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Chapter11
1.
Chapter 11 Nuclear Chemistry
2.
Chapter 11
Table of Contents 11.1 Stable and Unstable Nuclides 11.2 The Nature of Radioactive Emissions 11.3 Equations for Radioactive Decay 11.4 Rate of Radioactive Decay 11.5 Transmutation and Bombardment Reactions 11.6Radioactive Decay Series 11.7Chemical Effects of Radiation 11.8Biochemical Effects of Radiation 11.9Detection of Radiation 11.10Sources of Radiation Exposure 11.11Nuclear Medicine 11.12Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion 11.13Nuclear and Chemical Reactions Compared Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 2
3.
Section 11.1
Stable and Unstable Nuclides Nuclear Reaction • A reaction in which changes occur in the nucleus of an atom. • Nuclide – an atom with a specific atomic number and a specific mass number. • Atomic Number (Z) – number of protons • Mass Number (A) – sum of protons and neutrons A Z X Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 3
4.
Section 11.1
Stable and Unstable Nuclides • Stable nuclide – nuclide with a stable nucleus; does not readily undergo change. • Unstable nuclide – nuclide with an unstable nucleus; spontaneously undergoes change. Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 4
5.
Section 11.1
Stable and Unstable Nuclides Radioactivity • Radiation spontaneously emitted from an unstable nucleus. • Radioactive nuclide (radionuclide) – a nuclide with an unstable nucleus from which radiation is spontaneously emitted. Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 5
6.
Section 11.1
Stable and Unstable Nuclides Radioactive Stability • There is a correlation between nuclear stability and the total # of nucleons found in a nucleus. • Nuclides with 84 or more protons are unstable. Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 6
7.
Section 11.1
Stable and Unstable Nuclides Radioactive Stability • There is a correlation between nuclear stability and neutron-to-proton ratio in a nucleus. • Light nuclides are stable when Z equals A – Z (neutron/proton ratio is 1). • For heavier elements the neutron/proton ratio required for stability is greater than 1 and increases with Z. Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 7
8.
Section 11.2
The Nature of Radioactive Emissions Understanding Radioactivity 1. Certain nuclides possess unstable nuclei. 2. Nuclides with unstable nuclei spontaneously emit energy (radiation). Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 8
9.
Section 11.2
The Nature of Radioactive Emissions Alpha Particle • A particle in which two protons and two neutrons are present that is emitted by certain radioactive nuclei. Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 9
10.
Section 11.2
The Nature of Radioactive Emissions Beta Particle • Particle whose charge and mass are identical to those of an electron that is emitted by certain radioactive nuclei. Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 10
11.
Section 11.2
The Nature of Radioactive Emissions Gamma Ray • Form of high-energy radiation without mass or charge that is emitted by certain radioactive nuclei. Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 11
12.
Section 11.3
Equations for Radioactive Decay Radioactive Decay • Process by whereby a radionuclide is transformed into a nuclide of another element as a result of the emission of radiation from its nucleus. • Parent nuclide – nuclide that undergoes decay • Daughter nuclide – nuclide that is produced Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 12
13.
Section 11.3
Equations for Radioactive Decay How Nuclear Equations Differ From Chemical Equations 1. The symbols in nuclear equations stand for nuclei rather than atoms. 2. Mass numbers and atomic numbers (nuclear charge) are always specifically included in nuclear equations. 3. The elemental symbols on both sides of the equation frequently are not the same in nuclear equations. Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 13
14.
Section 11.3
Equations for Radioactive Decay • Alpha Particle Decay (a ): 92 U → 2 He + 238 4 234 90Th Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 14
15.
Section 11.3
Equations for Radioactive Decay • Beta Particle Decay (e 234 90 Th → 234 Pa 91 + 0 −1e Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 15
16.
Section 11.3
Equations for Radioactive Decay • Gamma Ray Emission (L ): 238 92 U → 4 He 2 + 234 90Th + 20 γ 0 Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 16
17.
Section 11.3
Equations for Radioactive Decay Concept Check Which of the following produces a β particle? a) 68 31 Ga + 0 −1 e → 68 30 Zn b) 62 29 Cu → 0 +1 e+ 62 28 Ni c) 212 87 Fr → 4 2 He + 208 85 At d) 129 51 Sb → 0 −1 e+ 129 52 Te Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 17
18.
