use technology in mba

1. The Use of Information Technology to Enhance Management School Education: A Theoretical
View
Author(s): Dorothy E. Leidner and Sirkka L. Jarvenpaa
Source: MIS Quarterly, Vol. 19, No. 3, Special Issue on IS Curricula and Pedagogy, (Sep., 1995),
pp. 265-291
Published by: Management Information Systems Research Center, University of Minnesota
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/249596
Accessed: 15/04/2008 11:44
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2. Modelsof Learning
The Use of nologies in which management schools should
invest in order to informate up and down and ul-
Information timately transform the educational environment
and processes. For researchers interested in
Technology to the use of information technology to improve
learning processes, the paper provides a theo-
Enhance retical foundation for future work.
Management School Keywords Educational technology, classroom
technology, electronic classrooms, learning,
Education: A instruction
Theoretical View ISRL Categories: AA06, HB08
Introduction
By: Dorothy E. Leidner
Baylor University Although universities create and acquire knowl-
P.O. Box 98005 edge, they are seldom successful in applying
Waco, Texas 76798 that knowledge to their own activities (Garvin,
U.S.A. 1993). In fact, academic institutions typically lag
businesses by roughly a decade in the adoption
dorothy_leidner@business.baylor.edu
of new technologies (U.S. Congress, 1988). This
is certainly true in terms of the application of in-
Sirkka L. Jarvenpaa
formation technology (IT) into the learning proc-
The University of Texas at Austin ess: the blackboard and chalk remain the
Graduate School of Business,
primaryteaching technologies in many business
CBA5.202 schools even while the merits of information
Austin, Texas 78712 technology to improve communication, effi-
U.S.A. ciency, and decision making in organizations
sjarven paa@mail.utexas.edu are recognized and inculcated by IS re-
searchers. However, as business schools expe-
rience increased competitive pressures,
Abstract information technology is one area that schools
To use information technology to improve leam- might use to differentiate or compete with or,
more importantly, to use as a catalyst for trans-
ing processes, the pedagogical assumptions un-
forming educational processes. IT is not her-
derlying the design of information technology for alded as a miraculous yet unpredictable means
educational purposes must be understood. This
of mitigating educational attrition, but as an effi-
paper reviews different models of leaming, sur- cacious means of enabling intentional changes
faces assumptions of electronic teaching tech-
in teaching and learning processes.
nology, and relates those assumptions to the
differing models of learning. Our analysis sug- Some business schools have already begun
gests that initial attempts to bring information building classroom facilities that incorporate in-
technology to management education follow a formation technologies in hopes of improving
classic story of automating rather than trans- the learning and teaching processes. For exam-
forming. IT is primarily used to automate the in- ple, the University of Maryland houses an elec-
formation delivery function in classrooms. In the tronic classroom that enables groups of
absence of fundamental changes to the teach- students to work together while communicating
ing and learning process, such classrooms may electronically and anonymously (Alavi, 1994). At
do little but speed up ineffective processes and Harvard Business School, a pilot program was
methods of teaching. Our mapping of technolo- conducted where each student's dormitory room
gies to learning models identifies sets of tech- was equipped with a personal computer networked
MISQuarterly/September
1995 265

3. Modelsof Learning
to share laser printersand scanners in common of pedagogical assumptions helps to identify the
livingspaces. Interactivecomputerapplications types of technologies that automate the tradi-
and simulationexercises were used to supple- tionallearningmodel and those that begin to en-
ment the traditionalcase study preparation. Stu- able transformation a new model. Borrowing
into
dents had access to digitizedvideos on factories, from the technology and organizationalchange
production processes, marketing campaigns, literature,three transformationalvisions are de-
and interviewswith protagonistsfrom the case scribed: informate up, informate down, and
study firms, allowing the students "to 'visit'the transform a virtuallearningspace. The paper
to
factory they were studying and 'meet' the key concludes witha discussion of technologies that
players in the case" before going to class. The management schools might consider investing
students also had access to Headline News, a in if they desire radicalchanges in their educa-
consolidationof majornews fromleading maga- tionalprocesses.
zines and newspapers across the world,and a
plethora of economic and financialdatabases
from commercial providersto augment the in-
dustry analysis (The Harbus News, 1994). Theories of Learning:
Althoughpromising,these developmentsremain
isolated experimentseven withintheirown insti- Assumptions
tutions. While such developments representat- The use of ITin an educationalsettingwillreflect
tempts to provide technology tools to improve either purposelyor inadvertently some model of
the teaching and/orlearningprocesses, they are learning.The followingreview of learningmod-
often undertaken without a thorough assess- els is not exhaustive; ratherit seeks to highlight
ment of the learninggains desired or even pos- major differences among the more widely ac-
sible. For instance, high expectations without cepted models of learning in terms of their as-
clear objectives and realisticgoals may lead to sumptions,goals, and instructional implications.
the development of state-of-the-art facilities,at
once impressive yet intimidating, Learningmodels are often classified as being
replete with behavioral or cognitive. Objectivism, also re-
potentialyet lacking clear guidelines on how to ferred to as the traditionalmodel of learning,is
use the technology to achieve learningimprove- the behavioralmodel of learningand represents
ments. Earlyresearch in the area of learningim- a traditional view of learning.The primary com-
provements that may be facilitated with peting cognitive model is constructivism.The
information technology is thus needed. The ob- constructivist model has a numberof derivations
jective of this paper is to delineate technologies includingcollaborativism and cognitive informa-
currently available to support traditionaland tion processing. The socioculturalism model
non-traditional methods of learning in order to shares some assumptions and goals with con-
help guide universitiesin their learningtechnol- but
structivism, challenges some others.1
ogy investmentdecisions, to help professors ef-
fectively apply the new classroom technologies,
and to manage the expectations of university
administratorsand professors concerning the
The objectivistmodel of learning
benefits of the technologies. The objectivistmodel of learning is based on
Skinner's stimulus-response theory: learningis
The premise of this paper is that the effective- a change in the behavioraldispositionof an or-
ness of information technology in contributing to
ganism (Jonassen, 1993) thatcan be shaped by
learningwill be a functionof how well the tech- selective reinforcement. The tenet of the model
nology supports a particularmodel of learning is that there is an objective realityand that the
and the appropriatenessof the model to a par-
goal of learningis to understandthis realityand
ticularlearningsituation.The paper begins with
a discussion of the most commonlyadvocated 1 Social learningtheory is yet another model of learningand
models of learning. How the assumptions of IT lies somewhere in the middleof an objectivist-constructivist
are intertwined with the assumptions of the continuum.The interested reader is referred to Grusec
learningmodels is then analyzed. The mapping (1992).
266 MIS Quarterly/September 1995

