating
OVERVIEW
Different resin (also called polymer and plastic) coating systems have widespread industrial and
commercial applications.They can be applied by direct contact of a liquid coating with the substrate
to deposition using an atomization process. Direct methods include brushing, roller coating, dip-
ping, flow coating, and electrodeposition. Deposition methods include conventional spray, airless
spray, hot spray, and electrostatic spray. Extrusion coating is one of the principal methods (chap-
ter 5). Coating via calenders is another important method (chapter 9). Coatings are applied in
molds during injection molding (chapter 4).There is film coating applied during thermoforming
(chapter 7; 477). Other fabricating processes incorporate coatings.
Coating resins are used for coating materials in practically all the markets that include electric/
electronic, packaging, building, household and industrial appliances, transportation, marine, medi-
cal, and clothing (chapter 20). Continual consumer demands for more attractive and styled packages
have caused plastic material suppliers to develop new coatings with high decorative and visual appeal.
Selection of the plastic to be used usually depends on decorative and environmental requirements.
Coated containers include beer cans, liquid-containing tanks, and electronics packages.
Resin coatings are used extensively for corrosion protection of metals in different environ-
ments such as inside and outside of buildings,chemical plants,marine products,and so on.Residual
stresses can be present in these coatings. For example, solvent loss and, in the case of thermosets
(TSs), the curing process, causes shrinkage of the coating.When it is applied to a stiff substrate, the
shrinkage in the plane of the coating is resisted and biaxial tensile residual stresses form. If applica-
tion of the coating is made at a temperature different from the subsequent service temperature,
there will be further residual stresses that result from differential thermal expansion of the coating
and substrate (chapter 21).

2 Plastics Technology Handbook—Volume 2
Resins continue to be the backbone in the coating industry because almost all coatings are com-
posed of resin materials.The most widely used are based on polyethylenes, polypropylenes, vinyls,
alkyds, acrylics, urea-melamine, styrenes, epoxies, phenolics, fluoroplastics, and silicones (chapter
2).The resins are used alone or are cross-blended with other resins.Table 10.1 lists different coat-
ings that include those in solvent systems or those with certain resins, such as vinyl in different
forms of organic media dispersions.These higher solids content dispersions can be in nonvolatile
(plastisol) suspension or in volatile (organosol) suspension (chapter 16).Table 10.2 reviews coating
compounds with applications that are mainly used in Europe.
The alkyds are used mainly (but extensively) in coatings.Their ease of application and low cost
makes them useful. Epoxy systems continue to find more applications because they have inherently
desirable characteristics such as the ease with which they adhere to a substrate. Fluorocarbons can
be vacuum deposited on various metals and plastics containers, which provides the expected envi-
ronmental resistances, such as to water and salt spray.The polyamides are used to protect metal
containers from weathering and chemical corrosion.The silicones are considered for use when heat
resistance is part of the coating requirement. Urethane coatings are generally baked so to provide
maximum protection in such applications as electrical or outdoor-use packages. Properties of the
different plastics are reviewed in chapter 2.
The vinyls appear to be in a class of their own, because they can be applied by many different
techniques to metal and other parts before fabrication into various shapes.They are tough, flexible,
low in cost, and resistant to normal environments.They also provide good adhesion.
Fuel-resistant coatings are used to help the handling of gasoline and fuel oil in plastic or steel
tanks. Coating systems employed in the past were only partially successful in protecting the steel
interior of the tanks.They often cracked, peeled, or softened and thus exposed the steel to corro-
sion. Excellent coatings have now been developed and used successfully.
Growth has been steady and reliable, so that rational and economic coating production is no
longer regarded, as was the case until relatively recently, as an art or craft based solely on empirical
results. For example, coatings are being applied to plastic and metal containers to provide improve-
ments in appearance, resistance to environmental breakdown, and easy handling.
Resins are employed in the manufacture of a large number of coating compounds that are used
to cover the surfaces of many materials from paper to metal to concrete. Many plastics are used as
coating materials, including paints, varnishes, enamels, and materials of various resin-coating com-
positions that are applied to fabrics,paper,plastic,cardboard,leather,metal,and wood.As has been
noted, there are a number of methods of applying plastic coatings, including the major processes
such as extrusion and injection molding.When they are in a liquid or latex form, such as in paint or
adhesives, they may be applied by brushing, spraying, dipping, and so on. In coating operations, the
base material, such as paper, is run through a machine that melts solid plastic granules and spreads
them evenly across the surface of the base material.As the hot plastic cools,it becomes bonded,like
an adhesive, to its base.
The products of the coating industry are essential for the protection and decoration of the
majority of manufactured goods and architectural or industrial structures that characterize our

Coating 3
Table 10.1 Examples of different coating materials

Table 10.1 Examples of different coating materials (continued)

Coating 5
Table 10.1 Examples of different coating materials (continued)

complex material civilization. The protective function includes resistance to air, water, organic
liquids, and aggressive chemicals such as acids and alkalis, together with improved superficial
mechanical properties such as greater hardness and abrasion resistance.The decorative effect may
be obtained through color, gloss, or texture or combinations of these properties.
In the case of many surfaces such as walls or floors, or objects such as interior fittings, furniture
and other articles, the surface coating can fulfill hygienic requirements.The surface should not be
prone to collect dirt, bacteria, and other impurities. It should be easy to clean with common clean-
ing agents. In certain cases special qualities are required of the surface coating. For example, special
Table 10.2 Important coating compounds and applications

Coating 7
Table 10.2 Important coating compounds and applications (continued)

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