This document provides guidance on key camera techniques, editing, sound, and mise-en-scène elements used in moving image media. It defines technical terms like shot types, camera movements, editing transitions, sound design concepts, and aspects of production design. Examples are given to illustrate techniques and how they can be used to direct audience attention and create certain representations in television and film.

1. G321/2
Media Concepts, Production
and Representation
The Media Language of moving image
2013-14 Edition
Mise en ScèneSound
Camera Editing

3. Contents
AS G322: Key Media Concepts (TV Drama) ............................................................................ 1
Camera techniques ..................................................................................................................... 3
Framing the image: Shots and Angles.................................................................................... 3
Camera Movements................................................................................................................ 5
Composing the image............................................................................................................. 7
Camera techniques and Representation..................................................................................... 9
Editing moving image.............................................................................................................. 11
Transitions............................................................................................................................ 11
Editing techniques: basics .................................................................................................... 12
Editing technique: advanced ................................................................................................ 13
Editing and Representation...................................................................................................... 16
Sound in Film and Television .................................................................................................. 17
Core terminology.................................................................................................................. 17
Non-diegetic sound .............................................................................................................. 18
Additional terminology ........................................................................................................ 19
Sound and Representation........................................................................................................ 20
Mise en scène ........................................................................................................................... 21
3-Point Lighting ................................................................................................................... 23
Mise en Scène and Representation........................................................................................... 25
G322: Putting it all together with CSR................................................................................ 26
G322a Textual analysis: discourse markers............................................................................. 27
G322a Essay Tips 2011............................................................................................................ 28
Textual Analysis................................................................................................................... 28
Writing style......................................................................................................................... 29
And finally…........................................................................................................................ 29
G322a Mark Scheme................................................................................................................ 31
Written and compiled by David Allison
for Salesian School

5. 1
AS G322: Key Media Concepts (TV Drama)
The following is taken from the OCR Media Studies A Level Specification
Section A: Textual Analysis and Representation
An ‘unseen’ moving image extract with one compulsory question dealing with textual analysis of
various technical aspects of the languages and conventions of moving image media. Candi-
dates will be asked to link this analysis with a discussion of some aspect of representation with-
in the sequence.
The moving image extract will be provided by OCR in DVD format, with full instructions for the
administration of the examination, viewing conditions and note-making time. Centres must pre-
pare candidates in advance of the examination, using a range of examples from texts from the
genre stated below, to demonstrate textual analysis of all of the following technical areas of
moving image language and conventions in relation to the unseen extract:
 Camera Angle, Shot, Movement and Composition
 Mise-en-Scène
 Editing
 Sound
The focus of study for Section A is the use of technical aspects of the moving image medium to
create meaning for an audience, focussing on the creation of representations of specific social
types, groups, events or places within the extract. It is not necessary to study the history of the
genre specified. Centres should use examples of the genre specified with their candidates to
prepare them for undertaking unseen textual analysis.
Set Topic Content
The content below represents what candidates should learn and is also provided as the source
of the questions in the examination papers.
Candidates should be prepared to analyse and discuss the following: technical aspects of the
language and conventions of the moving image medium, in relation to the unseen moving im-
age extract, as appropriate to the genre and extract specified, in order to discuss the se-
quence’s representation of individuals, groups, events or places:
Camera Shots, Angle, Movement and Composition
 Shots: establishing shot, master shot, close-up, mid-shot, long shot, wide shot, two-shot,
aerial shot, point of view shot, over the shoulder shot, and variations of these.
 Angle: high angle, low angle, canted angle.
 Movement: pan, tilt, track, dolly, crane, steadicam, hand-held, zoom, reverse zoom.
 Composition: framing, rule of thirds, depth of field – deep and shallow focus, focus pulls.

6. 2
Editing
 Includes transition of image and sound – continuity and non-continuity systems.
 Cutting: shot/reverse shot, eyeline match, graphic match, action match, jump cut, cross-
cutting, parallel editing, cutaway; insert.
 Other transitions, dissolve, fade-in, fade-out, wipe, superimposition, long take, short
take, slow motion, ellipsis and expansion of time, post-production, visual effects.
Sound
 Diegetic and non-diegetic sound; synchronous/asynchronous sound; sound effects;
sound motif, sound bridge, dialogue, voiceover, mode of address/direct address, sound
mixing, sound perspective.
 Soundtrack: score, incidental music, themes and stings, ambient sound.
Mise-en-Scène
 Production design: location, studio, set design, costume and make-up, properties.
 Lighting; colour design.
It is acknowledged that not every one of the above technical areas will feature in equal measure
in any given extract. Therefore examiners are instructed to bear this in mind when marking the
candidates’ answers and will not expect each aspect will be covered in the same degree of de-
tail, but as appropriate to the extract provided and to the discussion of representation.
Representations
Candidates should be prepared to discuss, in response to the question, how these technical el-
ements create specific representations of individuals, groups, events or places and help to ar-
ticulate specific messages and
values that have social signifi-
cance. Particular areas of repre-
sentation that may be chosen are:
 Gender
 Age (see right)
 Ethnicity
 Sexuality
 Class and status
 Physical ability/disability
 Regional identity
Study guide
The following pages outline the meaning of all the key terminology listed under ‘Set Topic Con-
tent’ (above) and should help you in your studies and exam prep.

7. 3
Camera techniques
Framing the image: Shots and Angles
How to describe different framing choices and techniques
Looking room (Interviewee looks into space in the
frame. towards the interviewer)
Walking room (Moving subject walks into
space)

8. 4
Camera: Framing moving images
The scale of a shot, or the apparent closeness of the viewer to the subject in the screen image,
is identified by terms like long shot, medium shot, close-up and so on. These terms identify par-
ticular points on a continuous spectrum of proximity - how ‘tightly’, or ‘loosely’ the screen's
frame will enclose the subject.
There is no absolute definition for the many terms describing shot size. American, European
and British schemes vary, as do individual interpretations. Terms will also vary according to the
subject, since they relate to our proximity to subjects of varying sizes: a close-up of a table, for
example, might actually be a medium shot of a vase of flowers on the table, or a wide shot of a
design motif on the vase, depending on the subject of our attention: is it the table, the flowers or
the motif?
Some of the more common terms and abbreviations are listed here, with an approximate defini-
tion in relation to the human figure:
 extreme long shot (ELS);
 long shot (LS) - shows the entire human figure, from above the head to below the feet;
 medium long shot (MLS) - from the knees upward;
 medium shot (MS) - from the waist upwards;
 close-up (CU) - all the head and some shoulder;
 extreme close-up (ECU) - a portion of the face.
You can see these on the previous page. Depending on what you read, you may come across
other terms – e.g. wide shot, close shot, full shot – some of these are alternatives, others are
technically incorrect, so please stick to the ones you’ve been given in the booklet!
The decision to use any particular shot size will depend largely on the shot's function in the nar-
rative. A close-up, for example, concentrates our attention on the character on screen when
his/her role in the story is important; a close-up can also highlight important details (e.g. the tick-
ing time bomb) which might otherwise be missed.
So, shot sizes are chosen to serve the narrative, and some terms indicate how shots are often
named in terms of their narrative function.
 An ‘establishing’ shot, usually a wide shot, shows the setting and context for the action
which is to follow.
 A ‘two-shot’ shows two characters in the frame, and will usually be cut together with
close-ups.
 A wide ‘master shot’, showing all the action of the scene, will be cut together with close-
ups, reverse angles and so on.
 An over-the-shoulder shot (OTS) shows, at the edge of the frame, part of the back of the
head and shoulder of a character, so making clear the spatial relationship between the
character and what they're looking at.

