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Chapter 4
Cellular Metabolism

• Metabolism = Sum of all reactions in the body
Metabolic reactions are of two types
 Anabolism
  • Synthesizes smaller molecules into larger molecules
  • Provides materials for growth and repair
  • Consumes energy



 Catabolism
  • Large molecules decompose into smaller molecules
  • Releases energy for cellular use

                                   ATP = energy
Dehydration Synthesis

• Type of anabolic reaction
• Joins triglycerides, polysaccharides, and proteins
• Water is formed from dehydration synthesis




Dehydration synthesis joining
amino acids together
Dehydration Synthesis

• Synthesizes polysaccharides from monosaccharides

• Synthesizes proteins from amino acids

• Joins fatty acids to glycerol, forming form fats

• Synthesizes nucleic acids from nucleotides
Catabolism
• Reverse of Anabolism

• Breaks down molecules

• Releases energy from chemical bonds

• Example: Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis

• Type of Catabolic reaction
• Reverse of dehydration synthesis
• Requires water to break bonds
Hydrolysis
• Decomposes Polysaccharides into
  monosaccharides & disaccharides

• Decomposes proteins into amino acids

• Decomposes Fats into fatty acids & glycerol

• Decomposes Nucleic Acids into nucleotides
Anabolism & Catabolism are reversible reactions

Enzymes control direction & rate of reactions
Enzyme Actions


Enzymes
• Are biological catalyst
• They greatly reduce the activation energy required to start
  a reaction.



Substrate
• Target molecule of an enzyme
• Each enzyme acts on a specific substrate
Enzyme Characteristics


• Most all are Proteins

• Catalyze reactions - Increases the rate of reactions

• Reusable - Not consumed by reaction

• Specificity – Able to “recognize” a specific substrate
Enzyme Names
• Named for substrate they act upon

• Usually end with ____ ase.

• Examples:
  • Lipase: decomposes lipids
  • Protease: decomposes proteins
  • Nuclease: decomposes nucleic acids
  • ATP Synthase: synthesizes ATP molecules
b. Enzyme-
                                                           Enzyme releases
      a. Active site                Substrate
                                                              product
                                    Complex

• Region of enzyme     • Enzyme temporarily binds to   • Enzyme is reused
  that binds to          substrate                       to join new
  substrate                                              substrates
Chapter 4
Rates of reactions are limited by:


• The concentration of substrate

• The concentration of enzyme

• The efficiency of enzymes
  • Some enzymes handle 2-3 molecules per second
  • Other enzymes handle thousands per second
Metabolic Pathways
 • Complex series of reactions leading to a product

 • Pathways are controlled by several enzymes




Example: Catabolic pathway for
the breakdown of glucose
Metabolic Pathways
 • The product of each reaction becomes the substrate
   of next reaction.

 • Each step requires its own enzyme

 • “Rate-Limiting Enzyme”
    • Least efficient enzyme in group
    • Rate-limiting enzyme is usually first in sequence




• Enzyme A = Rate-limiting Enzyme
Negative Feedback in Metabolic Pathway

• Product of reaction often inhibits the rate-limiting enzyme.

• Negative feedback prevents the overproduction of a product.
Cofactor

• Combines with and activates some enzymes
  • Exposes the active site of enzyme to substrate

• Cofactors are non-proteins

• Include ions (zinc, iron, copper) and coenzymes


Coenzymes = organic cofactors

• Coenzymes include Vitamins (Vitamin A, B, D)
• Reusable – required in small amounts
Vitamins
• Essential organic molecules that humans cannot
  synthesize - must come from diet

• Many vitamins are coenzymes

• Vitamins can function repeatedly, so can be used in
  small amounts.

• Example: Coenzyme A
Energy for Metabolic Reactions


Energy: is the capacity to change something, or
ability to do work.



  Common forms of energy:
  Heat
  Light
  Sound
  Chemical energy
  Mechanical energy
  Electrical energy
Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
   Only transferred from one form to another
   Think of a combustion engine




Fuel (chemical energy)
                                  = Kinetic Energy + CO2 + H2O
         +
      Oxygen
Cellular Respiration

• Cell Respiration: is the transfer of energy from
  food to make available for cellular use

• Energy is stored in the electrons of food molecules

• Oxidation: “controlled burning” of food molecules
  to release their energy

• Cellular respiration requires enzymes
Cellular Respiration

Glucose (C6H12O6) + 6O2 → Energy for ATP + H2O + CO2


                                            ATP




       Energy from foods such as glucose is used to make ATP




            End of Section 1, Chapter 4
Mitochondria
Cellular Respiration

Glucose (C6H12O6) + 6O2 → Energy for ATP + H2O + CO2


                                       ATP




  Energy from                       Energy for
  Chemical bonds                    ATP synthesis
Currency of Energy for cells




                                              Adenosine
Triphosphate
Diphosphate   Adenosine
ATP                         ADP


      hydrolysis




                   Products: ADP
                                +
                            Phosphate
                               +
                             Energy
Phosphorylation of ADP resynthesizes ATP
ATP provides energy
                   For metabolic reactions




Cell Respiration                Figure 4.8
Regenerates ATP
Cell Respiration


Anaerobic                    Aerobic
• No oxygen required         • Requires oxygen
• Yields little energy       • Much greater energy yield
• Yields 2 ATP per glucose   • Up to 38 ATP per glucose
glycolysis


   Acetyl CoA synthesis


   Citric Acid Cycle


Electron Transport Chain
Glycolysis

• Series of 10 reactions

• Breaks down glucose into 2 Pyruvic Acid molecules

• Occurs in Cytoplasm of Cell

• Anaerobic Reaction (no oxygen required)

• Yields
  • 2 ATP (net gain) per glucose
  • 2 NADH molecule
  • 2 Pyruvic Acid molecules
• 2 Phosphates are added to end of glucose

• Glucose is a 6-carbon sugar

• Primes glucose for further reactions

• Consumes     2 ATP
• 6-Carbon glucose is split into 2 3-carbon Pyruvic Acid molecules
• Produces 4 ATP total
• Produces 2 NADH molecules
+4 ATP produced
- 2ATP consumed
•1      NADH
   •2      FADH2
                                               2 electrons attached to
          2 electrons attached to hydrogen
                                               NADH

1. NAD+      + 2H+
                H                            NADH        + H+

                                                        2 electrons attached to
  2. FAD +        2H                         FADH2      FADH2


  NADH & FADH2 carry electrons to the electron transport chain
Chapter 4
No oxygen to
receive electrons
from NADH
Without Oxygen, NADH donates its electrons to pyruvic acid

This regenerates NAD+, which is used again for glycolysis
Lactic Acid is formed as waste


                        2 electrons

Pyruvic Acid      + NADH              Lactic Acid + NAD+
Once oxygen is available:
Lactic Acid is converted back to glucose by the liver