4. Modelsof Learning
modify behavior accordingly (Jonassen, 1993). factual or procedural-based learning. However,
The goal of teaching is to facilitate the transfer models challenging objectivism have emerged.
of knowledge from the expert to the learner. Er- The most widely accepted alternate model is
rors in understanding are the result of imperfect constructivism and its derivations-collaborativ-
or incomplete knowledge transfer. The model ism and cognitive information processing.
makes several pedagogical assumptions re-
garding learning and instruction. In terms of
learning, the first assumption is that there exists The constructivist
model of learning
a reality that is agreed upon by individuals. Sec-
Constructivism denies the existence of an exter-
ond, this reality can be represented and trans- nal reality independent of each individual's mind.
ferred to a learner. Third, the purpose of the
Rather than transmitted, knowledge is created,
mind is to act as a mirrorof reality rather than as
or constructed, by each learner. The mind is not
an interpreterof reality (Jonassen, 1993). Fourth,
a tool for reproducing the external reality, but
all learners use essentially the same processes
rather the mind produces its own, unique con-
for representing and understanding the world.
ception of events (Jonassen, 1993). Each reality
In terms of instruction, the objectivist model as- is somewhat different, based on learners' expe-
sumes that the goal of teaching is to efficiently riences and biases. More moderate construc-
transmit knowledge from the expert to the tivists do not preclude the possibility of the
learner. Instructors structure reality into abstract existence of an objective world, but assume that
or generalized representations that can be each individual constructs his or her own reality
transferred and then recalled by students of the objective world (Yarusso, 1992). Eventu-
(Yarusso, 1992). For example, words in a lan- ally, having analyzed different interpretations of
guage are symbolic representations of the exter- information, the learner is able to detach himself
nal world enabling individuals to communicate from a subjective world of personal experience
using symbols rather than pointing to actual ob- to the formation of abstract concepts to repre-
jects. Individuals must share the same under- sent reality (O'Loughlin, 1992). Learning, then,
standing of the words in order to communicate is the formation of abstract concepts to repre-
efficiently. The objectivist model also assumes sent reality; learning is that which "decentrizes"
that the instructor is the source of objective the individual from the material. Learning is re-
knowledge that is related, rather then created, flected in "intellectual growth that leads to scien-
during class. The instructor should be in control tific reasoning, abstract thought, and formal
of the material and pace of learning. Via ques- operations" (O'Loughlin, 1992).
tions, the instructor assesses whether transfer The constructivist model calls for learner-cen-
occurred. Another assumption is that students
tered instruction: individuals are assumed to
learn best in isolated and intensive confronta-
learn better when they are forced to discover
tions with a subject matter.
things themselves rather than when they are told,
The lecture method of teaching embeds the or instructed. Students must control the pace of
pedagogical assumptions of the objectivist instruction. Based upon the work of Piaget, the
model of learning. The lecture method is the learner must have experience with hypothesiz-
most frequently used instructional method in ing and predicting, manipulating objects, posing
higher education (McKeachie, 1990). To an ob- questions, researching answers, imagining, in-
jectivist, the presentation of information is criti- vestigating, and inventing, in order for knowl-
cal. Any mechanism that enhances the edge construction to occur (O'Loughlin, 1992).2
communication of the knowledge should en-
hance the transfer, or student learning. The 2 It should be noted that Piaget's theory, which forms the
foundation of constructivism, was based on his studies of the
model also implies that the pace of instruction
psychological development of children. Although children
should be designed modularly with students' need physical actions to grasp new information, adults need
progressing on one topic area before proceed- vivid examples and illustrations (O'Loughlin, 1992). Thus,
ing to the next one. while the concepts underlying constructivism may seem
appealing to those who disagree with the underlying
The objectivist model may be the most appropri- assumptions of traditionalism, they may be less applicable to
ate model in some contexts-for example, in adult learning situations.
MISQuarterly/September
1995 267

5. Modelsof Learning
The teacher serves as the creative mediatorof Consequently, in additionto sharing the peda-
the process. Classtime mightbecome a project- gogical assumptions of constructivism, collabo-
oriented session where the instructorprovides ratists also assume that knowledge is created
tools for helping learners construct their own as it is shared, and the more it is shared, the
views of reality.Learning focuses on discovering more is learned. Anotherpedagogical assump-
conceptual relationships,exploringmultiple rep- tion is that learners have priorknowledge they
resentations or perspectives on an issue, and/or can contributeto the discussion. A third as-
immersingthe learner in the real-world context sumptionis that participation criticalto learn-
is
in which the learning is relevant (Jonassen, ing. A fourth assumption is that learners will
1993). Lastly,constructivism advocates non-cri- participateif given optimal conditions such as
terion forms of performanceassessments such small groupsto workwith.
as student learningjournals(Hawkins,1993).
One implication the cooperativemodel for in-
of
However, in practice,constructivismis often re- structional methods is that the instructor's is
role
duced to students'searchingforthe preordained to facilitatemaximalinformation knowledge
and
knowledge that could be more efficiently trans- sharing among learners ratherthan controlling
mitted via the instructor. This tends to happen the contentand deliveryof learning.Anotherim-
particularly with fact-based or procedurallearn- plicationis that the instructor's role is to provide
ing. Criticsof constructivismargue that there is feedback duringclass although feedback from
little benefit in having learners construct such the learner'speers is similarly critical.Forexam-
preordainedknowledge;it is only when learners ple, students are foundto plan more extensively
are allowed to construct new meaning, such as and writemore carefullywhen they are commu-
in higher-orderlearning,that the goals of con- nicating with an audience of peers than when
structivismare truly achieved. However, it can they are being evaluated solely by the instructor
also be argued that greater understandingof (Bagley and Hunter, 1992). However, groups
factual and procedural material results when withoutinstructor feedback are unable to attain
learners are forced to discover the knowledge the same level of understandingor mastery as
themselves than when they are merelytold. groups with both peer and instructorfeedback
(Stephenson, 1992). A third implicationfor in-
struction the need for cooperativeassessment
is
The cooperative model of learning strategies. The traditionalcompetitive assess-
ment strategies may disable learning:a learner
An offspring of the constructivistmodel is the
may be motivated to withholdknowledge that
cooperative, or collaborative, learning model. wouldotherwisebe shared withpeers.
Whereas in constructivismlearningis assumed
to occur as an individual interactswith objects, Studies have demonstrated that cooperative
in collaborativism,learningemerges throughin- learning is superiorto individualistic instruction
teraction of individualswith other individuals in a wide arrayof content areas in terms of in-
(Slavin, 1990). Learningoccurs as individuals creases in individual achievement, positive
exercise, verify,solidify,and improvetheirmen- changes in social attitudes, and general en-
tal models through discussion and information hancement of motivation learn (Flynn,1992).
to
sharing. The contributionof different under- Learnerstend to generate higher-levelreason-
standings leads to a new, shared knowledge ing strategies, a greater diversityof ideas and
(Whipple,1987). Whereas instructor-ledcom- procedures, more critical thinking, and more
munication is inherently linear, collaborative creative responses when they are activelylearn-
groups allow more branching and concentric- ing in cooperative groups than when they are
ity (Flynn, 1992). Although the major goal of or
learningindividually competitively (Schlechter,
cooperative learning is the construction of 1990). Even when the instructional environment
shared understanding through interaction of group projectswas not geared towardcoop-
with other individuals, an implicit goal is im- erative learning, cooperative learning occurred
proving communication and listening skills and contributed to longer-term retention
and eliciting participation. (Schlechter,1990).
1995
268 MISQuarterly/September