9. 5
Illustrations by Roy Stafford, from
The Media Students’s Book
by Gill Branston & Roy Stafford
Camera Movements
Just like the framing of a shot, camera movements come with their own vocabulary which needs
to be learned.
Pan
Camera pivots left or right around a vertical axis, but stays fixed
to the same spot. Typically used to follow characters moving a
relatively small distance in a space, or to redirect the audience’s
attention from one part of the set to another.
Tilt
Camera pivots up or down around a horizontal axis. Some-
time referred to (wrongly) as ‘pan up’ or ‘pan down’.
Crab
Studio camera moves completely to the left or right.
Typically used to follow the movements of characters through
an extended physical space.
Crane
A camera can rise or descend on a crane arm. A lightweight crane with a remote camera is a
‘jib’;; hence the terms ‘jib up/down’;; the terms ‘boom up’ or ‘boom down’ can also be used. Dra-
matically changing the camera height can provide a radically changing view of a scene.
Dolly
Studio camera moves in/out from subject.
Can be used to raise the prominence of a particu-
lar character or object in a scene.
Track
While studio cameras usually sit on ‘dollies’ that
allow them to be moved anywhere on a flat studio
floor, on location film cameras sit on a trolley that is
moved along a specially laid track. Thus, on a film,
it is said that the camera tracks left/right or tracks in/out.
Zoom
Camera zooms in/out from subject. This is not strictly a camera movement because it’s the lens
that moves – it is an optical effect, which looks very different to a dolly or tracking shot.
Dolly zoom
Also known as the ‘Vertigo’ shot after its use in Hitchcock’s film. In this shot, the camera zooms
out while tracking/dollying in. The result is that the object in the foreground can appear to re-
main consistent, while the background seems to recede rapidly. The visual equivalent of that
feeling you get when you leave your stomach behind at the top of a
rollercoaster!
Hand-held
In which the camera is held by hand, usually providing a subjective,
kinetic/erratic feel.
Steadicam
This is the brand name for a mechanism that a cameraman can use
to hold the camera and move it smoothly. This allows for a sweep-
ing, gliding movement, especially where purely hand-held move-
ments would be uneven. Larger cameras are mounted on a special
harness worn by the camera operator (right).

10. 6
Lenses and focusing
Different camera lenses have different optical effects.
This photograph has been taken from a position
quite close to the boat, with a wide angle lens.
This has provided a distorted perspective, exag-
gerating the distance between images in the
foreground and background. An extremely wide
angle lens is called a ‘fish eye’ lens.
This image has been taken from much further
away from the boat using a telephoto lens. This
also distorts the perspective, appearing to flatten
the image and rob it of its depth. Objects that are
varying distances away can seem to be in the
same physical plane.
The foreshortening effect created by the use
of a telephoto lens was creatively used in
Stand By Me (Reiner, 1986). In the scene,
the two boys are trapped on a railway bridge
as a steam train begins to cross it. This shot
shows the train threatening to run the boys
over. In fact, it was at least 200 metres be-
hind them. A very long, 600mm lens was
used to compress the apparent distance be-
tween the two.
Deep and shallow focus
Cameras tend to rely on a lot of light to focus. As a very general rule, the more light there is
available through the lens, the ‘deeper’ the focus – the more of the contents of the image will be
in focus.
This photograph has a small depth of field, or a
shallow focus. In this case, the foreground is in fo-
cus, but the rest of the image is ‘soft’.
This photograph has a large depth of field or
deep focus: objects in the foreground and back-
ground are all in focus.
In film and television, a focus puller can rack focus on a shot with a small depth of field, adjust-
ing the focusing ring on the lens so that a different object comes into focus. This shifts the atten-
tion of the audience from one subject to another.

11. 7
Composing the image
How to arrange the ingredients of a shot within the frame
The 180º rule
When shooting a conversation between
two people, stay on one side of the line
that connects them together. You can be
anywhere in the 180º arc around them
created by the line, but don’t “cross the
line”, or the people in your shot can seem
to switch places.
The same rule applies if you’re following
someone going for a walk. Stay on one
side of the ‘line of action’ – the line they’re
walking along. If you ‘cross the line’ from
shot to shot, they will appear to suddenly
change direction!
There is also a 30 degree rule: If cutting be-
tween shots on the same figure, the camera
must move by more than 30 degrees, or the
shot length must be significantly changed. For example, a medium shot on an actor cannot be followed
by a medium close up at the same angle or one less than 30 degrees away from it; otherwise the actor
would appear to jump towards the spectator.
The rule of thirds
Amateur film-makers and photographers tend to want to
put the subject of the image right in the middle of the
frame. However, that’s not a very attractive composition,
particularly with people, where it can give far too much
room above people’s heads.
The basic principle behind the rule of thirds is to imagine
breaking an image down into thirds (both horizontally
and vertically) so that you have 9 parts, like a noughts
and crosses board. The places where the lines cross are
places where you can consider putting the subjects of
your image.
Here are two examples:

12. 8
Looking room / Walking room
We can extend the rule of thirds to think about framing someone looking across, or walking
across, the frame. For example, if you filmed a horse or a person walking across your image,
you need to give them space in the frame to walk into.
In this frame, the horse is walking out of shot.
Even if you panned to follow it, it would still feel
like he was racing out of the frame. This is unbal-
anced framing.
In this shot, the horse is on the left of frame, walk-
ing into the right. There is more space on the right
hand side, so the horse can ‘walk into it’. If you
pan to follow, keep the horse on the left of frame to
give it ‘walking room’.
The same applies in close-ups of people.
This close-up of Daniel Radcliffe in My Boy Jack
obeys the rule of thirds. However, he is looking
out of the shot. Unless you want to make your
audience feel uncomfortable, avoid this.
If we reposition Daniel on the right side of the
frame, looking left, he still obeys the rule of thirds.
But now, because he’s looking into a space –
‘looking room’, it feels more balanced and natural.
Positive and negative space
Positive space is the part of an image filled with the subject of the image; negative space is (ba-
sically) the background. Good composition takes this into account: our view of Radcliffe, above
left, is distracted by the poorly framed maid in the background.
Rules are made to be broken!
All of these rules are designed to help audiences feel comfortable watching film and television.
However, there may be times when the producer wants his/her audience to be uncomfortable.
On these occasions, the rules are broken: characters cross the line, framing is ‘off’, they don’t
get looking or walking room etc. Horror directors particularly enjoy playing with negative space,
leaving conspicuous doorways over the hero’s shoulder, ready for the monster to burst through,
for example. These creative choices can unsettle an audience because they are unfamiliar and
unbalanced – which can sometimes be exactly the effect required!