Anaerobic Respiration
•     Inefficient reaction; yields only 2 ATP
•     Consumes a great deal of glucose
•     Quick source of energy; for intense exercise
Chapter 4
If Oxygen is available, pyruvic acid can continue through
         aerobic respiration inside the mitochondria



              Pyruvic Acid
               (3 Carbon)



Aerobic Pathways Include:
1. Acetyl CoA synthesis
                                              Mitochondria
2. Citric Acid Cycle
3. Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
Mitochondria
• Powerhouse of cell
• Synthesizes ATP
• 2 layers
  – Outer Membrane
  – Inner Membrane



• Cristae
  • highly folded inner membrane
  • Greatly increases surface area for reactions
Synthesis of Acetyl CoA
Pyruvic Acid is converted into Acetyl CoA

     Acetyl CoA = substrate for Citric Acid Cycle
Synthesis of Acetyl CoA
                                Pyruvic Acid
                                 (3 Carbon)

1 carbon is lost as CO2   CO2
                          (waste)


                                    Acetic Acid
                                                                CoA
                                    (2 Carbon)
                                                                       (coenzyme A)




                                                 Acetyl CoA
                                          (Enters Citric Acid Cycle)
Products from Acetyl CoA Synthesis
• 1 molecule of CO2
• Acetyl CoA
Citric Acid Cycle
      Begins when Acetyl CoA combines with
      Oxaloacetic Acid to form Citric Acid.
   Acetyl CoA + Oxaloacetic Acid → Citric Acid
   (2 carbons)  (4 carbons)         (6 carbons)


Citric Acid =                   Oxaloacetic acid =
Start molecule of cycle         end molecule of cycle

   Citric Acid is converted back to Oxaloacetic acid
   through a series of 8-9reactions
Acetyl CoA
                                      (2 carbons)

             Oxaloacetic Acid
               (4 carbons)
                                       +
                Oxaloacetic acid
                is regenerated
                                                    Citric Acid
2CO2                                                (6 Carbons)
(waste)                                                           2ADP
                            Citric Acid Cycle


                                8-9 reactions
     FADH2                                                  2 ATP
                   FAD
                                3 NADH          3NAD+
Products of Citric Acid Cycle
•   2 ATP
•   3 NADH = transports electrons to ETC
•   1 FADH2 = transports electrons to ETC
•   2 CO2
Electron transport chain (ETC)
•   Occurs on inner membrane of mitochondria
•   ATP synthase (enzyme): phosphorylates ADP → ATP
•   Involves a chain of 3 enzymes (protein complexes)
•   Produces 32-34 ATP per glucose
•   Requires Oxygen to accept electrons
Enzyme Complexes in ETC
• Transport Complex Proteins
   – 3 Membrane proteins on inner membrane of Mitochondria

   – NADH & FADH2 transfer electrons to complex proteins

   – Electrons are passed from one complex to the next complex

   – Transfer of electrons releases energy to power ATP Synthase



• ATP Synthase
   – Phosphorylates ADP into ATP
   – Powered by Transport Complex Proteins
ADP +          P      ATP Synthase
                                                                          ATP
   2 electrons
                       energy
        NADH
                                    energy
                   Complex I
                                                         energy
                                      Complex II

  NAD+           2H+
  (reused)                                                      Complex III




                                      + ½ O2                          H2O
                                    (final electron acceptor)

Without Oxygen to accept electrons, ETC would grind to a halt!
Products of Electron Transport Chain
• H2O
• 32-34 ATP
Lipids & Proteins
   can also be broken down
      for ATP synthesis


   Summary of catabolism
   of proteins, fats, & carbohydrates




 Most common entry point to
aerobic respiration is into citric
   acid cycle as acetyl coA
End of Section 3, Chapter 4
Chapter 4
Pathway of Protein Synthesis
      transcription               translation
DNA                   RNA                       Proteins




DNA Replication (DNA Synthesis)
       replication
DNA                   DNA
                      Copy of original
Chapter 4
backbone              backbone
Antiparallel              Hydrogen
                           bonds



  Strand 1                                      Strand 2
Properties of DNA
4 nitrogenous bases
             Adenine (A)    Thymine (T)
             Cytosine (C)   Guanine (G)




    Adenine & Guanine = Purines
      • 2 organic rings


     Thymine & Cytosine = Pyrimidines
       • 1 organic ring
Complementary Base Pairs

Purine pairs with Pyrimidine:
    Adenine pairs with Thymine
    Guanine pairs with Cytosine



   A & T = complimentary base pair
   G & C = complementary base pair
Chapter 4
H-bonds stabilize
  complimentary
    base pairs



DNA is twisted into a
   double helix
Overview of DNA Replication
• Occurs during S-phase

• Original DNA strand is used as a template to
  synthesize a new complimentary DNA strand.

• Catalyzed by DNA Polymerase
  – Synthesizes new DNA strand

• Semi-Conservative – One strand of the replicated
  DNA is new, the other is the original molecule.
Original DNA strand
                            Strand 1

 sugar phosphate backbone

        A C T A A T A A C G G A T G A T C


        T G A T T A T T G C C T A C T A G


                            Strand 2




  Hydrogen Bonds
Step 1. Hydrogen bonds break, and strands separate

                       T A A C G G A T
                       DNA
 A C T A A          Polymerase                                     G A T C


 T G A T T                                               DNA       C T A G
                                                      Polymerase


                       A T T G C C T A

                                 Replication bubble




Step 2. DNA Polymerases attach to open strands
Step 3. DNA Polymerase adds new bases

                            T A A C G G A T

                            A T T G C C T A
 A C T A A                                         G A T C


 T G A T T                  T A A C G G A T        C T A G

H bonds continue to break   A T T G C C T A

                              Replication bubble
Step 3. DNA Polymerase adds new bases

    A C T A A T A A C G G A T G A T C

    T G A T T A T T G C C T A C T A G



    A C T A A T A A C G G A T T T T C

    T G A T T A T T G C C T A C T A G
A C T A A T A A C G G A T G A T C

T G A T T A T T G C C T A C T A G



A C T A A T A A C G G A T T T T C

T G A T T A T T G C C T A C T A G

      2 Complete DNA molecules
      Each with 1 original strand & 1 new strand
The two DNA molecules separate during mitosis




          End of Section 4, Chapter 4
Transcription & Translation




   Section 5, Chapter 4
Chapter 4
Chapter 4
3 RNA Molecules

• Messenger RNA (mRNA):
   • Transcribed from DNA in nucleus


• Transfer RNA (tRNA):
    •Translates a codon of MRNA into an amino acid
    •Carries amino acids to mRNA
    •Anticodons on tRNA are complimentary to codons of mRNA
    •
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA):
    • Provides structure and enzyme activity for ribosomes
                                                      76
mRNA Molecules
Messenger RNA (mRNA):