6. Modelsof Learning
The cognitive information concepts to represent reality. Rather, knowledge
cannot be divorced from the historical and cul-
processing model of learning tural background of the learner (O'Loughlin,
The cognitive information processing model is 1992). The more meaningful, the more deeply or
another extension of the constructivist model elaboratively processed, the more situated in
and focuses on cognitive processes used in context, and the more rooted in cultural back-
learning. Learning involves processing instruc- ground, metacognition, and personal knowledge
tional input to develop, test, and refine mental an event is, the more readily it is learned (Iran-
models in long-term memory until they are effec-
Nejad, et al., 1990). While socioculturalists em-
tive and reliable enough in problem-solving situ- brace the concept that there is no one external
ations (Schuell, 1986). The frequency and
reality, they argue that constructivism and col-
intensity with which a student cognitively pro- laborativism force the minority culture into
cesses instructional input controls the pace of
adopting the understanding derived by the ma-
learning. Instructional inputs that are unnoticed, jority. Even a collaborative work group does
or unprocessed, by learners cannot have any not foster participation for minorities: "shared
impact on mental models (Bovy, 1981; Brun- understanding" is biased by cultural and social
ning, 1983). factors.
A major assumption of the model is that learners The major assumption of socioculturalism is that
differ in terms of their preferred learning style. middle-class Anglo male America has prevented
Instructional methods that match an individual's a genuinely emancipatory environment "inwhich
learning style will be the most effective (Bovy, students begin to construct meaning on their
1981). This suggests the need for individualized own terms and in their own interests" (O'Lough-
instruction. The cognitive processing model also lin, 1992). The objectivist model of learning is
assumes that the individual's prior knowledge is seen as one that negates the subjective voices
represented by a mental model in memory and that students develop from their own culture and
that the mental model, or schemata, is an impor- becomes an instrument of power perpetuating
tant determinant of how effectively the learner the social class inherent in society by forcing all
will process new information. The implication is students to speak in the dialogue acceptable to
that the instructional support required is in- the instructor and peers (O'Loughlin, 1992). The
versely related to the depth of existing knowl- major implication of socioculturalism is that stu-
edge as well as to the effectiveness of the dents should participate on their own terms. In-
learner's information processing style (Bovy, struction should not deliver a single interpretation
1981). A third assumption is that given a of reality nor a culturally biased interpretation of
learner's limited information processing capac-
reality. In comparison to the constructivist and
ity, attention is selective (Bovy, 1981). Selective cognitive models, the sociocultural model is in a
attention is an interrelated function of the dis- nascent stage, and practical applications of the
play, the cognitive structure of the learner, and model to instruction are still being formulated.
the prior experience of the learner. Preinstruc-
tional methods such as topic outlines and learn-
ing goals might improve learning because they
direct attention (Brunning, 1983).
Summary
The learning theories are summarized in Table 1.
Figure 1 graphically illustrates the similarities and
The socioculturalmodel of learning differences among learning models.3
Whereas collaborativism and the cognitive infor- The objective model assumes that an instructor
mation processing model are extensions of con- should be in control of the learning environment
structivism, the sociocultural model is both an
3 The figuremaps current
learningtheoriesonly.Because it is
extension of and a reaction against some as-
a multidimensional figure presented in two dimensions,
sumptions of constructivism. In particular, so- certain hypotheticalmodels (such as a model where the
cioculturalists disagree with Piaget's view that instructor in control,butknowledgeis createdby students)
is
the goal of learning is the formation of abstract cannotbe represented thisfigure.
on
MIS Quarterly/September 1995 269

7. Modelsof Learning
Table 1. Summary of Learning Models
Implications for
Model Basic Premise Goals Assumptions
Major Instruction
Objectivism Learning the
is Transferof Instructorhouses Instructor in
is
uncritical
absorption knowledge all necessary controlof material
of objective frominstructor knowledge. and pace.
knowledge. to student.
Studentslearnbest Instructorprovides
Recallof in isolatedand stimulus.
knowledge. intensivesubject
matter.
Constructivism Learning a
is Formation of Individualslearn Learner-centered
process of abstractconcepts betterwhen they active learning.
constructing to representreality. discoverthings
knowledgeby an themselves and for
Instructor
individual. Assigningmeaning when they control supportratherthan
to events and the pace of learning. direction.
information.
Collaborativism Learning emerges Promotegroup Involvement is Communication-
throughshared skills-commun- critical learning.
to oriented.
understandingsof ication,listening,
morethanone participation. Learnershave as
Instructor
learner. some prior questionerand
Promote knowledge. discussion leader.
socialization.
Cognitive Learning the
is Improve cognitive Limited selective Aspects of stimulus
Information processingand processingabilities attention. can affect attention.
Processing transferof new of learners.
knowledgeinto Priorknowledge need
Instructors
long-term memory. Improve recalland affects level of feedback on
retention. instructional studentlearning.
supportneeded.
Socioculturism Learning is Empowerment. Angloshave is
Instruction
subjectiveand distorted always culturally
individualistic. Emancipatory knowledgeand value laden.
learning. framedinformation
in theirown terms. Instructionis
Action-oriented, embedded in a
sociallyconscious Learningoccurs person's everyday
learnerswitha view best in cultural/social
to change rather environments context.
thanaccept or where personally
understand society. well known.
(i.e., pace and material), that learning is dis- parate points of view, that knowledge is person-
semination of knowledge, that dissemination ally experienced but can be shared through col-
best occurs via abstract representations of the laborating, and that the realism of context is
reality, and that learning occurs best in isolated high in the sense that individual experiences
settings (i.e., the context of the learning environ- prior to learning are real but low in the sense
ment need not be "real"). Collaborativismassumes that the experiences are shared vicariously
that the control of the learning environment through discourse. Constructivism assumes that
should rest with the peer groups, that learning is the learner needs to be in control of the learning
the sharing of knowledge representative of dis- environment, that learning is the creation of
1995
270 MISQuarterly/September

8. Modelsof Learning
Realism
of Context
Low High
Creationof
Knowledge Socioculturalism Learner
by Student Cognitive
Information
Processing Constructivism
Control
Learning Sharingof of the
is Knowledge Peer Learning
Group Environment
Collaborativism
Dissemination
of Knowledge
by Instructor Instructor
Objectivism
A bstractions Personally
I Knowledge is Experienced
Figure 1. The Dimensions of the Learning Theories
knowledge, and that the realism of the context the many dimensions of a given course. Infor-
for learning needs to be high. Cognitive informa- mation technology can then be a facilitator of
tion processing differs from constructivism in the effective application of the learning models.
emphasizing that learning is the formation of ab- The next section establishes links between the
stract concepts to represent reality and that the assumptions of the learning models and the as-
context need not necessarily be high in order for sumptions of the information technologies in
such abstraction to occur. Socioculturism as- use in educational settings.
sumes that the learner must be in control of
learning, that learning is interpretation of knowl-
edge by the learner, that specificity and immer-
sion in experiential activities promote learning,
and that learning best occurs in the context in
Information Technologies:
which it will be used. Surfacing Educational
No particular model is the best approach; in- Assumptions
deed, different learning approaches will be ap- The technology discussion is organized accord-
propriate depending on the circumstances- ing to what is labeled visions of electronic class-
course content, student experience, maturity, rooms-each vision representing a different
intelligence, and instructor goals, skills, and potential impact of IT on learning. These visions
preferences, among others. However, the in- were derived from the organizational research
structor must be cognizant of the choice of a on ITvisions (Schein, 1992; Zuboff, 1988): auto-
learning model. Moreover, the instructor should mating, informating up, informating down, and
be aware of the different learning models and transforming. Some technologies can facilitate
the different outcomes anticipated by the mod- more than one vision. Both positive and nega-
els. The chosen model must take into account tive potential outcomes of technologies are
MISQuarterly/September
1995 271