13. 9
Camera techniques and Representation
“To rely on formulas is to forget that meaning and effect always stem from
the film [or text]” Bordwell and Thompson: Film Art, An introduction.
In this booklet, each section on technical codes will include some guidance on how these techniques
might be used in film and television to create meanings. Few of these rules are fixed: sometimes a
high angle is designed to make a character look small, other times it’s just a ‘cool’ shot. So take care!
Composition
 Our attention will normally fall on characters a) facing us or b) dominating the frame in terms
of size or c) in focus. The director uses these techniques to provoke an emotional response
from us directed to one particular character. Where these techniques are not used, characters in
shot assume broadly equal status.
 Rule of thirds: this is usually only broken to be a) ‘quirky’ and ‘stylish’ or b) to unsettle the
audience. What effect is the director aiming for?
 Spatial relationships: how is composition reinforcing your reading of the physical interaction
between the characters? Is their closeness or distance being emphasised? Look out for 2-shots
and group shots especially.
Angles
 High angles can suggest looking down on a character, emphasising their lack of stature, weak-
ness, vulnerability etc.
 Low angles can suggest the reverse: looking up at a character can lead to a reading of domi-
nance, bullying etc.
 Canted angles can suggest haste, panic or worry;; a sense of things being ‘off kilter’.
 Angles are sometimes used either for POVs or to create a sympathetic perspective. We might
see a scene either directly through the eyes of a child, or at least from their height, looking up
at adults. This might invite the audience to sympathise with the child’s position in the scene.
Movement/focus
Sometime camera movement is simply included to follow the action or invest the scene with energy.
However...
 Movements that follow a character suggest the audience is supposed to identify with him or
her more closely than others in the scene.
 Zooming, dollying in or pulling focus will give the subject of the shot greater significance.
 Shifting frame from one object to another suggests a connection between the two objects.
Shots
 Close ups are all about the face: eyes and mouth especially. These shots exclude context, but a
close-up tells us that this character’s feelings are paramount. Persistent use of close ups can
help us to feel more intimately connected with a character – in certain circumstances it can al-
so seem intrusive and make us feel uncomfortable. Tight close-ups feel claustrophobic
 Medium shots reveal a degree of context and allow us to read both facial expressions and body
language. They are very effective for showing complex relationships between two or more
characters: the way they stand, hold themselves or each other, for example.
 Long shots are all about a) body language and b) context. Faces are less easy to read, but pos-
ture and aspects of physical proximity can be very revealing.
Combinations
Techniques can be combined to create more complex readings. For example...
 A low-angle 2-shot looks adversarial.
 A close-up over-the-shoulder 2-shot makes the character facing the camera look trapped.

14. 10

15. 11
Editing moving image
The term ‘editing’ technically describes the removal of material. In
the hands of a film-maker, however, it becomes much more than
that – a system for constructing stories. Editing presents events in
the ‘correct’ order;; creates relationships between people, objects
or events; identifies or conceals the passage of time; and hides
the artifice of film-making. Critical to this are the ways in which
one shot can be joined to another, and the length of time between edits.
As with camera and sound, the world of editing has its own distinct vocabulary, which you will
need to learn
Transitions
When you come to edit your own footage, you will have the choice of four basic kinds of edit, or
transition.
Cut
The most basic kind of transition, and named after the process which, in film, saw the last frame
of one shot being sliced and glued to the first frame of the next. A cut is an instant change from
one shot to another.
Dissolve
A dissolve is a gradual transition (sometimes called a cross-fade) between one shot and anoth-
er. During a dissolve, it is possible to see one shot superimposed over the other. The kind of
transition is usually used to signify a change of time or place. For example, in classical editing, a
dissolve might take us from a businessman’s lunch meeting to his arrival back home in the
evening.
Fade
A fade is a kind of dissolve that takes us from a shot to a solid colour. This is most typically a
fade-to-white or a fade-to-black, but it can be to any colour. A fade to black usually connotes a
more significant change in time than a dissolve, or perhaps that the character in shot has fallen
asleep or passed out!
Wipe
This in-vision transition involves one shot appear to wipe or move across another. This is an
old-fashioned technique, once common in action-adventure serials, but rarely used today. How-
ever, it can be seen in
George Lucas’s Star Wars
films, where he uses them to
illustrate parallel action
(‘meanwhile…) in a style
which recalls the old film se-
rials which inspired him. This
example (right) shows a di-
agonal wipe between a shot
of enemy ships in deep
space and an XLS of C3PO
and R2D2 lost in the desert
of Tatooine.

16. 12
Editing techniques: basics
Continuity editing
Continuity editing is family of principles. It is a style of editing in which the action in a scene ap-
pears to be continuous, even though it is the result of many ‘takes’ over possibly several days. It
is also described as ‘invisible’ editing.
Action match
Films and TV dramas are typically shot with a single camera. Each time we see a different an-
gle on a scene, the actors in it have had to repeat themselves. In classical editing, the editor
attempts to join different angles on a scene together so that the action in it matches. This is also
sometimes referred to as a match cut, or match-on-action. In the sequence below, from Steven
Spielberg’s The Terminal (2004), the shot cuts at the point where the official puts Victor’s pass-
port into a bag. Note the adherence here to the 180º rule.
Motivation
A motivated edit is any transition ‘forced’ on the editor by the development of the action, narra-
tive or character. Whenever shot (a) refers to the existence of an event outside the frame, and
we then cut to (b) which shows that event, that’s a motivated edit.
Eyeline match
An eyeline match is a specific kind of motivated cut between a shot showing a character looking
at something, and the object that he/she is looking at, which will not be visible in the ‘looking’
shot. It tends to heighten the significance of the object they are looking at for the viewer. In this
(abbreviated) sequence from Hot Fuzz (Wright, 2007), a series of eyeline matches is used to
convey a specific narrative point. Follow it left to right!

17. 13
Shot/reverse shot
One of the most common editing devices, this technique involves cutting back and forth be-
tween similar shots of (say) two people talking to each other. By obeying the 180º rule, the edi-
tor can show both sides of the conversation across, say a dinner table. Here’s another example
from Spielberg’s The Terminal. Note that this is also an example of eyeline match. Only one
camera is used, of course, so the scene has to be shot repeatedly from different angles and dis-
tances to capture the sequence.
This editing approach is usually used for shooting interviews for news, current affairs and doc-
umentary programmes.
Cross-cutting / Inter-cutting
The very earliest editing invention was inter-cutting (or cross-cutting) – thanks to Edwin S. Por-
ter's Life of an American Fireman. Two scenes in different places (parallel action) are cut to-
gether so that the attention of the audience is switched between two different storylines. This
scene shows firemen rushing to the rescue of a woman trapped in a burning house by cross-
cutting between the two scenes.
Editing technique: advanced
Jump cut
In classical editing, the cuts are typically ‘invisible’ – they do not interrupt the flow of the action.
A jump cut is not: it interrupts the flow of the action, disturbing the audience’s involvement in the
narrative. When two shots of the same subject are cut together, but the framing and angle of the
two shots are too similar, a jump cut will occur. This pair of frames from Love, Actually (Curtis,
2003) are consecutive and show a subtle change in composition and a change in Hugh Grant’s
pose. It is a nice joke that Grant is dancing to the song, Jump.