•Delivers genetic information from                                           DNA
                                                                            DNA                                                                   mRNA
 nucleus to the cytoplasm
                                                                                                                                                          S
                                                                      P                           A                                         U                        P
                                                                                    S
• Single polynucleotide chain                                                                                                                             S




                                        Direction of “reading” code
                                                                      P                           T                                         A                        P
                                                                                    S
•Formed beside a strand of DNA                                                                                                                            S
                                                                      P                                                                     C
                                                                                                  G                                                                  P
                                                                                    S
• RNA nucleotides are complementary                                   P
                                                                                                                                                          S

to DNA nucleotides (exception – no
                                                                                                  C                                         G                        P
                                                                                    S

thymine in RNA; replaced with uracil)                                 P
                                                                                                                                                          S
                                                                                                  G                                         C                        P
                                                                                    S

                                                                      Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Chapter 4
Step 1. RNA Polymerase attaches to DNA strands
        & breaks Hydrogen bonds
                                 Strand 1


       A C T A C T A A C G G A T G A T C
               RNA
            Polymerase

       T G A T G A T T G C C T A C T A G

                                 Strand 2
Step 2. Strands Separate

                             T A C C G G A T G A T C
                   RNA
                             A U G G C C U A C U A G
 A C T A A      Polymerase

                                           mRNA


 T G A T T

                             A T G G C C T A C T A G

                               Replication bubble




Step 3. RNA Polymerase synthesizes mRNA
        using DNA strand as a template
T A C C G G A T G A T C
                                                 RNA
                    A U G G C C U A C U A G
 A C T A A                                    Polymeras

                                  mRNA


 T G A T T

                    A T G G C C T A C T A G




Step 4. RNA Polymerase releases mRNA
& DNA resumes original structure
A C T A A T A C C G G A T G A T C


 T G A T T A T G G C C T A C T A G




                      A U G G C C U A C U A G
                                           mRNA
Step 5. mRNA is undergoes further processing & leaves nucleus
• Codon = 3 letter sequence that encodes for an amino acid
• All mRNA begin with AUG “Start Codon”




         Start Codon

         A U G G C C U A C U A G
                       mRNA
Note:
• Codons are redundant - Each amino acid corresponds to more than
  one codon

• e.g. UCU, UCC, and UCA all encode for Serine




•Start Codon (AUG)
initiates translation

•Stop Codons terminate
translation
Protein Synthesis


The codon sequence of mRNA
determines the amino acid sequence
of a protein.




                        Figure 4.23
Chapter 4
2. Amino acid
 tRNA                  binding site
Clover-leaf shape
RNA with 2
important regions




                    1. Anticodon
Ribosomes


• Small particle of protein & ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

• Ribosomes have 2 subunits
   • Small subunit binds to mRNA
   • Large subunit holds tRNA & amino acids

• Small subunit has 2 binding sites for adjacent mRNA codons

• Ribosomes link amino acids by peptide bonds
Ribosomes

                  Peptide bond forming




                                         large subunit
anticodons


                                         small subunit

             Binding sites with codons
1. mRNA binds to the small subunit of a Ribosome.

2. The ribosome „reads‟ the mRNA sequence

3. tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosomes,
   aligning their anticodons with mRNA codons

4. The Ribosome links the amino acids together

5. Polypeptide chain lengthens
Anchors polypeptide.
tRNA released
Figure 4.23
                TRANSLATION




TRANSCRIPTION
After translation Chaperone proteins
fold protein into its configuration




Enzymes may further modify proteins
after translation = post-translational modification
•        Phosphorylation – adding a phosphate to the protein
•        Glycosylation – adding a sugar to the protein
End of Section 5, Chapter 4

