Possible explanations for the failure of EFL students to achieve native-like competence in a second language.

1. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
What possible explanations are there for the failure of EFL students to achieve
native-like competence in a second language (L2)?
NOTE:
In answering this question you will need to consider the following areas:
• Psycholinguistic issues such as interlanguage, the differing theories of
competence held by Chomsky and Dell Hymes’, Universal Grammar (UG), L1
transfer, the Monitor Model...etc.
• Discourse issues such as input and interaction, the role of instruction...etc.
• Some sociolinguistic issues such as Accommodation and Acculturation
Theories, social identity - if you consider them relevant to EFL situations.
• Is it possible to achieve native-like competence? Is it desirable?
By Mónica Madrigal Páez
Universidad Autónoma del Carmen
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Contents
1. Introduction 5
2. Defining the native speaker and the native like competence 5
3. Psycholinguistic issues that affect the acquisition of native-like competence 6
3.1 Universal grammar and Age 6
3.2 Linguistic competence and Communicative competence 7
4. Discourse issues that affect the acquisition of native-like competence 8
4.1 Input and Formal Instruction 8
4.2 Interaction 9
5. Sociolinguistic issues that affect the acquisition of native-like competence 9
5.1 Acculturation and Accommodation 9
6. Is it possible to achieve native-like competence? Is it desirable? 10
7. References 11
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1. Introduction
Learning a second language is becoming a vital part of the basic preparation for carrying out
numerous activities around the world. It makes communication easier and gives opportunities and
different perspectives about life. However, apart of the benefits of learning a second language as a
tool of communication, a relevant issue is to know if the learner can become as competent as a
native speaker. Achieving a native-like competence has been an unachievable goal for some
learners, in fact, some linguistics like Cook (2007), maintains that it is impossible for L2 users to
become as competent as a native speaker. Cook claims that L2 users have to be credited with being
what they are – L2 users. They should be judged by how successful they are as L2 users, not by
their failures compared to native speakers. Even the opinion of some linguistics, for some learners it
is important to become not only effective communicators but also to have a native-like competence.
This piece of work intends to explain what some of the main issues that do not allow L2 learners
achieve a native-like competence are. In order to give some possible explanations to EFL learners
failure, it is necessary to start mentioning some concepts that linguistics have made about what a
native-speaker is and what native-like competence means; consequently, it will be possible to
explain what potential issues cause learners failure.
2. Defining the Native Speaker and Native-Speaker Competence
Some recent works in the SLA field have shown that defining a native speaker is a relevant key in
order to decide if he or she is the role model that learners should attempt to achieve. According to
Ellis (1997:294) when learners acquire L2, they internalize rules which are then organized into a
system that is what constitutes their competence. The term “native speaker” also includes the fact
that it can be someone who has learned the target language during childhood, has a native-like
command of language, and the intuition to distinguish correct or wrong forms in his first language.
Stern (1983) puts forward the idea that a native speaker has subconscious knowledge of rules, an
intuitive grasp of meaning, ability to communicate within various social settings, a range of
language skills and creativity of language use. Some other linguistics as Johnson and Johnson
(1998) adds the ability to produce fluent discourse, and the ability to translate into L1 of which she
or he is a native speaker.
There are many aspects that interfere in the success of L2; some learners can be efficient
communicators but they cannot become competent in the target language. Some learners are
successful because of their determination, hard work and persistence; however, there are other
crucial factors influencing success that are beyond their control. These aspects can be divided in
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three categories: psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, and discourse issues, which will be analyzed
briefly in order to know what aspects of these areas might cause the failure of EFL learners in
achieving native-like competence.
3. Psycholinguistic issues that affect the acquisition of native-like competence
As regards as psycholinguistic aspects, there are some theories in L2 learning which define how the
process of acquiring a language is developed. Those theories such as universal grammar (UG), and
linguistic and communicative competence centre on different parts of the total language learning
process and, which are involved in the failure of EFL students to achieve a native-like competence
in second language.