18. 14
Graphic match
In which adjacent shots in a narrative sequence are cut or dissolved together to represent a vis-
ual connection between the two. Two well known examples are shown below. In Raiders of the
Lost Ark (Spierlberg, 1981) and, indeed, all four of the Indiana Jones films, Spielberg opens with
a graphic match, dissolving from the Paramount logo to an actual mountain, framed to match
the mountain’s position in the logo. And in Hitchcock’s Psycho (1960), the film dissolves from
the plug hole, down which water, and Marion’s life-blood is flowing, to her dead, unseeing eye.
Cutaway
Mainly a news/current affairs/documentary technique. The interruption of a continuously filmed
action by inserting a view of something else. It is usually, although not always, followed by a cut
back to the first shot, or a variation on it which would not have cut together invisibly. The cuta-
way shot shows something not directly visible in the shots either side. For example, two close-
ups of a young woman being interview might be separated by a close-up of her hands in her lap
– the cutaway covers an edit in her dialogue.
In this example, from The Choir: Unsung Town (BBC, 2009), a cutaway to the watching crowd is
used to cover the join between a long-shot of two men beginning to box, and an MCU of them
much later in the bout. All three shots are here taken from the same ringside position. Shots 1
and 3 could not cut together invisibly, however, as the two mens’ positions do not match.
Insert
Similar to a cutaway, but shows something that is visible in the wider view. For example, in
MLS, a character might pull back his jacket to reveal a holster – insert close up on the gun in
the holster – cut back to MLS.

19. 15
Slow motion
Slow-motion footage can increase tension as it lengthens the time it takes to complete an ac-
tion. Slow-motion video tends to look ‘jerky’, as it will have usually been shot at 25 frames per
second. To slow it down to 12fps (for example) involves holding each frame for twice as long,
revealing the differences between each frame.
In film (and some video cameras), the frame rate can be speeded up while filming. If film is shot
at 48fps, then played back at 24, the slow-motion will appear smooth and graceful.
Speed ramping
The process of speeding up footage in the edit, usually by removing individual frames from the
sequence.
Ellipsis
Ellipsis is the process of removing scenes from a sequence, and leaving the audience to identify
the passage of time. For example, consider the following sequence:
1. LS: A man leaves an office and approaches the kerb
2. MCU: he raises his arm and calls out “Taxi”
3. Cut to: A woman sitting alone in a restaurant, MLS.
4. CU: She looks annoyed and glances at (cutaway, eyeline match) the clock on the wall
5. Reverse LS: at the end of the room, the man enters and approaches, looking apologetic.
The audience never sees the man get in the taxi, nor follows his journey, but they know that this
is what he has done. This is ellipsis – the compression of time. We don’t need to see every ac-
tion to know that it has taken place.
Expansion of time
By the same token, editing can be used to expand time. In the Stand By Me (Reiner, 1986) tres-
tle bridge sequence, the run across the bridge is lengthened (and tension raised) by repeatedly
cutting to different angles of the same event. In XXX (2002), Rob Cohen uses what he de-
scribes as a cubist technique (look it up!) to show the same action multiple times from different
perspectives. This is not quite action matching – each edit cuts back to a moment before the
last frame of the previous shot. Especially effective in action scenes.
Montage
A video montage is a collection of shots which combine to tell a story, but without a linear
cause-effect narrative structure. Sergei Eisentsein pioneered this technique in the Odessa
Steps sequence of Battleship Potemkin (1925), cutting together a variety of different moments
occurring during a civil uprising to create an impression of the whole event.

20. 16
Editing and Representation
Juxtaposition
Action match: When following a single character this is a purely technical device,
but used for intercutting, it can heighten the parallels/contrasts between different
characters in different situations.
eg: in Skins, the young woman’s swinging of the axe – all sex and power – is juxtaposed with the fat dinner la-
dy’s serving of congealed mashed potato: oppositional representations of Russian women!
Intercutting – juxtaposition: Although typically a narrative device, intercutting can set up juxtaposition be-
tween parallel stories, exaggerating the impact or meaning of each by highlighting difference.
eg: in EastEnders: Wedding Night, the warmth, light and music of the happy pre-wedding feast intercust with
the two unhappy families represented in the cold and dark: a stark contrast.
Shot/reverse shot and reaction shots: S/RS can signify or exaggerate two characters’ closeness or opposition.
The amount of time given to a character’s reaction shots can also indicate their status.
eg: in Doctor Who, the S/RS between Martha and the Master gives Martha CUs and the Master MCUs, convey-
ing Martha’s greater status as a character, even if narratively she appears defeated.
Pace and Timing
Pace of editing
This can imply character qualities: a fast pace might suggest energy or panic while long takes (few cuts) might
suggest calm, a casual attitude, or documentary-style realism. Speed ramping / slow-motion have similar effects.
Intercutting: tension
When intercutting is used to draw two storylines together, this can be structured to create tension, and therefore
heighten the audience’s identification with a particular character.
eg: in Primeval, intercutting between the tiger’s pursuit of Cutter and Abby’s running in with the rifle is action
code and prompts the question: will she get there in time
Sequencing v Montage
Jump cuts
These are rarely used; when they are, they tend to suggest either a) chaos and disorder, b) self-conscious ellipsis
(drawing attention to the rapid action) or c) a director who likes to break the rules!
eg: In Primeval, jump cuts accelerate Cutter’s zip-wire prep; this could be read as speedy and decisive.
Motivation
We can sometimes judge a character’s worth or importance by the number of cuts they motivate. Eyeline match-
es can also convey information about a character’s relative status – where are they looking?
eg: In Primeval, Cutter runs away from the tiger, drawing it away from Abby. His constant motion motivates
many cuts in this sequence, reinforcing his status as the protagonist, even if not the hero.
Shot selection/priority
Eyeline match
Eyeline match usually provides insight to a character's private thoughts.
eg: In Doctor Who: Last of the Time Lords, Martha exchanges glances with all the people she loves, as though
this may be the last chance she has to communicate with them before she dies.
Final shot
The final shot of a sequence will often rest on the character with whom the audience identifies.
eg: In Primeval, although Abby saves the day, the last shot is on Cutter, signifying that the audience is intended
to adopt the male, not female, point of view. See also every EastEnders cliffhanger ever.
Prevalence
How much screen time does a character get? The more time on screen, the more important their role.
eg: in Hotel Babylon, Adam is invisible – just one of many refugees – until he steps forward to treat the maid.
Suddenly, the editing favours him, and we realise his importance and skill, despite his menial status in the hotel.
Selection: to show or not to show
As experienced film-makers yourselves, it can sometimes be interesting to ask what information has been in-
cluded or omitted in an edit.
eg: in Primeval, as Jenny comes under threat from West, at no point do we cut away to her colleagues approach-
ing. To do so might have reduced the tension in the scene;; not doing so arguably increases Jenny’s apparent vul-
nerability. It’s also a nice surprise when the team arrive in a single cut, in contrast with the early tiger chase.