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Chapter 4

  • 2. Cellular Metabolism • Metabolism = Sum of all reactions in the body
  • 3. Metabolic reactions are of two types Anabolism • Synthesizes smaller molecules into larger molecules • Provides materials for growth and repair • Consumes energy Catabolism • Large molecules decompose into smaller molecules • Releases energy for cellular use ATP = energy
  • 4. Dehydration Synthesis • Type of anabolic reaction • Joins triglycerides, polysaccharides, and proteins • Water is formed from dehydration synthesis Dehydration synthesis joining amino acids together
  • 5. Dehydration Synthesis • Synthesizes polysaccharides from monosaccharides • Synthesizes proteins from amino acids • Joins fatty acids to glycerol, forming form fats • Synthesizes nucleic acids from nucleotides
  • 6. Catabolism • Reverse of Anabolism • Breaks down molecules • Releases energy from chemical bonds • Example: Hydrolysis
  • 7. Hydrolysis • Type of Catabolic reaction • Reverse of dehydration synthesis • Requires water to break bonds
  • 8. Hydrolysis • Decomposes Polysaccharides into monosaccharides & disaccharides • Decomposes proteins into amino acids • Decomposes Fats into fatty acids & glycerol • Decomposes Nucleic Acids into nucleotides
  • 9. Anabolism & Catabolism are reversible reactions Enzymes control direction & rate of reactions
  • 10. Enzyme Actions Enzymes • Are biological catalyst • They greatly reduce the activation energy required to start a reaction. Substrate • Target molecule of an enzyme • Each enzyme acts on a specific substrate
  • 11. Enzyme Characteristics • Most all are Proteins • Catalyze reactions - Increases the rate of reactions • Reusable - Not consumed by reaction • Specificity – Able to “recognize” a specific substrate
  • 12. Enzyme Names • Named for substrate they act upon • Usually end with ____ ase. • Examples: • Lipase: decomposes lipids • Protease: decomposes proteins • Nuclease: decomposes nucleic acids • ATP Synthase: synthesizes ATP molecules
  • 13. b. Enzyme- Enzyme releases a. Active site Substrate product Complex • Region of enzyme • Enzyme temporarily binds to • Enzyme is reused that binds to substrate to join new substrate substrates
  • 15. Rates of reactions are limited by: • The concentration of substrate • The concentration of enzyme • The efficiency of enzymes • Some enzymes handle 2-3 molecules per second • Other enzymes handle thousands per second
  • 16. Metabolic Pathways • Complex series of reactions leading to a product • Pathways are controlled by several enzymes Example: Catabolic pathway for the breakdown of glucose
  • 17. Metabolic Pathways • The product of each reaction becomes the substrate of next reaction. • Each step requires its own enzyme • “Rate-Limiting Enzyme” • Least efficient enzyme in group • Rate-limiting enzyme is usually first in sequence • Enzyme A = Rate-limiting Enzyme
  • 18. Negative Feedback in Metabolic Pathway • Product of reaction often inhibits the rate-limiting enzyme. • Negative feedback prevents the overproduction of a product.
  • 19. Cofactor • Combines with and activates some enzymes • Exposes the active site of enzyme to substrate • Cofactors are non-proteins • Include ions (zinc, iron, copper) and coenzymes Coenzymes = organic cofactors • Coenzymes include Vitamins (Vitamin A, B, D) • Reusable – required in small amounts
  • 20. Vitamins • Essential organic molecules that humans cannot synthesize - must come from diet • Many vitamins are coenzymes • Vitamins can function repeatedly, so can be used in small amounts. • Example: Coenzyme A
  • 21. Energy for Metabolic Reactions Energy: is the capacity to change something, or ability to do work. Common forms of energy: Heat Light Sound Chemical energy Mechanical energy Electrical energy
  • 22. Energy cannot be created or destroyed. Only transferred from one form to another Think of a combustion engine Fuel (chemical energy) = Kinetic Energy + CO2 + H2O + Oxygen
  • 23. Cellular Respiration • Cell Respiration: is the transfer of energy from food to make available for cellular use • Energy is stored in the electrons of food molecules • Oxidation: “controlled burning” of food molecules to release their energy • Cellular respiration requires enzymes
  • 24. Cellular Respiration Glucose (C6H12O6) + 6O2 → Energy for ATP + H2O + CO2 ATP Energy from foods such as glucose is used to make ATP End of Section 1, Chapter 4
  • 26. Cellular Respiration Glucose (C6H12O6) + 6O2 → Energy for ATP + H2O + CO2 ATP Energy from Energy for Chemical bonds ATP synthesis
  • 27. Currency of Energy for cells Adenosine Triphosphate
  • 28. Diphosphate Adenosine
  • 29. ATP ADP hydrolysis Products: ADP + Phosphate + Energy
  • 30. Phosphorylation of ADP resynthesizes ATP
  • 31. ATP provides energy For metabolic reactions Cell Respiration Figure 4.8 Regenerates ATP
  • 32. Cell Respiration Anaerobic Aerobic • No oxygen required • Requires oxygen • Yields little energy • Much greater energy yield • Yields 2 ATP per glucose • Up to 38 ATP per glucose
  • 33. glycolysis Acetyl CoA synthesis Citric Acid Cycle Electron Transport Chain
  • 34. Glycolysis • Series of 10 reactions • Breaks down glucose into 2 Pyruvic Acid molecules • Occurs in Cytoplasm of Cell • Anaerobic Reaction (no oxygen required) • Yields • 2 ATP (net gain) per glucose • 2 NADH molecule • 2 Pyruvic Acid molecules
  • 35. • 2 Phosphates are added to end of glucose • Glucose is a 6-carbon sugar • Primes glucose for further reactions • Consumes 2 ATP
  • 36. • 6-Carbon glucose is split into 2 3-carbon Pyruvic Acid molecules • Produces 4 ATP total • Produces 2 NADH molecules
  • 37. +4 ATP produced - 2ATP consumed
  • 38. •1 NADH •2 FADH2 2 electrons attached to 2 electrons attached to hydrogen NADH 1. NAD+ + 2H+ H NADH + H+ 2 electrons attached to 2. FAD + 2H FADH2 FADH2 NADH & FADH2 carry electrons to the electron transport chain
  • 40. No oxygen to receive electrons from NADH
  • 41. Without Oxygen, NADH donates its electrons to pyruvic acid This regenerates NAD+, which is used again for glycolysis Lactic Acid is formed as waste 2 electrons Pyruvic Acid + NADH Lactic Acid + NAD+
  • 42. Once oxygen is available: Lactic Acid is converted back to glucose by the liver Anaerobic Respiration • Inefficient reaction; yields only 2 ATP • Consumes a great deal of glucose • Quick source of energy; for intense exercise
  • 44. If Oxygen is available, pyruvic acid can continue through aerobic respiration inside the mitochondria Pyruvic Acid (3 Carbon) Aerobic Pathways Include: 1. Acetyl CoA synthesis Mitochondria 2. Citric Acid Cycle 3. Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
  • 45. Mitochondria • Powerhouse of cell • Synthesizes ATP • 2 layers – Outer Membrane – Inner Membrane • Cristae • highly folded inner membrane • Greatly increases surface area for reactions
  • 46. Synthesis of Acetyl CoA Pyruvic Acid is converted into Acetyl CoA Acetyl CoA = substrate for Citric Acid Cycle
  • 47. Synthesis of Acetyl CoA Pyruvic Acid (3 Carbon) 1 carbon is lost as CO2 CO2 (waste) Acetic Acid CoA (2 Carbon) (coenzyme A) Acetyl CoA (Enters Citric Acid Cycle)