9. Modelsof Learning
discussed. The technologies are also discussed screen duringclass, and providing students the
in terms of the underlying assumptions regard- ability to printthe instructor'slecture outlines.
ing the way in which they facilitatelearningand The most well-likedmethodwas video clips, but
relate this to the learningmodels of the previous these were also judged the least helpful to
section. learning.The abilityto printthe instructor's lec-
ture notes were the second most well-likedas-
pect of the technology. less-likedtopicoutlines
The
The vision to automate:automated projectedfrom a computerwere deemed most
classrooms helpfulto learning.
The vision to automate is the perceptionthat IT At BaylorUniversity (Leidner,1994), the instruc-
is a means of replacing expensive, unreliable tor consoles in smaller classes contributedto
human labor with information technology.In or- both perceived and actual structure. Students
ganizations characterizedby the vision to auto- perceived the courses taught in the automated
mate, the role of IT is to provide operational classrooms to be more organized than courses
savings and improve quality by performing taught in traditional classrooms. The advanced
structured, routine, operational tasks reliably preparation a presentationor a softwaredem-
of
and efficiently.Because teaching and learning onstrationenforced a structureto the class that
are at best semi-structured activities,neither is might not otherwise have existed. Students re-
conducive to automation.Yet certainaspects of ported high satisfactionin the automatedclass-
instruction,particularly delivery of informa-
the room, but did not reportgreater learningthan in
tion characteristics of the objectivistmodel of a traditional classroom for a varietyof different
learning,are proneto automation. courses. The structuremighthave contributed to
the students' satisfactionwith the learningpro-
Information technologies whose purpose is to cess althoughthe technology might have elimi-
providetools for manipulating presentingin-
and nated the informaldiscussion that would have
structionalmaterialin a classroom are referred
to in this paper as classroom automationtech- promotedknowledgecreation.
nology. These include: (1) instructorconsoles Similarly,a study conducted by the Air Force
equipped withpresentationsoftwareand display Academy found no significantdifferencein per-
consoles and stand-alone
controls, (2) instructor formance, althoughit found significantimprove-
student computers, (3) computer-assisted in- ments in student attitudes about the instructor
struction (drilland practice programs),and (4) and the course when students were taught in
distance learning. classrooms equipped with instructorworksta-
tions and videodisks versus when taught in a
traditional classroom (Gist, et al., 1988). A new-
ness effect-a fascination with the technology
Instructor Console -might also explain the results. This is similar
The instructorconsole refers to a computer to results found with transparenciesin the early
1970s (Neter and Chervany,1973). As a conse-
equipped with end-user software and used by
an instructorin a classroom. The technology quence, although the automated classrooms
may hold littleadvantage over traditional class-
may be a permanentfixtureof the classroom or
rooms in terms of actual student learning,they
may be broughtin on a cart. The primary goals
are the facilitation presentations-freeing the
of may influencestudent attitudestowardthe qual-
instructorfrom the tedium of writingon a chalk- and towardthe organization
ity of the instructor
board and making the presentation more vivid of the course.
and memorablefor students. The use of an instructorconsole is based on
A study at Northwestern University (Janda, several pedagogical assumptions. One is that
1989) examines the impactof the instructorcon- teaching is about presenting material;technol-
sole in large (over 200 students) government ogy can improveboth the process and product
classes on student attitudes toward showing The
of presentation. improvement occurs through
short video clips on events in Americanpolitics, the use of color and graphics. Prior research
has found that graphics can create interest and
projectingtopic outlines of lecture notes on a
1995
272 MISQuarterly/September

10. Modelsof Learning
appeal to the users, can increase the compre- appropriate software and assist the students
hension of the information, and can help the in- when they encounter problems (Leidner and
formation be more easily remembered Jarvenpaa, 1993). The former use of the tech-
(DeSanctis, 1984). Color has been shown to in- nology supports the objectivist model of learn-
crease attention but not necessarily comprehen- ing; the latter, constructivism.
sion of information (DeSanctis, 1984). Similarly,
At the college level, a positive relationship was
borrowing from graphics research in the organ- found between student control of learning with
izational context, the mode of presentation of
motivation and performance (Fisher and Grant,
classroom information may affect student com-
1983). Engaging in in-class analysis of various
prehension, student recall, and student perform- alternatives to a problem allows students to con-
ance as well as student attitude (Benbasat and
struct knowledge via computers. One study
Dexter, 1985; Watson and Driver, 1983).
(Leidner and Jarvenpaa, 1993), however, found
The instructor console technology most closely a low percentage of use for such constructivist
maps to the objectivist models of learning and learning and a higher percentage of use for soft-
instruction. The instructor maintains control over ware demonstrations where students were
the content and pace of instruction, the focus is merely emulating the instructor. The sessions in
on knowledge dissemination rather than knowl- which students were allowed to analyze data in
edge creation, and the instructor remains the teams of two proved to be the most constructive
primary source of knowledge. The technology method in the classroom; during these sessions,
maps secondarily to the cognitive information exploratory discussions at a high conceptual
processing model. The more structured and level were common. A similar finding was re-
vivid the transmission, the easier it is for a ported in Carrier and Sales (1987).
learner to absorb the information.4The cognitive
The use of instructor console and stand-alone
information processing model would attribute
this result to outlines that are learning strategies computers assumes that altering the delivery of
information by presentation technologies or by
that help students more readily process and or-
allowing students to emulate an instructor will
ganize information in their memory. However,
outlines could also be manually provided or writ- improve the learning process. These assump-
tions align with the objectivist model, whereas
ten on a chalkboard. The role of the technology
the assumption that learning will be more effec-
is to increase the ease of displaying an outline,
tive if the student is required to actively perform
rather than causing the outline to be effective.
procedures during class supports a construc-
tivist model of learning.
Instructor Console and Stand-Alone Student
Computers
Computer-Assisted Instruction
A slightly more advanced automated classroom (CAI)/Computer-Based Training (CBT)
would include stand-alone5 computers on stu-
dents' desks to provide them with access to the Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is an inter-
active software program that provides informa-
same software packages as the instructor. This
tion in sequential or non-linear modes to
helps students learn by enabling them to emu- increase a student's knowledge and under-
late an instructor's steps on a particularsoftware
standing of a subject matter (Lay, 1989-90).6
package. Another approach is for the instructor
to give students a problem to analyze using the Among the most lauded goals of CAI is to give
control of the learning process to the learner.
4 Yet media research consistently fails to find significant 6 CAI has been the term used for interactive computer-based
learning differences across varying delivery mechanisms systems used in educational systems, while similar systems
(Clark 1991). Clark argues that the reason for this is that used in organizational training have been commonly referred
many different media attributes accomplish the same to as Computer-Based Training. More recently, Interactive
learning goal and that any teaching method could be Learning System (ILS) has become the term encompassing
designed into a variety of media presentations. both interactive computer-assisted instruction and interactive
5 We say stand-alone meaning that the computers are not computer-based training. This varies from the earlier CAI and
equipped with communication facilities between the CBT because it gives more control over the sequence of
computers nor with access to exteral sources of information. informationpresented to the learner.
MIS Quarterly/September 1995 273