3.1 The role of Age and Universal grammar in the acquisition of native-like competence.
Chomsky argues that the input children receive is insufficient for learning the rules of a language,
and that the nature of the speaker-hearer competence in his/her native language is an innate
knowledge that humans are born with, (nativism) (cited: Saville-Troike 2006:47). This means that
children already have a system of linguistic knowledge, a set of rules for organizing language (also
known as Universal Grammar) at the initial state of the learning of their first language. Bearing in
mind this idea, it seems that learning a L2 might be a less complicated process for children, since it
includes three main aspects: age, representations of language stored in the human brain and the fact
that all the languages have in common structural basis, called universals. On the other hand,
children have a limited age during which this natural acquisition is possible, and after early
childhood, a different process in learning a L2 is developed. With regard to the structural basis
called universals, there has been a disagreement among some theories affirming whether adult L2
learners have access to a universal grammar. Flynn’s “No-access” theoretical view supports the idea
that a person is predisposed to learn language at a certain age and that UG is totally inaccessible to
the adult L2 learners, and because of this, their learning will have to rely on general learning
strategies. This theory considers that adult learners will be able to develop communicative ability
but they will not be able to achieve a grammar or pronunciation competence as natives.
Linguistics like Johnson, Newport and Lenneberg (1989) also point out that age plays an important
role in the acquisition of a second language; they agree that the ability to acquire a language is
biologically linked to age, and that there is an specific time to acquire language, after this time it is
no longer possible, and the set of rules known as universal grammar are not longer available. So, if
there are certain aspects of the L2 the learner has not learned, it will be almost impossible to do it
later, and this will impede achieving a native-like competence. Another factor is that not many L2
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learners have lived or spent their childhood in the country where the target language is spoken, and
that many learners start learning a second language after their childhood, so based on the points
above mentioned, for most learners it will be impossible to attain a native-like competence.
3.2 Linguistic competence and Communicative competence
In order to become communicative competent in a L2, Saville-Troike (2006:100) is certainly
correct in saying that it is necessary for students to know, not only phonological and lexico-
grammatical aspects of language, but also when to speak or not, what to say and to whom, and how
to say it appropriately in any situation. The Linguistic Competence theory developed by Chomsky
in 1965, and the Communicative Competence theory developed by Hymes in 1966, claim that in
order to acquire language competence, it is essential to have a system of linguistic knowledge which
make possible to produce and understand a vast number of correct sentences (LC), as well as to
have social knowledge about how and when to use utterances properly (CC). Summarising these
ideas, Canal and Swain (1980) defined communicative competence in term of four components:
grammatical, sociolinguistic, strategic, and discourse competence.
To this point, the grammatical competence has been partly analyzed, taking into consideration the
UG. This grammatical competence is the knowledge of the grammar, vocabulary, phonology and
semantics of language, related to the fact that it can be acquired since the person was born, or
because of the input they received, or the formal instruction taken. All these issues are also related
to the sociolinguistic, strategic and discourse competences, since they imply to know how to
manage all these aspects of language in a context or in a speech community. It is also important to
know when to begin and end conversations, to express in a way that listener or readers can
understand, to use different speech acts and communication strategies to compensate weakness in
communication. All these actions and knowledge called competences are used in daily life although
not all of them are carried out properly. Some other reasons why learners cannot achieve native-like
competence are that in order to be a competent communicator many abilities are required, and not
all learners possess these abilities. We have seen that the older the learner is, more difficult will be
to acquire all the grammatical and phonological aspects of language in order to communicate
correctly. If the learner does not use the language very often in a context where the target language
is spoken, he/she will not have input and will not be able to use strategies to negotiate meaning, the
learner will be putting forward messages and communication might not succeed. This reflects the
situation of many L2 learners where the language is used now and then, only in a classroom and not
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in a real context. In sum, if the learner lacks of one of these competences, he/she might
communicate but he will not be as competent as a native-speaker.