  • 48. Products from Acetyl CoA Synthesis • 1 molecule of CO2 • Acetyl CoA
  • 49. Citric Acid Cycle Begins when Acetyl CoA combines with Oxaloacetic Acid to form Citric Acid. Acetyl CoA + Oxaloacetic Acid → Citric Acid (2 carbons) (4 carbons) (6 carbons) Citric Acid = Oxaloacetic acid = Start molecule of cycle end molecule of cycle Citric Acid is converted back to Oxaloacetic acid through a series of 8-9reactions
  • 50. Acetyl CoA (2 carbons) Oxaloacetic Acid (4 carbons) + Oxaloacetic acid is regenerated Citric Acid 2CO2 (6 Carbons) (waste) 2ADP Citric Acid Cycle 8-9 reactions FADH2 2 ATP FAD 3 NADH 3NAD+
  • 51. Products of Citric Acid Cycle • 2 ATP • 3 NADH = transports electrons to ETC • 1 FADH2 = transports electrons to ETC • 2 CO2
  • 52. Electron transport chain (ETC) • Occurs on inner membrane of mitochondria • ATP synthase (enzyme): phosphorylates ADP → ATP • Involves a chain of 3 enzymes (protein complexes) • Produces 32-34 ATP per glucose • Requires Oxygen to accept electrons
  • 53. Enzyme Complexes in ETC • Transport Complex Proteins – 3 Membrane proteins on inner membrane of Mitochondria – NADH & FADH2 transfer electrons to complex proteins – Electrons are passed from one complex to the next complex – Transfer of electrons releases energy to power ATP Synthase • ATP Synthase – Phosphorylates ADP into ATP – Powered by Transport Complex Proteins
  • 54. ADP + P ATP Synthase ATP 2 electrons energy NADH energy Complex I energy Complex II NAD+ 2H+ (reused) Complex III + ½ O2 H2O (final electron acceptor) Without Oxygen to accept electrons, ETC would grind to a halt!
  • 55. Products of Electron Transport Chain • H2O • 32-34 ATP
  • 56. Lipids & Proteins can also be broken down for ATP synthesis Summary of catabolism of proteins, fats, & carbohydrates Most common entry point to aerobic respiration is into citric acid cycle as acetyl coA
  • 57. End of Section 3, Chapter 4
  • 59. Pathway of Protein Synthesis transcription translation DNA RNA Proteins DNA Replication (DNA Synthesis) replication DNA DNA Copy of original
  • 61. backbone backbone Antiparallel Hydrogen bonds Strand 1 Strand 2
  • 62. Properties of DNA 4 nitrogenous bases Adenine (A) Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) Guanine (G) Adenine & Guanine = Purines • 2 organic rings Thymine & Cytosine = Pyrimidines • 1 organic ring
  • 63. Complementary Base Pairs Purine pairs with Pyrimidine: Adenine pairs with Thymine Guanine pairs with Cytosine A & T = complimentary base pair G & C = complementary base pair
  • 65. H-bonds stabilize complimentary base pairs DNA is twisted into a double helix
  • 66. Overview of DNA Replication • Occurs during S-phase • Original DNA strand is used as a template to synthesize a new complimentary DNA strand. • Catalyzed by DNA Polymerase – Synthesizes new DNA strand • Semi-Conservative – One strand of the replicated DNA is new, the other is the original molecule.
  • 67. Original DNA strand Strand 1 sugar phosphate backbone A C T A A T A A C G G A T G A T C T G A T T A T T G C C T A C T A G Strand 2 Hydrogen Bonds
  • 68. Step 1. Hydrogen bonds break, and strands separate T A A C G G A T DNA A C T A A Polymerase G A T C T G A T T DNA C T A G Polymerase A T T G C C T A Replication bubble Step 2. DNA Polymerases attach to open strands
  • 69. Step 3. DNA Polymerase adds new bases T A A C G G A T A T T G C C T A A C T A A G A T C T G A T T T A A C G G A T C T A G H bonds continue to break A T T G C C T A Replication bubble
  • 70. Step 3. DNA Polymerase adds new bases A C T A A T A A C G G A T G A T C T G A T T A T T G C C T A C T A G A C T A A T A A C G G A T T T T C T G A T T A T T G C C T A C T A G
  • 71. A C T A A T A A C G G A T G A T C T G A T T A T T G C C T A C T A G A C T A A T A A C G G A T T T T C T G A T T A T T G C C T A C T A G 2 Complete DNA molecules Each with 1 original strand & 1 new strand
  • 72. The two DNA molecules separate during mitosis End of Section 4, Chapter 4
  • 73. Transcription & Translation Section 5, Chapter 4
  • 76. 3 RNA Molecules • Messenger RNA (mRNA): • Transcribed from DNA in nucleus • Transfer RNA (tRNA): •Translates a codon of MRNA into an amino acid •Carries amino acids to mRNA •Anticodons on tRNA are complimentary to codons of mRNA • • Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): • Provides structure and enzyme activity for ribosomes 76
  • 77. mRNA Molecules Messenger RNA (mRNA): •Delivers genetic information from DNA DNA mRNA nucleus to the cytoplasm S P A U P S • Single polynucleotide chain S Direction of “reading” code P T A P S •Formed beside a strand of DNA S P C G P S • RNA nucleotides are complementary P S to DNA nucleotides (exception – no C G P S thymine in RNA; replaced with uracil) P S G C P S Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
  • 79. Step 1. RNA Polymerase attaches to DNA strands & breaks Hydrogen bonds Strand 1 A C T A C T A A C G G A T G A T C RNA Polymerase T G A T G A T T G C C T A C T A G Strand 2
  • 80. Step 2. Strands Separate T A C C G G A T G A T C RNA A U G G C C U A C U A G A C T A A Polymerase mRNA T G A T T A T G G C C T A C T A G Replication bubble Step 3. RNA Polymerase synthesizes mRNA using DNA strand as a template
  • 81. T A C C G G A T G A T C RNA A U G G C C U A C U A G A C T A A Polymeras mRNA T G A T T A T G G C C T A C T A G Step 4. RNA Polymerase releases mRNA & DNA resumes original structure
  • 82. A C T A A T A C C G G A T G A T C T G A T T A T G G C C T A C T A G A U G G C C U A C U A G mRNA Step 5. mRNA is undergoes further processing & leaves nucleus
  • 83. • Codon = 3 letter sequence that encodes for an amino acid • All mRNA begin with AUG “Start Codon” Start Codon A U G G C C U A C U A G mRNA
  • 84. Note: • Codons are redundant - Each amino acid corresponds to more than one codon • e.g. UCU, UCC, and UCA all encode for Serine •Start Codon (AUG) initiates translation •Stop Codons terminate translation
  • 85. Protein Synthesis The codon sequence of mRNA determines the amino acid sequence of a protein. Figure 4.23
  • 87. 2. Amino acid tRNA binding site Clover-leaf shape RNA with 2 important regions 1. Anticodon
  • 88. Ribosomes • Small particle of protein & ribosomal RNA (rRNA) • Ribosomes have 2 subunits • Small subunit binds to mRNA • Large subunit holds tRNA & amino acids • Small subunit has 2 binding sites for adjacent mRNA codons • Ribosomes link amino acids by peptide bonds
  • 89. Ribosomes Peptide bond forming large subunit anticodons small subunit Binding sites with codons
  • 90. 1. mRNA binds to the small subunit of a Ribosome. 2. The ribosome „reads‟ the mRNA sequence 3. tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosomes, aligning their anticodons with mRNA codons 4. The Ribosome links the amino acids together 5. Polypeptide chain lengthens
  • 93. Figure 4.23 TRANSLATION TRANSCRIPTION
  • 94. After translation Chaperone proteins fold protein into its configuration Enzymes may further modify proteins after translation = post-translational modification • Phosphorylation – adding a phosphate to the protein • Glycosylation – adding a sugar to the protein
  • 95. End of Section 5, Chapter 4