21. 17
Sound in Film and Television
Just like the angle of a camera or the composition of a shot, sound can
have a dramatic influence on the meaning of a piece of film or televi-
sion. It can be more difficult to illustrate this on paper, but here is a
handy guide to key terms you will come across, both when you analyse
a text, and when you produce your own. The exam board will expect you to use these terms in
both your coursework pre-production and in your written analysis.
Core terminology
Diegetic sound
Definition: Characters in a film or TV drama exist in a diegesis – the world of the narrative. Any
sound which can be said to exist/be heard within that fictional world is diegetic. Sounds which
characters cannot hear, but which the audience can, such as a background musical score, is
described as non-diegetic.
Dialogue
A conversation between two or more people. Technically, film can feature monologue (one per-
son speaking) but this term is rarely used.
Mode of address
A complex idea related to the way a text is constructed
to convey communication between the producer of the
text and the audience. This is most clearly seen in a
direct mode of address (or direct address for short)
where the text addresses the audience directly. When,
in Ferris Bueller’s Day Off (Hughes, 1986, pictured),
the hero turns to the camera and says “Life moves
pretty fast. If you don’t stop and look around once in a
while, you could miss it,” writer-director John Hughes
is employing direct address.
Non-verbal aspects of speed
When it comes to dialogue, be sure to consider how each line is delivered. Actors will use ac-
cents, pitch, tone and volume to change the meaning of a line – just think about how many dif-
ferent ways there might be to say the word “What?” Listen out also for human sounds that aren’t
actual words – sighs, groans, grunts etc.
Synchronous sound
Sound recorded at the same time as the action that is filmed. Sometimes referred to as sync
sound for short. Dialogue is usually sync sound, although it can be lip-synched afterwards in a
process called dubbing, or ADR (additional dialogue recording). Additional, asynchronous
sound can be added in post-production to further underscore a scene’s importance. For exam-
ple, the background sound of an ambulance might be added to a scene featuring a couple argu-
ing their way to a divorce.
Sound bridge
The use of sound across transition between two different scenes two ‘bridge the gap’ between
the two, and thus connect them. This is often (but not always) achieved by effecting a transition
in the sound between diegetic and non-diegetic. For example, a piece of music might be heard
playing on the radio in a character’s car (in classically ‘tinny’ sound) but become part of the non-
diegetic soundtrack as the scene cuts to a high angle shot revealing the car’s position in a twi-
light rush-hour jam.

22. 18
Sound motif
A specific sound used at more than one point in the soundtrack in asso-
ciation with a particular character, setting, situation or theme. The heavy
breathing of Darth Vader is a sound motif – its arrival in the soundtrack
often precedes the actual arrival of the character. Music can also be
used as a sound motif (or ‘leitmotif). For example, in a James Bond film,
the Bond theme is only used when the hero is about to do something
outlandishly or archetypally Bond.
Sound perspective
This refers to the apparent distance of a sound, and can be influenced in the edit by the use of
echo, reverberation and volume. It is most easily manipulated by controlling the distance be-
tween the microphone and the sound being recorded. A close sound perspective foregrounds
the most important sound in the scene (often the dialogue) by keeping the microphone close
and the pickup narrow, cutting out other sounds. Suddenly we hear the sound of his daughter,
Bo, screaming. The indirect nature of the sound (it bounces off the ground, the walls, the trees
etc.) and its lack of volume gives this sound a distant perspective.
Non-diegetic sound
Key
Music is written in either a major or minor key. Major keys sound positive and warm like the Na-
tional Anthem. Minor keys sound sad and jarring, like Chopin’s famous Funeral March.
Pitch
The frequency of a sound or musical instrument. The pitch of a sound can be said to be low
(thunder), midrange (a doorbell) or high (cymbals).
Rhythm
The consistency of a beat pattern in a sound or piece of music. Music
has specific rhythms referred to as a ‘time signature’. Three very rec-
ognisable time signatures are:
 3-4 time (1-2-3-1-2-3 - a waltz)
 2-2 time (1-2-1-2-1-2 – a march) and
 4-4 time (1-2-3-4-1-2-3-4 – ‘I don’t know but I’ve been told – 1
– 2 – 3 – 4’)
Other rhythms also exist, however. John Carpenter famously used 5-4
time for his Halloween score (his villain, Michael Myers, is pictured,
right) and the unconventional rhythm is deeply unsettling to listen to.
Murray Gold’s 2010 theme for Matt Smith, I Am The Doctor, uses 7-4
time to create a sense of both urgency and instability.
Score
Specifically the background music for the film or show, as written on paper – but this term is typ-
ically used to describe any music composed and recorded for a film or TV series.
Sting
A brief musical insert, just a few seconds long.
Tempo
The speed of the rhythm. Up-tempo music seems to move quickly and deliver pace, down-
tempo music is slow and often relaxing.
Voiceover
Shown on a script as V/O – this is recorded speech with no apparent diegetic source. If a film
has a narrator (like Blade Runner or American Beauty, for example), this is a voiceover.

23. 19
Additional terminology
The following terms are not listed by OCR as required knowledge – but they are useful!
ADR: Additional Dialogue Recording.
The re-recording of sync sound in a studio to improve either the quality of the sound or the ac-
tor’s performance. Actors have to lip-sync their dialogue to match their filmed performance.
Boom
A long pole with a microphone mounted on the end
(see picture, right). Held overhead by the boom opera-
tor so that the microphone is positioned above the ac-
tors but out of shot, to capture dialogue.
Ambience / Ambient sound
The background sounds in a scene. In the opening of
Signs these include a ticking clock, the crows’ caws,
the crickets etc.
Dead / live acoustic
A small enclosed space with carpet and curtains has a dead acoustic – if you clap in it, there will
be no echo. A large hall without fabrics on the walls or floor has a live acoustic – it echoes.
Sounds experience a longer decay in a space with a live acoustic (see below).
Foley
The techniques for recording diegetic sound effects in
a sound studio before inserting into the film is named
after Universal Studios sound editor Jack Foley. Foley
artists use a variety of materials to replicate and syn-
chronise sounds for a film that location or set recording
has missed, including door latches, footsteps, rustling
clothes etc. They also create many sound effects. For
example, snapping celery is often used (with some
digital tweaking) to represent the sound of a leg break-
ing. Ouch!
Gun microphone
A narrow microphone with a directional pick-up, detecting sounds from one direction only.
Lavalier microphone
Also known as a lapel or clip mic – a small microphone that attaches to the clothing.
Parallel sound
Sound that appears to match the mood of the visuals is referred to as parallel sound: it reinforc-
es (‘anchors’) or amplifies the meaning of the visuals.
Contrapuntal sound
The opposite of parallel sound – it is in juxtaposition to the visuals and creates a contrast with
them which the audience is forced for interpret.
Sound envelop – Attack, Sustain, Decay.
Any sound has three phases of existence
Attack – the rise of the sound from nothing to its peak of loudness. This can be fast (a
gunshot) or slow (the full length of a thunderclap)
Sustain – the maintaining of the sound’s peak or near-peak volume. This can be long or
short.
Decay – the term for the sound’s fading away to nothing.