4. Discourse issues that affect the acquisition of native-like competence
Regarding to discourse issues, input, interaction and formal instruction are also important in the
process of acquiring a second language. These three issues are somehow related and their correct
development might help L2 learners to achieve a native-like competence.
4.1 Input and formal instruction
Input is the language that learners receive when they are in contact with the target language and
from the one they can learn. It is the outcome of exchanges between learners and their interlocutors.
When learners analyze and process this language is then called intake. Krashen’s Input hypothesis
states that human acquires language by receiving comprehensible and meaningful input and also by
understanding messages. (Cited: Mitchell and Myles, 2004: 165). Input can be any contact learners
have with the language itself, the language taking place in real contexts like conversations or media,
and also the language obtained in formal instruction. According to Ellis (1999), it is believed that
learners who receive formal instruction generally outperform those who do not, and studies in
this field suggested that the kind of instruction that focuses on meaning and also focus on form in a
meaningful context work best”
Some of the aspects of the input that will not allow the development of the native-like competence
are that the language provided by teachers is usually modified in order to help learners to
understand mainly lessons and not frequently for communicative purposes. This language is
controlled and adjusted to the learners needs; this is called “care talk”, modifications made in
language used for children or also “foreign talk” modifications when natives talking to non-native
speakers. These modifications in language will help them to understand each other, but they also
cause a problem because there will not be negotiation of meaning and teachers instead of promoting
real communication in the target language, will be facilitating the creation of a “Pidgin”, a language
with limited vocabulary and simple grammatical structures used in order to communicate in a
specific environment.
The situations learners face in real contexts will probably make them feel frustrated and
unmotivated because native speakers will not adjust repeatedly their language in aspects like
vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, speech rate etc., and learners might think that what they have
learned is not useful at all, since they will not be able to produce real language in a conversation
with natives and will not be able to understand real language from TV programs, advertisements,
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books or magazines. So, learners that are not involved in a target language environment will have
less opportunity to achieve a native-like competence because the occasions for communicating and
interacting in different social contexts will be reduced.
4.2 Interaction
Relating to Interaction, Long’s Interaction hypothesis proposes that language acquisition is
facilitated by the use of the target language in interaction, and claims that it is more effective when
it is modified through the negotiation of meaning (cited Ellis:1997:47). When speakers produce
language in a conversation, they not only produce individual words, they exchange information and
negotiation of meaning can be carried out when facing difficulty in communicating.
Input and Interaction work very well together. For example, if a learner is in party addressing to a
native, introducing him/her self and the other person, introduces too, the learner will be interacting,
participating in a real context and the input that the learner will get, will be a great impact in his
learning; motivation and confidence will be stronger.
On the other hand, this is only possibly when the learners develop in an environment where the
target language is spoken or at least used for different purposes, but most learners attend to schools
where in class, the students are all speakers of the same first language and the use of their mother
tongue interferes in their learning. An artificial language is created because of the modifications
teachers make in order to communicate with learners and there is not much opportunity to speak the
language in real situations, like asking for information, or shopping. Teaching language in context
or teaching functions can be helpful and more productive for students than teaching grammar and
vocabulary isolated.
5. Sociolinguistic issues that affect the acquisition of native-like competence
Spolsky (1998:43) has suggested that variations in language are significant, and they make possible
for language to reflect an individual’s religious, sociological, educational, geographic and
demographic background, which helps the speaker to constitute his/her identity. Two theories that
explain the variations and changes in language in order to become part of a group are The
Accommodation theory and The Acculturation theory.