Notas del editor

  1. Custom animation effects: object spins on end(Advanced)To reproduce the background effects on this slide, do the following:On the Home tab, in theSlides group, click Layout, and then click Blank.Right-click the slide background area, and then click Format Background. In the Format Background dialog box, click Fill in the left pane, and then select Solid fill in the Fill pane. Click the button next to Color, and then under Theme Colors click White, Background 1 (first row, first option from the left).To reproduce the rectangle on this slide, do the following:On the Home tab, in the Drawing group, click Shapes, and then under Rectangles click Rounded Rectangle (second option from the left). On the slide, drag to draw a rounded rectangle.Select the rectangle. Drag the yellow diamond adjustment handle to the left to decrease the amount of rounding on the corners. With the rounded rectangle still selected, under Drawing Tools, on the Format tab, in the Size group, do the following:In the Shape Height box, enter 3.5”.In the Shape Width box, enter 0.25”.Under Drawing Tools, on the Format tab, in the bottom right corner of the Shape Styles group, click the Format Shape dialog box launcher. In the Format Shape dialog box, click Fill in the left pane. In the Fill pane, select Solid fill, click the button next to Color, and then under Theme Colors click White, Background 1, Darker 15% (third row, first option from the left).Also in the Format Shape dialog box, click Line Color in the left pane. In the Line Color pane, select No line. Also in the Format Shape dialog box, click Shadow in the left pane. In the Shadow pane, click the button next to Presets, under Outer select Offset Bottom (first row, second option from the left), and then do the following:In the Transparency box, enter 0%.In the Sizebox, enter 100%.In the Blur box, enter 8.5 pt.In the Angle box, enter 90°.In the Distance box, enter 1 pt.Also in the Format Shape dialog box, click 3-D Format in the left pane. In the 3-D Format pane, do the following:Under Bevel, click the button next to Top, and then under Bevel click Circle (first row, first option from the left). Next to Top, in the Width box, enter 5 pt, and in the Height box, enter 5 pt.Under Surface, click the button next to Material, and then under Standard clickMatte (first row, first option from the left).Click the button next to Lighting, and then under Neutral click Soft (first row, third option from the left).On the slide, select the rounded rectangle. On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click the arrow under Paste, and then click Duplicate.Select the duplicate rectangle. On the Home tab, in the Drawing group, do the following:Click the arrow next to Shape Fill, and then click No Fill.Click the arrow next to Shape Outline, and then click No Outline.Drag the second rectangle above the first rectangle until the lower edge overlays the top edge of the first rectangle. (Note: When the spinning animation effect is created later for these rectangles, the spin will center where the edges of the rectangles meet.)Press and hold CTRL, and then select both rectangles. On the Home tab, in the Drawing group, click Arrange, and do the following:Point to Align, and then click Align Selected Objects.Point to Align, and then click Align Center.Click Group. On the slide, drag the group until it is centered horizontally on the left edge of the slide (straddling the edge).On the Home tab, in the Drawing group, click Arrange, point to Align, and then do the following:Click Align to Slide.Click Align Middle.To reproduce the dashed arc on this slide, do the following:On the Home tab, in the Drawing group, click Shapes, and then under Basic Shapes click Arc (third row, 12th option from the left). On the slide, drag to draw an arc.Select the arc. Under Drawing Tools, on the Format tab, in the Size group, do the following:In the Shape Height box, enter 7.5”.In the Shape Width box, enter 7.5”.With the arc still selected, on the Home tab, in the Drawing group, click the arrow next to Shape Outline,and then do the following:Under Theme Colors, click White, Background 1, Darker 15% (third row, first option from the left).Point to Dashes, and then click Dash (fourth option from the top).On the slide, drag the yellow diamond adjustment handle on the right side of the arc to the bottom of the arc to create a half circle.Drag the arc until the yellow diamond adjustment handles are on the left edge of the slide.With the arc still selected, on the Home tab, in the Drawing group, click Arrange, point to Align, and then do the following:Click Align to Slide. Click Align Middle. To reproduce the half circle on this slide, do the following:On the slide, select the arc. On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click the arrow under Paste, and then click Duplicate.Select the duplicate arc. Under Drawing Tools, on the Format tab, in the Size group, do the following:In the Shape Height box, enter 3.33”.In the Shape Width box, enter 3.33”.With the second arc still selected, under Drawing Tools, on the Format tab, in the Shape Styles group, click the arrow next to Shape Fill, and then under Theme Colors click White, Background 1, Darker 5% (second row, first option from the left).Under Drawing Tools, on the Format tab, in the Shape Styles group, click the arrow next to Shape Outline,and then click No Outline.Under Drawing Tools, on the Format tab, in the Shape Styles group, click Shape Effects, point to Shadow, and then click ShadowOptions. In the Format Shape dialog box, click Shadow in the left pane. In the Shadow pane, click the button next to Presets, under Inner click Inside Right (second row, third option from the left), and then do the following:In the Transparency box, enter 86%.In the Blur box, enter 24 pt.In the Angle box, enter 315°.In the Distance box, enter 4 pt.On the slide, drag the second arc until the yellow diamond adjustment handles are on the left edge of the slide. On the Home tab, in the Drawing group, click Arrange, and then do the following:Point to Align, and then click Align to Slide. Point to Align, and then click Align Middle. Click Send to Back.To reproduce the button shapes on this slide, do the following:On the Home tab, in the Drawing group, click Shapes, and then under Basic Shapes click Oval (first row, second option from the left). On the slide, drag to draw an oval.Select the oval. Under Drawing Tools, on the Format tab, in the Size group, do the following:In the Shape Height box, enter 0.34”.In the Shape Width box, enter 0.34”.Under Drawing Tools, on the Format tab, in the Shape Styles group, click More, and then click Light 1 Outline, Colored Fill – Dark 1 (third row, first option from the left).Under Drawing Tools, on the Format tab, in the bottom right corner of the Shape Styles group, click the Format Shape dialog box launcher. In the Format Shape dialog box, click Fill in the left pane. In the Fill pane, select Solid Fill. Click the button next to Color, and then under Theme Colors click Olive Green, Accent 3, Lighter 80°(second row, seventh option from the left).Also in the Format Shape dialog box, click Line Color in the left pane. In the Line Color pane, select No line. Also in the Format Shape dialog box, click Shadow in the left pane. In the Shadow pane, click the button next to Presets, under Outer click Offset Bottom (first row, second option from the left), and then do the following:In the Transparency box, enter 0%.In the Size box, enter 100%.In the Blur box, enter 8.5 pt.In the Angle box, enter 90°.In the Distance box, enter 1 pt.Also in the Format Shape dialog box, click 3-D Format in the left pane, and then do the following in the 3-D Format pane:Under Bevel, click the button next to Top, and then under Bevel click Art Deco (third row, fourth option from the left). Next to Top, in the Width box, enter 5 pt, and in the Height box, enter 5 pt.UnderContour, click the button next to Color, and then under Theme Colors click White, Background 1 (first row, first option from the left). In the Size box, enter 3.5 pt.Under Surface, click the button next to Material, and then under Standard click Matte (first row, first option from the left). Click the button next to Lighting, and then under Neutral click Soft (first row, third option from the left).On the slide, select the oval. Under Drawing Tools, on the Format tab, in the bottom right corner of the Size