24. 20
Sound and Representation
Diegetic
We’ll deal with dialogue separately, so listen out here for sound effects.
 Weather sound effects can combine with mise en scène to create pathetic fallacy.
 Amplifying certain effects, such as dogs barking, police sirens etc. can provide an aural POV:
the perspective of a particular character and their feelings.
Non-diegetic
Your attention here will most likely be on music. You might consider the impact of any or all of the
following on meanings and representations:
 Pace and rhythm. Up-tempo, even rhythms suggestion action and purpose; unusual rhythms
are difficult to follow and can leave an audience off-balance.
 Pitch. Very low pitches can be threatening or menacing, for example.
 Dynamic range (volume)
 Choice of instruments. Violins/strings can be romantic, emotional or savage and frightening;
woodwinds are sad; the saxophone tends to be sexy/sultry; the snare drum is militaristic etc.
 Genre of music. For example, music that borrows from the Western movie genre might give
characters the status of ‘cowboys’. Also good for regional identity, e.g. folk music for rural.
 Emotional response: how does the music make you feel? It will often have been designed to
provoke a specific emotional response – can you identify a) what and b) how?
Dialogue
This is a pretty obvious element so don’t spend too much time on it. Try to always connect comments
about particular lines of dialogue to their accompanying non-verbal codes. Key ideas to listen out for
are:
 Coded language that can suggest a character’s areas of expertise; for example a university pro-
fessor using complex scientific language to show their superiority over a new student.
 Slang or dialect that can suggest a character’s origins or education, particularly in relation to
other characters.
 Unexpected lines, such as a child swearing at a teacher, or (conversely) using surprisingly so-
phisticated vocabulary.
 Lines that relate specifically to the topic of the question, such as an elderly woman comment-
ing on the innocence of her grandson (in a text about age.)
Non-verbal aspects of speech
For the examination, the way a line of dialogue is delivered is probably more important than what’s
actually said. Consider the following:
 Tone: is it aggressive, apologetic, gentle, firm, patronising, nervous, dismissive? What does
this convey about the character and their situation?
 Pitch: is it high or low? High-pitched voices can be childish or shrill; lower-pitched voices
tend to carry stronger connotations of authority.
 Volume: Are characters’ voices loud or quiet? Be careful about coding here: quiet voices can
sometimes suggest shyness or weakness, but they can also convey confidence or even menace
– it’s all about context!
 Accent: is it thick or soft. What might this tell us about the character’s class, origins or educa-
tion?
 Do characters make non-verbal sounds, such as sighs, grunts, screams etc.? What do these
convey?

25. 21
Mise en scène
The construction of visual media texts is usually very carefully
planned. Everything we see on the movie/TV screen, or printed
on paper, has been placed before the camera. The important
word here is placed and so we must ask ourselves why? and to
what effect? This idea is termed mise en scène (“meez-on-sen”)
or ‘what’s in the frame’.
For example: picture a scene in which two characters are beginning some kind of disagreement/
argument with following lines of dialogue:
Richard
You promised to wait.
Maria
You promised not to make me.
A beat, then Maria lunges forwards towards Richard...
Are they
a) in a softly lit bedroom, with many pillows, pastel colours, throw rugs, and floral curtains?
Or
b) in a deserted warehouse, under a swinging, naked light-bulb, surrounded by the jagged
angles of torn-apart packing crates on a concrete floor?
It makes quite a difference to the meaning of the scene, doesn’t it?
The elements of mise en scène are:
Setting and Props (furniture etc.)
 What is the architecture or decor?
 What is the background setting / environment. What is the weather like?
 How is the space furnished?
 What large props (such as vehicles) are used and why?
 What about small and practical props like cigarette lighters, quill pens etc?
Appearance: Costume & make-up
 How have characters been dressed? Is a certain historical period or genre suggested?
 Are characters dressed with or against type?
 Are clothes ‘as new’ or in a ragged state of repair?
 What kinds of make-up are characters wearing?
Expression, body language and movement
 Facial expression and gaze
 Gestures, bodily movements and posture
 Spatial behaviour between characters including bodily contacts
 Positioning in the frame: foreground versus background, in or out of focus, relative scale
etc.
 You should also think carefully about actors’ physical performances here.
Lighting – see the following pages!

26. 22
Lighting Design
The look of light
Exposure
Exposure refers to light - the amount of illumination the camera
picks up. When the scene is too dark, you lose a lot of detail in
dark shadows. Worse, if you’re using a domestic camcorder, its
AGC (Automatic Gain Circuit) will try to amplify the available
light, leading to "video noise" (coloured speckles) and unrealis-
tic colours (black becomes a noisy, milky dark grey). If the sce-
ne is too bright, on the other hand, details can wash out, disap-
pearing in white areas.
Contrast
The contrast ratio is the ratio of the brightest highlights in a scene to the darkest shadows. Pro-
fessional film-makers often set up huge arrays of extra lights to reduce the contrast ratio, thus
evening out the illumination so that the camera can record more detail accurately. Film cameras
can photograph details in a scene that has a 10:1 contrast ratio (highlights are ten times brighter
than the dark shadow areas). Video, on the other hand, can’t capture details outside a contrast
ratio of about 3:1 or 4:1. That’s another reason lighting is much more important when using a
camcorder, and why horror genre lighting rarely works as well on made-for-TV drama.
Hard Light vs Soft Light
Hard light comes from a small light source falling directly on an object. It creates hard edges
between the highlight and shadow areas. For example, when someone's standing in direct sun-
light, the shadows on his face are harsh and dark. This high contrast emphasizes wrinkles, skin
blemishes, baggy eyes, and other facial features - in other words, hard light is unflattering light.
Soft light, on the other hand, is less direct; it offers softer, much smoother gradations of light
from brightest to darkest areas. You get soft light from a large light source, usually reflected or
diffused. The result: soft shadows or no shadows; everything is lit fairly evenly. Soft light flatters
human subjects, because it fills in wrinkles and other facial contours, but can also make them
appear flat and lifeless. Harder light can make objects more interesting and three-dimensional.
Colour Temperature
Believe it or not, even ordinary daylight or room light has a colour. In general, daylight has a blu-
ish cast, fluorescent light is greenish, and household bulbs give off a yellowish light. Film-
makers call these colour casts the colour temperature of the light. We don’t usually notice be-
cause our eyes and minds have adjusted to it. Professional video cameras normally have to be
‘white balanced’ – that is, they have to be ‘told’ what colour to read as white. In addition to the
lighting itself, colour temperature in film depends on the kind of film stock being used and the
way it is developed.
At Salesian, most of the cameras can set their white balance automatically. However, many al-
so have manual settings, so you should check carefully before you start filming. Make sure your
use of lighting is consistent: using mixed colour temperatures will produce and unpredictable
result.

27. 23
3-Point Lighting
One of the basic guidelines for designing a workable lighting design is called 3-point lighting.
The 3-point lighting design uses three light sources to illuminate the subject, provide shape and
3 dimensionality, and separate the subject from the background. These three light sources are
the Key light, Fill light, and Back light.
The Key Light
The key light is the dominant light source striking
the subject. Typically, the key light is at least twice
as bright as the fill light.
In the basic 3-point design, the key light is placed 45 degrees to the side of the subject and at a
45 degree angle above the subject.
Fill Light
The Fill light is placed on the opposite side of the subject from the key light and at approximate-
ly the same height and angle. Usually, the fill light is at least half as bright as the key light.
Back Light
The Back light is placed behind the subject, again at about a
45 degree angle above and behind the subject. The bright-
ness of the back light can range in intensity from the level of
the fill light to that of the key light, depending on the reflectivi-
ty of your subject. For example, a person with blond or gray
hair needs far less back light than someone with brown or
black hair.