5.1 Accommodation and Acculturation
As already mentioned, interaction plays an important role in the learning of a L2, since at the end of
the road, the main goal is to be able to communicate with different kind of people, whether they are
natives of the target language or not. The Accommodation theory supports the idea that when we
want to speak to another person, there are some changes in the way we address to him/her, it is like
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if we tried to “imitate” the way the other person speaks, and this can be done by adjusting speech
rate, using similar vocabulary and length of utterances. Spolsky (1998) states that “accommodation”
takes place when a person who moves to a new part of the country modifies his or her speech in
direction of the new norm. The Acculturation theory not only tries to imitate the language but takes
on the beliefs and values of the new group the individual interacts with and in this way become a
part of it. As social context play an important role in the acquisition of language and many L2
learners are learning the language based on a formal instruction, their attitude, motivation and
opportunities to develop “real language” will be almost null. Based on the idea that travelling to
countries where the target language is spoken, where learners can modify or live the cultural and
sociological differences, many learners will continue using the same structures of grammar,
vocabulary and intonation learned in class, to continue using them in class, and as a result, that
language will fossilize. The opportunities to use the language are denied the most times denied for
these students, and the fact of not having this experience will affect their ability to develop a native-
like competence.
6. Is it possible to achieve native-like competence? Is it desirable?
Linguistics have not reached an agreement whether native-like competence is the final attainment
goal for L2 users or if L2 learners can achieve it. Cook (1999) states that many SLA researches
has dealt with this just by accepting that the object of L2 learning is to attempt a similar
development of adult native speakers competence. If a learner achieves this competence, it means
that there are not many differences between his/her performance and the one of the native speaker.
According to (Saville-Troike: 2000,180) researches in this field have focused on three aspects: the
“what” is learned, (Linguistics and Discourse issues), the “how” is the language acquired
(Psychological issues) and the “why” are some learners more successful that others (Sociological
issues). All these issues integrated can determine the success of learners in acquiring L2 native-like
competence. It is not just that the learner is interested in learning a L2, it also implies his/her
motivation, ability for learning, the age, the environment surrounded by, the input and the kind of
instruction received, and the development of many abilities in order to be successful. Another big
question is to know if this native-like competence is desirable. Considering the communication
purposes that many users of a language have around the world, it will be important to make learners
conscious about the kind of varieties of a language exist out there. The people learners will have to
address will not be only “natives” of the language but also people from other countries who had to
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learn the language and that might had to face the same situations that they did in their process of
learning.
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References
1. Ellis, Rod. 1985.Understanding Second Language Acquisition. Oxford. Oxford University
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2. Ellis, Rod. 1997. Second Language Acquisition. Oxford Introductions to Language Study.
Series Editor H.G. Widdowson. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
3. Lightbown, Patsy, Spada, Nina. 2006. How Languages are learned. Third Edition. Oxford.
Handbooks for language teachers. Oxford University Press.
4. Mitchell, Rosamond and Myles, Florence.2004.Second Language Learning Theories.
Second Edition. Hodder Education. Uk.
5. Ortega, Lourdes.2009. Understanding Second Language Acquisition. UK
6. Richards, J and Schmidt, R.2002. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied
Linguistics. Third Edition. Longman. Pearson Education Limited. UK.
7. Saville-Troike, Muriel.2006. Introducing Second Language Acquisition. Cambridge.
Cambridge University Press. UK
8. Williams, J., VanPatten, B. 2007. Theories in Second Language Acquisition. An
Introduction. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. USA.
9. Scovel, Thomas. 1998.Psycholinguistics. Oxford Introductions to Language Study. Series
Editor H.G Widdowson. Oxford. Oxford University Press.
Web References
1. http://esl.fis.edu/teachers/support/factors.htm
2. http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/Writings/Papers/EFLGoals.htm
3. http://pages.unibas.ch/LIlab/staff/tenhacken/language-
acquisition/Waeber&Czendlik.pdf
4. http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/June_05_jl.pdf
5. http://www.blackwellreference.com/public/search?
query=PSYCHOLINGUISTIC+ISSUES&book_id=ALL
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