11. Modelsof Learning
However, though based on constructivist rheto- the student is guided so that he/she reaches the
ric, most CAI and computer-based training predefined knowledge built into the system.
(CBT) have provided drill and practice tutorials However, CAI may ease the cognitive load of
that presented information in a highly structured, sorting through material and may enable stu-
linear fashion. Thus, while purportingto individu- dents to process information at their own pace.
alize instruction and allow individuals to process Thus, CAI, CBT, and ILS can be viewed as en-
information according to their preferred learning hancing the cognitive information processing of
style, CAI and CBT primarilyserved as reliable students by making the learning process more
and consistent delivery sources of course mate- individuallytailored.
rial. Advances in technology enabled the devel-
opment of more interactive CAI that was less
structured and gave more control over the se- Distance Learning
quence of information presentation to the Distance learning is the transmission of a
learner. These systems are sometimes referred course from one location to another. The goal is
to as interactive learning systems (ILS); yet to provide education to locations that might not
these too are based on ensuring that learners have the resources to offer courses or enable
are exposed to predetermined knowledge even employees to take a course without leaving the
though much more of the control for the se- organization's premises. There are many exam-
quencing of the information is given to the ples of distance learning. One example is TI-IN
learner. Network, Inc., a Texas-based private company
While studies of CAI have found increased that provides over 30 high school courses and
staff development opportunities via satellite to
learning (Clark, 1986), these results could also
be attributed to aspects incorporated into the more than 250 subscribing school districts and
other educational agencies in Texas as well as
system such as feedback, drilland practice, and
20 other states. Experienced and qualified in-
self-paced progression that are independent of
the technology (i.e., they could be incorporated structors holding at least a master's degree in
into other non-computer media). For example, the subject broadcast their courses from studios
one study comparing manual drill-and-practice in San Antonio, and the schools receive the sig-
to computer-based drill-and-practice found that nals via satellite. In Minnesota, rural school dis-
it was not the media (the computer) that affected tricts use a system of fiber optics, multiple video
monitors, and cameras to link together class-
performance, but rather the drill-and-practice
method itself that was just as effectively carried rooms up to 78 miles apart so that the teacher
out manually as with the computer (Clark,1991). can see the students in up to three other loca-
tions simultaneously. The originating classroom
While CAI, CBT, and ILS vary, pedagogical as- has one camera on the teacher, one on the stu-
sumptions regarding the way these technologies dents, and one on the teachers' desk (U.S. Con-
improve learning typically include: learners learn gress, 1988). MBA programs in Arizona,
more effectively and efficiently when they are in California, Monterrey (Mexico), and Western
control of the pace, feedback is a critical part of Ontario (Canada), among others, provide video
effective learning, and active involvement leads conferencing alternatives to attending regular
to more effective learning than passive involve- classes.
ment. Thus, CAI is based on the stimulus-re-
Distance learning supports the objectivist model
sponse-feedback views of learning that are
associated with the objectivist model of learning. of knowledge transmission, only now the knowl-
Though CAI may enable more efficient interac- edge is transmitted to students at different loca-
tions. From a learning theory perspective, it can
tion, interacting with the computer cannot be
taken as a substitute for human interaction. CAI be argued that distance learning supports the
is therefore more rooted in the objective rather sociocultural model of learning by allowing stu-
than collaborative or sociocultural models of dents to remain embedded in their cultural envi-
ronments rather than forcing them to adopt a
learning. The structure built into the system
tends to prevent constructivist learning because new culture. However, the learners are still
it enables learners to construct new knowledge; forced to adopt the language and culture of the
1995
274 MISQuarterly/September

12. Modelsof Learning
instructor since the instructor remains the nu- that information is being delivered by the in-
cleus of the class. Distance learning facilities structor. This pedagogical assumption is closely
can be equipped with facilities to enable stu- linked to the objectivist model of learning. By
dents to communicate with each other and enabling an instructorto ask questions based on
hence to promote collaborative learning across material being covered and to assess the de-
distances. Such environments are examined in gree of understanding by the responses, key re-
the section "InformatingDown." sponse pad technology facilitates more effective
knowledge transmission and comprehension.
The technology is secondarily related to cogni-
The vision to informateup: tive information processing. The technology pro-
providingan instructoraccess to motes feedback on students' learning.
information An extension of key response pad technology
The vision to informate up is defined as the goal would be to provide a full keyboard so that stu-
of using IT as a management control tool to dents could ask and answer questions using full
keep managers informed of detailed aspects of sentences. Such a facility is provided at the Uni-
their organization's performance (Schein, 1992). versity of Arizona's electronic classroom "Exem-
In an educational context, such a vision would plar" (Briggs, et al., 1992; Briggs and Ramesh,
entail giving the instructor feedback concerning 1992). The students' inputs are anonymously
student understanding of class material in a displayed on a common screen. The professor
timely fashion so that the instructor could clarify can then discuss each input. In this case, the
misunderstandings and misinterpretations. As- technology is more closely linked to the cogni-
pects of typical college classrooms that prevent tive information processing model of learning.
informating up may include student proclivity to One weakness with the question and answer fa-
be reticent during class, lack of effective cues to cility of Exemplar is its infeasibility for large
let the instructor know when information is being classes. In a large class of 30 or more students,
misconstrued, and the unavailability of the in- it would be very time-consuming for the instruc-
structor at the time when the student has a tor to go down the list of responses. This would
question. One technological response is key re- likely lead to a great deal of boredom. Students
sponse pads; another is e-mail between instruc- whose responses were not discussed by the in-
tors and their students. structor would receive negative reinforcement
for the desired participative behavior and might
tend to not contribute to future questions. Such
Key Response Pads questions as the ideal class size and the level of
Key response pads enable a large class of stu- learning possible with response pad technology
dents to participate by responding to questions should be addressed in future research.
with a yes/no response or rating agreement to
an issue on a scale from 0 to 9. The goal of key Electronic Mail Between Instructor and
response pad technology is to make the instruc- Students
tor more aware of whether students are follow-
ing the content being discussed so that he/she Another technology that can informate up is
can modify the flow and intensity of information electronic mail between instructors and students
transfer if necessary. For instance, a study of outside of the classroom.7 Electronic mail allows
IBM's electronic training facility shows that while students to ask questions as they are reviewing
the lecture mode of teaching was much more material outside of class and to receive delayed
time-efficient in terms of the material covered,
the attentiveness of the students was greater in 7 Electronic mail is a technologythat can be used to support
the "facilitation"mode in which frequent student several of the visions. The natureof the use willthereforebe
responses were elicited via key response tech- specifiedto indicatewhy it is relevantto the particularvision
nology (Horowitz, 1988). being discussed. For informatingup, e-mail between
instructorsand students is relevant, whereas student-to-
Key response pad technology assumes that the student e-mail is relevant for informating down or virtual
instructor is the nucleus of the classroom and learningdepending the contextof use.
on
MIS Quarterly/September 1995 275