28. 24
Three-point lighting
The KEY, FILL and BACK lights represent the 3-points of a basic lighting design. In combina-
tion, these lights provide basic illumination of the subject. Through manipulation of the bright-
ness of the key and fill lights shadowing is created which gives the illusion of 3 dimentionality to
the subject. The back light then helps define the shape of the subject and separates it from the
background.
Lighting Direction
The direction of light is specifically related to the height and angle of the lighting source. Height
refers to where the light source is placed above ground level. Is it above, below, or even with
the subject? Angle refers to the slope of the light's beam. Together, height and angle determine
where the highlights and shadows fall on your subject.
Placement of the light source directly above the heads of the subjects creates a different effect
than placing the source at ground level and pointing up at the subjects.
Down Angle
Placement of the light source above the sub-
jects and angled straight down results in a
glowing effect on the tops of heads and
shoulders while the face and body are shad-
owed.
This lighting effect might suggest an interro-
gation room or spiritual encounter. In this ex-
ample the subjects look subservient to the
light source which represents an entity of
higher power.
Up Angle
Light placed on the ground and aimed up at
the subjects will produce a dramatically differ-
ent effect.
Unusual shadows are created by placing the
light low, and in this case from behind. This
lighting design creates a sinister or other-
worldly effect. In this example, the subjects
are made to look powerful and threatening.
By Candace Lee Egan. Read more at:
http://zimmer.csufresno.edu/~candace/#Key

29. 25
Mise en Scène and Representation
This is perhaps the richest section of all in terms of opportunities for interpreta-
tion. The prompts below will get you started, but don’t let them limit you.
Setting and Props (furniture etc.)
 Where/when does the action take place? What details of the setting indicate this?
 How, if at all, does the setting indicate genre?
 Does the setting indicate mood? If so, how?
 What does the setting suggest about the characters? Their status? Culture? Occupation?
 How does the set reflect the nature of the characters or enhance the way in which they are repre-
sented?
 How do props contribute to the sense of place, genre and character? Some props – Indian Jones’
whip, Doctor Who’s Tardis etc. – achieve iconic status and say a lot about the character.
Lighting
 What kind of mood does the lighting create? Are we supposed to read this as a welcoming or un-
friendly environment, for example? Has backlighting been used to create a feeling of either a
fairytale (Shrek) or a dystopian future (Blade Runner, A.I)?
 Are different techniques used to create different moods?
 How does the lighting indicate genre, and how might that affect audience readings of the text and
the characters?
 Are different characters lit in different ways? Why?
 Is the background lit in a different way to the foreground? Again, why?
 Does the colour of the lighting change for different scenes? If so, to what effect?
Appearance: Costume & make-up
 Does the costume and/or make-up suggest a certain historical period or genre?
 What does the costume and make-up suggest about the characters’ backgrounds? Can you infer
anything about class, status, age, race or attitude to gender from how they have been dressed?
 If the characters significantly change their costumes during the narrative, what does this indicate
about their changing feelings/fortunes/status?
 What do the costumes suggest about the way a character feels about themselves? The impression
they want to make on others?
 How are characters made-up? Is effects make-up used (for wounds, disfigurements etc.)? Are fe-
male characters ‘making heavy with the slap’?
Expression, body language and movement
 Where are the characters positioned within the frame? Does this reflect their importance? Feel-
ings? Relationships with each other?
 Facial expressions are complex: a frown can convey worry or anger, raised eyebrows can be co-
medic or signify fear. How do facial expressions communicate more than words alone can
achieve.
 What does the spatial relationship between characters tell us about them? Is one character distant
or isolated? Are two characters close – and is this affectionate, menacing or crowding?
 Do characters touch one another? A hand on the shoulder can be comforting, steering or even ar-
resting – the ‘long arm of the law’!
 Overall, what thoughts, feelings and emotions are evoked by the actors’ performances?

30. 26
G322: Putting it all together with CSR
In your exam you will have just 45 minutes to write a comprehensive analysis of a five-minute
text using all four technical codes of CESM. It is vital that you cover several different elements
of each technical code. You might not cover them all, but if you only discuss one you will earn
only limited credit.
Camera: CAMS
 Composition
 Angles
 Movement/focus
 Shots
Editing: JUMPSS
 Juxtaposition
 Pace and timing
 Sequencing, intercutting or Montage
 Shot selection
Sound: DNDN (“Batman!”)
 Diegetic
 Non-diegetic/score
 Dialogue
 Non-verbal aspects of speech
Mise en scène: PLACES
 Props and Setting
 Lighting
 Appearance: Costume and make-up
 Expression and body language
CSR
Code Signification Representation
Denotation: the literal
meaning
Describe the scene technical-
ly, using at least one piece of
technical vocabulary.
Connotation: the cultural
meaning
Explain what the scene may
signify about the character or
situation, using at least one
discourse marker.
The wider, ideological
meaning
Explore what this, in turn,
connotes about the wider ex-
am topic (Gender, Age, Eth-
nicity, Sexuality, Disability,
Regional Identity or Class).
(C) In ‘Monarch of the Glen’, the
low angle medium close-up on
Paul, from Amy’s height...
... signifies Paul’s dominance from
Amy’s perspective.
It reminds the audience that adults
use their physical presence to dom-
inate younger people – seen from
Amy’s perspective this could be
read as unfair. [age]
(E) In ‘Primeval’, the last shot of
the tiger sequence is on Cutter,
rather than Abby, the shooter.
This establishes the male rather
than the female point of view, de-
spite the girl’s heroism...
... representing an old-fashioned
masculine dominance of the narra-
tive. [gender]
(S) In ‘The Silence’, diegetic sound
is sometimes subjective, from
Amelia’s point of view. Walking
happily through the park the audi-
ence hears only things she touches:
leaves, the wall and so on.
This sympathetically illustrates
how Amelia compensates for her
deafness by making more use of
other senses that hearing audiences
may take for granted.
This invites the audience to appre-
ciate that a deaf person’s experience
is different, rather than worse, than
their own. [disability]
(M) In ‘Feather Boy’, both the chil-
dren and the elderly residents ex-
hibit negative body language,
backing away from each other on
first meeting.
This suggests that both groups are
unfamiliar and fearful of each other,
because of their different ages.
It represents the idea that in mod-
ern Britain, the young and old no
longer spend time together and have
grown far apart. [age]

31. 27
G322a Textual analysis: discourse markers
Exam marks are awarded for your clarity of expression. The English language is rich and varied,
and it is important that you use the right word in the right context. You already have a rich glos-
sary of technical terms, detailed throughout this booklet, on camera, editing, sound and mise en
scene. However, if you’re ever struggling for a more general piece of vocabulary, the following
lists may help. If you practise using them in your homework essays, they will come to you more
readily in your exam.
Connectives / sentence openings
Firstly... Secondly... Thirdly... Finally... Next... Also...
And so... In addition to... Although... However... Alternatively...
Analytical vocabulary
This shot/scene/example (etc.)...
... establishes... sets up, creates
... signifies... acts as a sign for (e.g. red signifies danger)
... denotes... provides a straightforward reading
... connotes... offers a cultural or interpreted meaning
... suggests... provides a possible interpretation
... implies... allows one clear, dominant interpretation
... illustrates... provides a clear example of
... foreshadows... hints at what is to come, perhaps through action code
... contrasts with... offers a very different reading/interpretation to (another example)
... is juxtaposed with... creates opposite feelings/readings (compared with another example)
And don’t forget...
... demonstrates... identifies... develops... changes... is similar to... can be compared with... reminds...
Audience readings
... allows/invites the viewer to... ... deduce / infer / understand / realise
... creates an expectation that... ... X or Y will happen
... heightens the sensation of...
... promotes an atmosphere of...
... fear / dread / excitement / passion etc.
... invites the audience to...
... encourages the audience to...
... sympathise / empathise / identify with (a character)
Words to avoid!
The following words and phrases turn up a lot in media essays. They are pretty meaning-
less – find a better way of expressing your idea!
... links to... ... ties to... ... relates to... ... makes the audience...
... good editing / filming / sound design etc.