group, click the Size and Position dialog box launcher. In the Size and Position dialog box, on the Position tab, do the following:In the Horizontal box, enter 2.98”.In the Vertical box, enter 1.5”.Select the oval. On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click the arrow under Paste, and then click Duplicate.Select the duplicate oval. Under Drawing Tools, on the Format tab, in the bottom right corner of the Size group, click the Size and Position dialog box launcher. In the Size and Position dialog box, on the Position tab, do the following:In the Horizontal box, enter 3.52”.In the Vertical box, enter 2.98”. Repeat step 9 two more times, for a total of four ovals. Under Drawing Tools, on the Format tab, in the bottom right corner of the Size group, click the Size and Position dialog box launcher. In the Size and Position dialog box, on the Position tab, do the following to position the third and fourth ovals:Select the third oval on the slide, and then enter 3.52” in theHorizontal box and 4.27” in the Vertical box.Select the fourth oval on the slide, and then enter 2.99” in theHorizontal box and 5.66” in the Vertical box.To reproduce the text on this slide, do the following:On the Insert tab, in the Text group, click Text Box, and then on the slide, drag to draw the text box. Enter text in the text box and select the text. On the Home tab, in the Font group, do the following: In the Font list, select Corbel.In the Font Size list, select 22.Click the arrow next to Font Color, and then under Theme Colors click White, Background 1, Darker 50% (sixth row, first option from the left).On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click Align Text Left to align the text left in the text box.On the slide, drag the text box to the right of the first oval.Select the text box. On the Home tab, in the Clipboard group, click the arrow under Paste, and then click Duplicate. Click in the text box and edit the text. Drag the second text box to the right of the second oval.Repeat steps 5-7 to create the third and fourth text boxes, dragging them to the right of the third and fourth ovals. To reproduce the animation effects on this slide, do the following:On the Animations tab, in the Animations group, click Custom Animation.On the Home tab, in the Editing group, click Select, and then click Selection Pane. In the Selection and Visibility pane, select the rectangle group. In the CustomAnimation task pane, do the following:Click AddEffect, point to Emphasis, and then click More Effects. In the Add Emphasis Effect dialog box, under Basic, click Spin. Select the animation effect (spin effect for the rectangle group). Under Modify: Spin, do the following:In theStart list, selectWith Previous. In the Amount list, in the Custom box, enter 123°,and then press ENTER. Also in the Amount list, clickCounterclockwise.In the Speedlist, select Fast. On the slide, select the first oval. In the CustomAnimation task pane, do the following:Click AddEffect, point to Emphasis, and then click More Effects. In the Add Emphasis Effect dialog box, under Basic, click Change Fill Color. Select the second animation effect (change fill color effect for the first oval). Under Modify: Change Fill Color, do the following:In the Startlist, select After Previous. In the Fill Color list, click More Colors. In the Colors dialog box, on the Custom tab, enter values for Red: 130, Green: 153, Blue: 117. In the Speedlist, select Very Fast.On the slide, select the first text box. In the CustomAnimation task pane, do the following:Click Add Effect, point to Entrance,and then click More Effects. In the Add Entrance Effect dialog box, under Subtle, clickFade. Select the third animation effect (fade effect for the first text box). Under Modify: Fade, do the following:In theStart list, selectWith Previous.In the Speed list, select Very Fast. In the Selection and Visibility pane, select the rectangle group. In the CustomAnimation task pane, do the following:Click AddEffect, point to Emphasis, and then click More Effects. In the Add Emphasis Effect dialog box, under Basic, click Spin. Select the fourth animation effect (spin effect for the rectangle group). Under Modify: Spin, do the following:In theStart list, selectOn Click. In the Amount list, in the Custom box, enter 22°, and then press ENTER. Also in the Amount list, click Clockwise.In the Speed list, select Very Fast.On the slide, select the second oval. In the CustomAnimation task pane, do the following:Click AddEffect, point to Emphasis, and then click More Effects. In the Add Emphasis Effect dialog box, under Basic, click Change Fill Color. Select the fifth animation effect (change fill color effect for the second oval). Under Modify: Change Fill Color, do the following:In the Startlist, select After Previous. In the Fill Color list, click More Colors. In the Colors dialog box, on the Custom tab, enter values for Red: 130, Green: 153, Blue: 117. In the Speedlist, select Very Fast.On the slide, select the second text box. In the CustomAnimation task pane, do the following:Click Add Effect, point to Entrance and then click More Effects. In the Add Entrance Effect dialog box, under Subtle, clickFade. Select the sixth animation effect (fade effect for the second text box). Under Modify: Fade, do the following:In theStart list, selectWith Previous.In the Speed list, select Very Fast. On the slide, select the third oval. In the CustomAnimation task pane, do the following:Click AddEffect, point to Emphasis, and then click More Effects. In the Add Emphasis Effect dialog box, under Basic, click Change Fill Color. Select the seventh animation effect (change fill color effect for the third oval). Under Modify: Change Fill Color, do the following:In the Startlist, select After Previous. In the Fill Color list, click More Colors. In the Colors dialog box, on the Custom tab, enter values for Red: 130, Green: 153, Blue: 117. In the Speedlist, select Very Fast.On the slide, select the third text box. In the CustomAnimation task pane, do the following:Click Add Effect, point to Entrance and then click More Effects. In the Add Entrance Effect dialog box, under Subtle, clickFade. Select the eighth animation effect (fade effect for the third text box). Under Modify: Fade, do the following:In theStart list, selectWith Previous.In the Speed list, select Very Fast. On the slide, select the fourth oval. In the CustomAnimation task pane, do the following:Click AddEffect, point to Emphasis, and then click More Effects. In the Add Emphasis Effect dialog box, under Basic, click Change Fill Color. Select the ninth animation effect (change fill color effect for the fourth oval). Under Modify: Change Fill Color, do the following:In the Startlist, select After Previous. In the Fill Color list, click More Colors. In the Colors dialog box, on the Custom tab, enter values for Red: 130, Green: 153, Blue: 117. In the Speedlist, select Very Fast.On the slide, select the fourth text box. In the CustomAnimation task pane, do the following:Click Add Effect, point to Entrance,and then click More Effects. In the Add Entrance Effect dialog box, under Subtle, clickFade. Select the 10th animation effect (fade effect for the fourth text box). Under Modify: Fade, do the following:In theStart list, selectWith Previous.In the Speed list, select Very Fast.