13. Modelsof Learning
feedback from the instructor. Electronic mail The vision to informatedown:
might facilitate communication between stu-
dents and instructors, particularly in large (30 providingstudents greater access
students plus) classes, that tends to discourage
to information
questions. The delay in feedback from a cogni- Informating down is the use of technology to
tive perspective is undesirable, yet the ability to provide information to lower levels in an organi-
ask the question as it arises might outweigh the zation. Informatingdown is, in Schein's words, a
disadvantage of the delayed response. "more radical IT use" than automating or infor-
mating up because it may usurp the control of
One account of electronic mail's value to stu- senior and middle management and demystify
dents is the "dial a teacher" electronic mail pro- their role in the organization. In the context of
vided by educational psychology professors at
education, informating down provides informa-
the Stephen F. Austin University to student tion to students to allow them to critically ana-
teachers. Student teachers addressed questions
lyze information or discuss issues among a set
to the "experts" concerning child behavioral of peers. In this section, informating down tech-
problems, course preparation problems, and in- nologies are examined in two broad categories:
structional problems. Many of the messages re- the provision of information to learners and the
ceived from the student teachers requested help
provision of communication facilities to learners.
with lesson-plan ideas on specific topics or cer-
Technologies designed to provide information to
tain kinds of individual discipline problems learners are referred to as Information Class-
(Lowe, 1993). A similar system is used at Iowa room Technologies, and technologies designed
State University. Patterns of communication to provide communication facilities to learners
there found that the most common topic of com- are referred to as Communication Classroom
munication for new teachers was on general
Technologies. Such technologies can be imple-
education issues, followed by technical issues mented in ordinary classrooms and do not as-
and classroom management issues (Thompson sume the building of a special physical facility to
and Hayes, 1993). house the technology.
Electronic mail solicits feedback concerning stu-
dent understanding of course material and hence,
promotes the cognitive information processing Information Classroom Technologies
model of learning. It is, however, unclear whether
this feedback is similar in quality to that obtained Information classroom technologies facilitate
via a traditional verbal question-and-answer student access to information to improve the
session. A study of electronic mail in organiza- availability or reality of learning materials. In
tions found that 62 percent of the messages contrast to automated classrooms that improve
constituted "new" information-information re- the efficiency of information delivery, the goal
here is to make new, qualitatively better informa-
spondents reported they would not have other-
wise sent or received (Sproull and Kiesler, tion available that would otherwise not be.
1986). People felt more comfortable sending Learning networks, hypermedia, simulations,
and virtual reality are information classroom
messages to superiors than to subordinates. If
these results hold in an education environment, technologies.
students might feel more comfortable asking Learning Networks: Learning networks are
certain questions electronically than face to comprised of networked computers with links to
face. Contrary to media richness theory, e-mail shared databases developed by educators at
has been found to be a preferred communica- various locations or to external databases. One
tion medium for equivocal and ambiguous mes- study suggests that graduate business class-
sages (EI-Shinnaway and Markus, 1992), and rooms should be information-intensive environ-
once a work group is familiar with a topic, e-mail ments containing such features as online
is preferred to face-to-face communication access to real-world data available from com-
(Zack, 1993). mercial providers, access to company-specific
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14. Modelsof Learing
databases, access to a wide varietyof software an informationresource to be utilized during
for data manipulationand analysis and so on class to allow students to search for information
(King,et al., 1990). The CATTsystem (Hashim, relevantto a course topic seems immense, and
et al., 1991), developed to complementthe case research examininguses of the Internet and the
teaching method, features current information World WideWeb is much needed.
from publiclyavailable databases such as ag- The hypermediaformatis expected to encour-
gregate industrial annual data, U.S. census age thinking, speculation, and personal judg-
data, and NYSE and AMEXdaily returns.Using ments on the part of the learner because the
such data, students are able to develop and learneris responsiblefor organizingand analyz-
analyze alternativesto the case problem.Infact, ing information (Ambrose, 1991). On the one
one study demonstrates that graduatebusiness hand, hypermediacould be considered the ulti-
student groups that had access to publicly avail- mate tool for a cognitive information processing
able financial informationvia computers per- theorist:"because hypertextis a node-linksys-
formedsignificantly betterin case analyses than tem based uponsemanticstructures opposed
[as
study groups that had to analyze the same to a sequential access system] hypermediacan
cases withoutaccess to such information (King, map fairlydirectlythe structureof knowledge it
et al., 1990). Examples at lowereducationallev- is presenting"(Ambrose, 1991); on the other
els of learning networks include Video for Ex-
hand, for students withvery littleworkingknowl-
ploringthe World,which gives quick access to edge in a domain, the seeming lack of struc-
data such as humanand animalmotion,and the ture may be disconcerting and may hinder
Jason project, which gives students access to
processing.
data being gathered by underwaterexplorers
(Rubin,1993).8 Simulation Technologies and Virtual Reality:
Simulation technology is anothermediumof the
Learning networks are linked to the construc- information classroom. Simulation providea
can
tivist model of learning:students are construct- condensed or vicariousexperience and is based
ing new knowledge from existing information on the belief that students learn best when they
sources. There is no single correctinterpretation
rather experience the subject or topic. For instance,
nor answer to be given by the instructor;
the students formtheirown ideas fromthe infor- groups of students using computersimulations
have been foundto outperform controlgroups in
mationthey gatherand explore.
problem-solvingtasks (Gorrell and Downing,
Hypermedia: Hypermedia providesa non-linear 1989). An example of a simulationis a com-
means of browsingand sortingthroughcomput- puter-assisted internationalnegotiation project
erized information. Learning networkscan be or- (Torney-Purta, 1993) in which teams of five-12
ganized in a hypermediaformatto encourage college students role-play diplomats from an-
students to search the materialin the manner other countryand negotiate international issues
that suits their own system of logic. One of the throughthe use of a computer-networking sys-
features of the Universityof Maryland's AT&T tem. Students acquire practice in higher-order
Teaching Theater is the use of hypermediato thinkingabout social issues, in defending their
display lecture notes (Norman,1992). Students positions, and in defending their ideas. Simula-
can navigate throughmaterial duringclass while tions are based on the constructivistmodel of
the instructoris giving a lecture. Perhaps the learning-that learners need to be actively in-
most widely knownhypermedia tool in academic volved in learningby workingwith real-lifefacts
circles is the WorldWide Web, used by both in- or objects.
structorsand students to engage in information Virtualrealityis another information classroom
seeking and analysis. Althoughwe are unaware technology. Virtualrealityprovides "panoramic"
of research that examines the potentialof the
World Wide Web in the context of classroom presentations in three dimensions to the eyes,
ears, and hands of a user. One example is a
analyses, the potentialof the Web to serve as Britishhigh school that introduced design of
the
8 The May 1993 issue of the Communications the ACM
of
a virtualcity where differentlanguages are spo-
Classrooms in
contains several examples of Information ken to teach foreign languages (Kerney,1993).
elementary secondaryeducation.
and This gives the course a more realistic context
1995 277
MISQuarterly/September