32. 28
G322a Essay Tips 2013
Textual Analysis
1. Structure: Use Code-Signification-Representation to structure your textual analysis. This
ensures you cover all three essential elements of the question.
2. Vocabulary: Use with precision. Colours are not dull, they are de-saturated; lighting is
not bright, it is high-key;; the camera doesn’t cut (but the edit does);; actors don’t wear
clothes, they wear a costume – and they don’t talk, they speak lines of dialogue; music has
rhythm and tempo, et cetera...
3. Big picture: Discuss the bigger picture in your conclusion – what wider points might the
text have to make about the representation being analysed?
4. Audience: Media texts do not make audiences do certain things or feel certain feelings.
Rather, media producers attempt to create dominant (or preferred) readings through their
use of media language – they expect the majority of the audience to respond in a particular
way. Some parts of the audience may develop negotiated or oppositional readings to a text.
5. Evidence: Make sure your points make sense and are justified by evidence. Then make
sure the evidence supports the point you are trying to make: it’s surprising how often it
doesn’t when you look at it closely!
6. Denotation: Avoid simple description of events or plot – there are no points for telling the
examiner what is self-evident in the text.
7. Analysis: Avoid statements of the extremely obvious, such as “the actor has dark skin and
this tells us he is black.” We know this already!
8. Precision: Who’s ‘they’? It’s amazing how often essays refer to the mysterious ‘they’
when the student means to write: the director / producer / actors / writer etc. Be specific.
9. Analysis: Life is complicated, so think twice about any point that is simplistic. Are you
sure a character’s dark jacket means he is being represented as evil? Just because he says
something negative about gender/race etc., does this represent the values of the text? Or is
the audience being positioned to dislike the character and therefore dislike their values?
10. Breadth: Cover CESM with breadth if possible – use at least some of CAMS, JuMPSS,
DNDN and PLACES.

33. 29
Writing style
a) Grammar: Keep sentences to a manageable length. Commas and full stops are friends!
b) Critical objectivity: There is no need for phrases like “in my opinion” or “I think”. The
examiner understands that this is your personal analysis; what you require is evidence
from the text to support your arguments. If this is valid, your analysis will stand.
d) Value judgements: avoid them. To be blunt, the examiner doesn’t care whether you
think a director or producer has done a good job; he/she only wants to know what analy-
sis you can draw from the text or industry. I have yet to see the word ‘good’ used appro-
priately in an essay.
f) Answer the question: When you finish writing, always check that you have answered
the question, and given it appropriate weight. If you only start to answer it in the final
paragraph, you’ve left it too late! Except in exams, always write the full question at the
top.
g) Be concise: Make every sentence count. You cannot afford to spread a single point over
several sentences or a paragraph. So don’t waffle, and don’t repeat yourself. Don’t keep
saying the same thing over and over again – it’s boring and won’t earn you additional
marks. As I say, don’t – oh, you get the picture…
h) Keep it formal: Keep your language formal and impersonal. Avoid slang like the plague.
i) Write to word length: It is impossible to do these questions justice unless you do. And
of course, I don’t mean you should waffle to pad your essays out: I mean you should
deepen your analysis.
j) Conceptual vocab, aka ‘Discourse markers’: Words like connote, signify, distribution,
convergence etc. make you look like proper students, so use the right words, not the first
ones you think of! (See page 28)
And finally…
Plan: You MUST plan your essay structure before you start writing it.
Proof read. Always finish each essay ahead of deadline and put it aside for a time. Pick
it up again for a polish before you submit it. Eradicate over-long sentences, meaningless
waffle and repetition. Correct ropey spelling, punctuation and grammar. Look for addi-
tional opportunities to use the technical and subject-specific terminology you have
learned in class.

34. G322-A: Key Media Concepts (TV Drama textual analysis)
2aNAME: TITLE:
Explanation / analysis / argument Use of examples Terminology
Level 4
16-20
marks
 Shows excellent understanding of the task
 Excellent knowledge and understanding of the technical aspects used
 Excellent discussion of the extract’s representations, clearly linked to tex-
tual analysis
 Clearly relevant to set question
 Offers frequent textual analysis from the extract – award
marks to reflect the range and appropriateness of examples
 Offers a full range of examples from each technical area
 Offers examples which are clearly relevant to the set
question
Level 4
8-10
marks
Use of
terminology is
relevant and accu-
rate
Complex issues have been expressed clearly and fluently using a style of writing appropriate to the complex subject matter. Sentences and paragraphs, consistently relevant, have been
well structured, using appropriate technical terminology. There may be few, if any, errors of spelling, punctuation and grammar.
Level 3
12-15
marks
 Shows proficient understanding of the task
 Proficient knowledge and understanding of the technical aspects used
 Proficient discussion of the extract’s representations, mostly linked to
textual analysis
 Mostly relevant to set question
 Offers consistent textual evidence from the extract
 Offers a range of examples (at least three technical areas
covered)
 Offers examples which are mostly relevant to the set
question
Level 3
6-7
marks
Use of terminology
is mostly accurate
Relatively straight forward ideas have been expressed with some clarity and fluency. Arguments are generally relevant, though may stray from the point of the question.
There will be some errors of spelling, punctuation and grammar, but these are unlikely to be intrusive or obscure meaning
Level 2
8-11 marks
 Shows basic understanding of the task
 Basic knowledge and understanding of the technical aspects used in the extract
 Some discussion of the extract’s representations, with some attempt to
link these to textual analysis
 Some relevance to set question
 Offers some textual evidence from the extract
 Offers a partial range of examples (at least two technical
areas covered)
 Offers examples with some relevance to the set
question
Level 2
4-5
marks
Some term-inology
used; may be
some inacc-
uracies
Some simple ideas have been expressed in an appropriate context. There are likely to be some errors of spelling, punctuation and grammar of which some may be noticeable and intrusive.
Level 1
0-7 marks
 Shows minimal understanding of the task
 Minimal knowledge and understanding of the technical aspects used in the
extract – general knowledge level
 Minimal discussion of the extract’s representations, with no attempt to
link to textual analysis
 Of minimal relevance to question or a brief response (less than 1½ pages)
 Offers minimal textual evidence from the extract
 Offers a limited range of examples (only one technical area
covered)
 Offers examples of minimal relevance to the set
question
Level 1
0-3
marks
Minimal or
frequently
inaccurate use of
appropriate terms
Some simple ideas have been expressed. There will be some errors of spelling, punctuation and grammar which will be noticeable and intrusive. Writing may also lack legibility.
TARGET