  2. Custom animation effects: rise up and shrink(Basic)To reproduce the rectangle on this slide, do the following:On the Home tab, in theSlides group, click Layout, and then click Blank.On the Home tab, in the Drawing group, click Shapes, and then under Rectangles click Rectangle (first option from the left). On the slide, drag to draw a rectangle.Select the rectangle. Under Drawing Tools, on the Format tab, in the Size group, do the following:In the Shape Height box, enter 3”. In the Shape Width box, enter 10”.With the rectangle still selected, on the Home tab, in the Drawing group, do the following:Click the arrow next to Shape Fill, and then under Theme Colors click Black, Text 1, Lighter 5% (sixth row, second option from the left).Click the arrow next to Shape Outline, and then click No Outline.On the Home tab, in the Drawing group, click Arrange, point to Align, and then do the following:Click Align to Slide.Click Align Top.Click Align Center. To reproduce the text on this slide, do the following:On the Insert tab, in the Text group, click Text Box, and then on the slide, drag to draw a text box. Enter text in the text box and select the text. On the Home tab, in the Font group, do the following:In the Font list, select Arial Black.In the Font Size box, enter 38.Click Bold. On the Home tab, in the Paragraph group, click Center to center the text in the text box.Select the text box. Under Drawing Tools, on the Format tab, in the bottom right corner of the WordArt Styles group, click the Format Text Effects dialog box launcher. In the Format Text Effects dialog box,click Text Fill in the left pane, select Gradient fill in the Text Fill pane, and then do the following:In the Type list, select Linear.Click the button next to Direction, and then click Linear Down (first row, second option from the left). Under Gradient stops, click Add or Remove until threestops appear in the drop-down list.Also under Gradient stops, customize the gradient stops that you added as follows:Select Stop 1 from the list, and then do the following:In the Stop position box, enter 0%.Click the button next to Color, click More Colors, and then in the Colors dialog box, on the Custom tab, enter values for Red: 255,Green: 214, Blue: 63.Select Stop 2 from the list, and then do the following: In the Stop position box, enter 75%.Click the button next to Color, click More Colors, and then in the Colors dialog box, on the Custom tab, enter values for Red: 255, Green: 192, Blue: 0.Select Stop 3 from the list, and then do the following: In the Stop position box, enter 100%.Click the button next to Color, click More Colors, and then in the Colors dialog box, on the Custom tab, enter values for Red: 255, Green: 162, Blue: 96.Also in the Format Text Effects dialog box, click Shadow in the left pane. In the Shadow pane, click the button next to Presets, under Outer click Offset Bottom (first row, second option from the left), and then do the following:In the Transparency box, enter 70%.In the Size box, enter 100%.In the Blur box, enter 6.3 pt.In the Angle box, enter 84°.In the Distance box, enter 3.2 pt.Also in the Format Text Effects dialog box, click 3-D Format in the left pane, and then do the following in the 3-D Format pane:Under Bevel, click the button next to Top, and then under Bevel click Circle (first row, first option from the left). Next to Top, in the Width box, enter 2 pt, and in the Height box, enter 2 pt.Under Contour, click the button next to Color, click More Colors, and then in the Colors dialog box, on the Custom tab, enter values for Red: 215, Green: 130, Blue: 60. In the Size box, enter 1 pt. Under Surface, in the Material list, under Standard,select WarmMatte (second option from the left). In the Lighting list, under Special, select Glow (third option from the left). In the Angle box, enter 90°.On the slide, drag the text box just above the bottom edge of the rectangle.With the text box still selected, on the Home tab, in the Drawing group, click Arrange, point to Align, and then do the following:Click Align to Slide.Click Align Center. To reproduce the line on this slide, do the following:On the Home tab, in the Drawing group, click Shapes, and then under Lines click Line (first option from the left). On the slide, press and hold SHIFT, and then drag to draw a straight, horizontal line.Select the line. Under Drawing Tools, on the Format tab, in the Size group, in the Shape Width box, enter 10”.Under Drawing Tools, on the Format tab, in the bottom right corner of the Shape Styles group, click the Format Shape dialog box launcher. In the Format Shape dialog box, click Line Color in the left pane. In the Line Color pane, select Solid fill, click the button next to Color, and then select More Colors. In the Colors dialog box, on the Custom tab, enter values for Red: 255, Green: 232, Blue: 63.Also in the Format Shape dialog box, click Line Style in the left pane. In the Line Style pane, in the Width box, enter 4.5 pt.Also in the Format Shape dialog box, click 3-D Format in the left pane. In the 3-D Format pane, under Bevel, do the following:Click the button next to Top, and then under Bevel click Circle (first row, first option from the left). Next to Top, in the Width box, enter 3 pt. Next to Top, in the Height box, enter 6 pt.On the slide, drag the line until the top edge touches the bottom edge of the rectangle.On the Home tab, in the Drawing group, click Arrange, point to Align, and then do the following:Click Align to Slide.Click Align Center. To reproduce the animation effects on this slide, do the following:On the Animations tab, in the Animations group, click Custom Animation.On the slide, select the text box. In the CustomAnimation task pane, do the following:Click AddEffect, point to Exit, and then click More Effects. In the Add Exit Effect dialog box, under Basic, click Disappear.Select the animation effect (disappear effect for the text box). Under Modify: Disappear, in theStart list, selectAfter Previous.On the slide, select the text box. In the CustomAnimation task pane, do the following:Click AddEffect, point to Emphasis, and then click More Effects. In the Add Emphasis Effect dialog box, under Basic, click Grow/Shrink.Select the second animation effect (grow/shrink effect for the text box). Click the arrow to the right of the effect, and then click Effect Options. In the Grow/Shrink dialog box, do the following:On the Effect tab, in the Size list, in the Custom box, enter 400%, and then press ENTER. Also in the Size list, click Vertical. On the Timing tab, do the following:In theStart list, selectAfter Previous. In the Speed box, enter 0.01 seconds.On the slide, select the text box. In the CustomAnimation task pane, do the following:Click AddEffect, point to Entrance, and then click More Effects. In the AddEntrance Effect dialog box, under Basic, click Appear.Select the third animation effect (appear effect for the text box). Under Modify: Appear, in theStart list, selectAfter Previous.On the slide, select the text box. In the CustomAnimation task pane, do the following:Click AddEffect, point to Emphasis, and then click More Effects. In the Add Emphasis Effect dialog box, under Basic, click Grow/Shrink.Select the fourth animation effect (grow/shrink effect for the text box). Click the arrow to the right of the effect, and then click Effect Options. In the Grow/Shrink dialog box, do the following:On the Effect tab, in the Size list, in the Custom box, enter 25%, and then press ENTER. Also in the Size list, click Vertical. On the Timing tab, do the following:In theStart list, selectWith Previous. In the Speed list, select 1 seconds (Fast).On the slide, select the text box. In the CustomAnimation task pane, do the following:Click AddEffect, point to Entrance, and then click More Effects. In the Add Entrance Effect dialog box, under Moderate, click Rise Up.Select the fifth animation effect (rise-up effect for the text box). Under Modify: Rise Up, do the following:In theStart list, selectWith Previous. In the Speed list, selectFast.On the slide, press and hold CTRL, and then select the rectangle and the line. In the CustomAnimation task pane, do the following:Click AddEffect, point to Entrance, and then click More Effects. In the Add Entrance Effect dialog box, under Moderate, click Descend.Press and hold CTRL, and then select the sixth and seventh animation effects (descend effects for the rectangle and the line). Under Modify: Descend, do the following:In theStart list, selectWith Previous. In the Speed list, selectFast.To reproduce the background effects on this slide, do the following:Right-click the slide background area, and then click Format Background. In the Format Background dialog box, click Fill in the left pane, select Gradient fill in the Fill pane, and then do the following:In the Type list, select Linear.Click the button next to Direction, and then click Linear Up (second row, second option from the left).Under Gradient stops, click Add or Remove until two stops appear in the drop-down list.Also under Gradient stops, customize the gradient stops that you added as follows:Select Stop 1 from the list, and then do the following:In the Stop position box, enter 0%.Click the button next to Color, and then under Theme Colors click Black, Text 1, Lighter 15% (fifth row, second option from the left).Select Stop 2 from the list, and then do the following: In the Stop position box, enter 100%.Click the button next to Color, and then under Theme Colors clickBlack, Text 1, Lighter 50% (second row, second option from the left).