15. Modelsof Learning
than would be possible through any other tion. Studies indicatean increase in participation
means aside from sending the students to the in classes taught using electronic peer-to-peer
country.Otherproposed applicationsincludevir- communication. The technology encourages all
tual realityfor use in historywhereby students members of the class to contribute class dis-
to
could create a virtualrealityEgyptiancity where cussion (Bump, 1990). A typical session in a
they can enter, "walk" through, and discourse class enrolling 18 undergraduates involved
with ancient Egyptians,for use in medical edu- more than 100 messages contributed 18 par-
by
cation whereby students could workon medical ticipants. Approximately60 percent were ad-
emergencies in a virtualhospital, or for use in dressed by students to other students rather
science whereby students could create and visit than to the instructor(Slatin, 1990). Ina two-day
a virtualsolar system withplanets correctin ap- period, in the English Department'selectronic
pearance, relative size, and distance from the classroom at the University Texas, 200 elec-
of
sun (Kerney,1993). tronic comments were made of which only 10
Virtualreality is based on the assumption that percent were teacher comments. Twenty-eight
the most effective learningis thatwhich is expe- percentof the studentcomments (comprising 90
riential,or based on actual experience in a con- percent of the total)were student to student, 61
text that is similarto where learninghas to be percent were directed toward the whole class,
later applied. A virtualrealityenvironmentsup- and only 13 percent were of the student to
teacher or teacher to student variety (Butler,
ports constructivist,cooperative,and sociocultu-
ral learning: in designing the virtual reality, 1990).
students are actively involved in constructing
their knowledge of the particulardomain for Groupware-SupportedSynchronous
which the virtualrealityis being built.Students Communication
work together to construct the virtualworld by
contributing their own views of how the reality in
Similarly, synchronous communicationclass-
should operate (much of which willbe based on rooms using groupware,students collaborating
and
theirown values, understanding, culture). with the technology were found to have higher
perceived levels of skill development, higher
perceived learning,and higher perceived inter-
Communication Technology Classrooms est than students collaboratingin a classroom
without electronic support (Alavi, 1994). In a
Informatingdown can also be achieved with similarstudy reportedin this issue, Alavi, et al.
communication-intensive classrooms. An elec-
tronic classroom built around communication (1995) added groups that were comprised of
students from two differentuniversities(distant
technology can be as simple as providing elec-
tronicmail to facilitatepeer-to-peercommunica- groups). They compared their satisfaction, per-
ceived learning climate, and performance to
tion to as complex as CATT (mentionedabove),
which, in addition to the information features groups of students fromthe same university(lo-
cal groups) engaged in three one-hour-and-fif-
previously mentioned, incorporatesgroupware teen-minute collaborative learning sessions
to facilitatecase discussions outside the physi-
cal boundariesof a classroom (Rathnam,et al., using groupware-supported synchronous com-
munication technology. The study concluded
1992). Such groupware-supported facilities that the distant groups perceived a more posi-
mightalso be equippedwithsoftwareto provide tive learningclimate and performedbetter on a
structureto the conversation.
multiplechoice test of learning but that there
was no significant difference in satisfaction
Synchronous Communication Classrooms measures. The only complaintreceived in an-
othergroupwarefacility was the lack of structure
Synchronous communicationclassrooms pro- (Jessup, 1993). Some groupware-supported
vide computers on student desks that are net- classrooms embed structureto facilitateconver-
worked with software such as Lotus Notes, sation and reduce informationoverload (e.g.,
enablingsimultaneouspeer-to-peercommunica- and
CATT EXEMPLAR).
1995
278 MISQuarterly/September

16. Modelsof Learning
Research at anothersynchronous communication dustry (Schein, 1992). The role of hierarchy
classroomexaminedwhethertechnology-enabled would change in that distributed information
collaborative learninginvolving case analyses is would make local problemsolving and lateralin-
superior to individual constructive learninginvolv- formation sharing much more feasible. ITwould
ing individual case analyses. The goal of both make it possible for an organization be simul-
to
these methodswas to increasestudentinterestin taneously centralizedaroundbasic strategy and
the course, increase studentunderstanding the of goals and decentralizedaround implementation
and
material, promote criticalthinking (Leidner and and control. Power and authoritywould shift
Fuller,1995). Studentsengaged in eight 1.5-hour away from position and status toward knowl-
case analyses duringthe course of the semester. edge and information, leadershipwould be-
and
The study foundthat studentsworking collabora- come less of a role and more of a "function";
tivelyvia anonymousgroupware eithersmallor
in more emphasis would fall on groups and team-
largegroupswere more interestedin the material work. In the context of education, the vision to
and perceivedthemselves to learnmorethanstu- transformwould involve using IT (1) to redraw
dents who worked individually. study also
The the physical boundariesof the classroom, (2) to
found that students who workedindividually out- enable more teamwork,(3) to allow learningto
performed students who collaborated small or
in be a continuoustime-independent process, and
large groups. This may suggest that thoughcol- (4) to enable multi-level,multi-speedknowledge
laborating, students were not processingand as- creation. The notion of virtuallearning spaces
similatingthe information; though exposed to a begins to operationalize these assumptions.
diversity ideas, theydidnotincorporate ideas
of the Virtuallearningspaces are those that linkgeo-
intotheirown cognitive framework. merits
This fur-
therresearchbecause a primary of communi- graphically dispersed students withno time con-
goal straints. Virtual learning spaces sustain
cationtechnologyclassroomsis notjustto expose discourse throughinterruptions across dis-
and
studentsto more ideas, butto enablethemto criti- tances and give it continuity over time
callyevaluatea diversity ideas in the creation
of of
(Scaradamaliaand Bereiter, 1993). Hence, we
their of
own interpretation important issues.
distinguish between informatingdown class-
The pedagogical assumptions underlyingsyn- rooms that can allow students to engage in col-
chronouscommunication classrooms are that(1) laborativesessions across distances when the
participation criticalto universitylearning,(2)
is collaborativesessions are time-controlled (such
lack of participation primarily
is attributable to as with the Alavi, et al. (1995) work previously
student inhibitions abouttalkinginfrontof others, mentioned)from virtuallearningspaces where
(3) anonymitywill allow students to freely ex- the communication forms the basis of the
press themselves and overcometheirinhibitions, course itself and is conducted at will-when the
and (4) synchronous communicationtechnolo- students want and for as long as they want. Vir-
gies providean efficientmechanismforproviding tual learningspaces can exist to allow a group
anonymity. The firstassumptionmaps closely to of students withinthe same course to communi-
the cooperative model of learningespecially if, cate at will(as withthe CATT system) or to bring
for practicalreasons, the class is divided into together students from various courses at vari-
smallerdiscussion groups. The thirdassumption ous universities worktogether.
to
can arguably be used to enable sociocultural
learning.By providing anonymity and non-verbal
communication, different culturesare allowed to
express themselves withouthavingto adopt the Asynchronous Communication Across
languageor opinionsof the dominating culture. Distances
The simplest virtual learning spaces are
founded on electronicmail and electronic bulle-
A vision to transform:
virtual tin boards. Press (1993) considers e-mail a low-
continuous learningspaces tech innovationthat can have a radicalimpact
The ITvision to transform the basis for a com-
is on curriculum, commutingpatterns,frequencyof
class meetings, and student-instructorroles. An
plete transformation an organizationand in-
of
example of an asynchronouscommunication vir-
MISQuarterly/September
1995 279

17. Modelsof Learning
tual learningspace is a graduateeducationclass Table 3 shows the linkages between the tech-
taught at the University Texas. The students
of nologies and the models of learning. No vision
meet in a classroom only three times duringthe of technology is more desirable than others.
semester.The rest of the course takes place using Rather, the most appropriatetechnology de-
asynchronouselectronicmail.The discussionsvia pends on the underlyingmodel of learningthat
electronicmail were not only multi-level (several the instructorwishes to employ.
themes being discussed) butalso multispeed (dif- We have not investigated the specific course
ferentaspects of a theme beingaddressed by dif-
content and student characteristicsto which the
ferent participants)(Harris, 1993). In another
variousvisions may be most appropriate. Future
project and
(Knoll Jarvenpaa, 1995),studentsfrom researchers can addess these issues. For ex-
over 10 universitiesfromnearlyall continents are
teamed up to work in globallydispersed virtual ample, in the domainof business education,de-
teams. Forsix weeks, the studentscompleteteam cision-making skills including analytical and
problem-solving skills and communicationskills
assignmentswithout face-to-facecontactwith
any are seen as critical.We mightthereforespecu-
their team members using electronicmail and
late that methods requiring interactionand stu-
computerconferencingtechnologies.An example dent involvement would be preferred over
in secondary education is geographicallydis-
traditionalmethods. Thus, the informating or
up
persed teams of studentsworking togetherto ac-
tasks associatedwithscience projects or transforming technologies with the correspond-
complish
environmental studies(Hawkins, ing collaborativeor constructivistlearningmod-
1993). els might be ways to improve the quality of
business education.
Groupware-SupportedAsynchronous
Communication Across Distances
Groupware-supported communication class-
rooms when designed for students to access
from remote terminalscan also become virtual The Taxonomy of the Impact
learningspaces. Anonymity be builtin or the
can of ITon Learning
identitiesof the group may be known.The addi-
tion of the groupwareto the asynchronouscom- The previous discussion of the relationshipbe-
to
municationacross distances purports provide tween technologyand learningsuggests the fol-
structuring mechanisms to the exchange of lowingtaxonomy (see Figure2). The taxonomy
messages in orderto help learnersorganizethe suggests the impactof the fourclasses of learn-
information they share. ing technologies on two process dimensions:
(1) controlof the pace and content of learning
The main pedagogical assumptionof the virtual and (2) the purpose of instruction(knowledge
learning space is that learning is a process of or
dissemination knowledgecreation). The taxon-
workingtoward a more complete and coherent omy also suggests possible impacts of the vi-
understanding.The flow of information must al- sions on a numberof well-established learning
low for progressive work in a problem, with outcomes from education research (see Table
ideas remainingactive over extended periodsof 4). IS researchers should find it useful to draw
time. Furthermore, learningis viewed as ongo- upon well-established variables from education
ing and need not occur as single well-defined research ratherthan creating new variables as
topics covered in a finiteperiodsuch as duringa they pursue research in the area. Althougha re-
class period. In this way, the virtuallearning view of the educationalresearch comparingthe
space supportscognitive,constructivist, collabo- effectiveness of the models is beyond the scope
rative,and sociocultural learningmodels. of this paper, Table4 lists the learningoutcome
variables that typicallyform the foundation of
educational methodologyresearch. Most of the
Summary research discussed thus far examines one or
Table 2 summarizes the technologies and the more of these learningoutcome variables;they
are summarizedhere for convenient reference.
assumptions discussed above.
Examining leamingoutcomevariables
well-defined
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280 MISQuarterly/September

18. Models of Learning
Table 2. Electronic Classroom Types, Assumptions, and Related Models of Learning
Electronic Classroom Type Principal Pedagogical Assumptions
The Vision to Automate
InstructorConsole Instructorthe center of the classroom activity.
Presentation technologies can make the delivery of information
more memorable and interesting.
Instructor Console and Stand-Alone Students learn better if they can emulate what the instructor is doing
Student Computers on the computer.
Learning is more effective when it is interactive.
Computer-Assisted Learning Students benefit when they control the pace of learning.
Feedback should be frequent.
Distance Learning Weakness in education is the lack of availability of good courses
and faculty.
Accessibility in remote locations or smaller schools can be efficiently
provided via telecommunications.
The Vision to Informate Up
Key Response Pads The instructor needs feedback.
The abilityto elicit responses via technology is superior to hand-raising.
Instructor-Student E-mail Feedback, even delayed, is better than no feedback.
Limited access to instructors limits communication.
The Vision to Informate Down
Learning Networks Delivery of information is not a pressing problem, but rather the lack
of current informationfrom realistic contexts.
Students create knowledge through information exploration.
Hypermedia/Internet Students need to create their own knowledge structures.
Simulation/VirtualReality The more real the context, the more effective the learning.
Students should be provided the means to experience the
phenomenon during class.
Synchronous Communication Participation is critical to the learning process.
Classrooms
Anonymity encourages participation.
Groupware-Supported Synchronous Structure imposed on communication is effective in helping students
Communication Classrooms learn.
Communication is more efficient when structured.
The Vision to Transform
Virtual Continuous Learning Spaces
Asynchronous Communication Learning is an ongoing process.
Across Distances
Time should be flexible.
Learning need not be geographically dependent.
Groupware-Supported Asynchronous Ad hoc communication is more effective when supported with a
Communication Across Distances structure.
MIS Quarterly/September 1995 281

19. Modelsof Learning
Table 3. Technology Fit With the Theories of Learning
Objectivist Constructivist Collaborative CognitiveIP Sociocultural
The Vision to Automate
Instructor
Console xx
Instructor
Console and Stand- xx x
Alone StudentComputers
Computer-Assisted
Learning XX
Distance Learning XX
The Vision to InformateUp
Key Response Pads XX X
E-mail
Instructor-Student
The Vision to InformateDown
Learning Networks XX
Hypermedia/Internet XX XX
SimulationNirtual
Reality XX
SynchronousCommunication XX x
Classrooms
Synchro-
Groupware-Supported XX XX X
Classrooms
nous Communication
The Vision to Transform
AsynchronousCommunication XX X
Across Distances
Asynchronous
Groupware-Supported XX i XX
AcrossDistances
Communication
match; X representsa secondarymatch
XXrepresentsthe primary
1995
282 MISQuarterly/September