Section 11.4
Rate of Radioactive Decay Half-Life • Time required for one-half of a given quantity of a radioactive substance to undergo decay. • The greater the decay rate for a radionuclide, the shorter its half-life. Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 18
19.
Section 11.4
Rate of Radioactive Decay Decay of 80.0 mg of 131I Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 19
20.
Section 11.4
Rate of Radioactive Decay Half-Life of Nuclear Decay Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 20
21.
Section 11.4
Rate of Radioactive Decay Half-Life (n) original amount × 1 ( Amount of radionuclide undecayed after n half-live )= ( of radionuclide ) n 2 Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 21
22.
Section 11.4
Rate of Radioactive Decay Exercise The half-life of technetium-99 is 5.98 hours. How much, in grams, of a 0.75-g sample of technetium-99 will remain undecayed after a period of 16 hours? 0.12 g ( 1 half-life ) ( 16 hours ) 5.98 hours = 2.68 half-lives ( 0.75 g) 1 2.68 = 0.12 g 2 Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 22
23.
Section 11.5
Transmutation and Bombardment Reactions Transmutation Reaction • A nuclear reaction in which a nuclide of one element is changed into a nuclide of another element. Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 23
24.
Section 11.5
Transmutation and Bombardment Reactions Bombardment Reaction • A nuclear reaction brought about by bombarding stable nuclei with small particles traveling at very high speeds. – Always two reactants and two products. 14 7 N+ α →4 2 17 8 1 O+ p 1 Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 24
25.
Section 11.5
Transmutation and Bombardment Reactions Synthetic Elements • Over 2000 bombardment-produced radionuclides are known. • Transuranium elements – occur right after uranium on the periodic table (elements 93 to 116 and 118). • All nuclides of all elements beyond bismuth (Z = 83) in the periodic table are radioactive. Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 25
26.
Section 11.6
Radioactive Decay Series • A series of radioactive decay processes beginning with a long-lived radionuclide and ending with a stable nuclide of lower atomic number. Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 26
27.
Section 11.6
Radioactive Decay Series Radioactive Decay Series Example Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 27
28.
Section 11.7
Chemical Effects of Radiation Two Things Can Happen to an Electron Subjected to Radiation • Excitation – radiation, through energy release, excites an electron from an occupied orbital into an empty, higher-energy orbital. • Ionization – radiation carries enough energy to remove an electron from an atom or molecule. Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 28
29.
Section 11.7
Chemical Effects of Radiation Nonionizing Radiation vs. Ionizing Radiation • Nonionizing radiation – radiation with insufficient energy to remove an electron from an atom or molecule. Examples: radiowaves, microwaves, infrared light, and visible light • Ionizing radiation – radiation with sufficient energy to remove an electron from an atom or molecule. Examples: cosmic rays, X rays, and UV light Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 29
30.
Section 11.7
Chemical Effects of Radiation Ion Pair Formation • Incoming radiation transfers sufficient energy into a molecule to knock an electron out of it, converting the molecule into a positive ion. H2O+, e– Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 30
31.
Section 11.7
Chemical Effects of Radiation Ion Pair Formation Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 31
32.
Section 11.7
Chemical Effects of Radiation Free Radical Formation • Usually accompanies ion pair formation. • Free radical – an atom, molecule, or ion that contains an unpaired electron; usually a very reactive species. • H2O+ or • OH Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 32
33.
Section 11.8
Biochemical Effects of Radiation Alpha Particle Effects • Have low penetrating power and cannot penetrate the body’s outer layers of skin. • Major damage occurs when alpha-emitting radionuclides are ingested (contaminated food). Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 33
34.
Section 11.8
Biochemical Effects of Radiation Beta Particle Effects • Can penetrate much deeper than alpha particles and can cause severe skin burns if their source remains in contact with the skin for an appreciable amount of time. • Internal exposure to beta radiation is as serious as internal alpha exposure. Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 34
35.
Section 11.8
Biochemical Effects of Radiation Gamma Radiation Effects • Readily penetrate deeply into organs, bone, and tissue. Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 35
36.
Section 11.8
Biochemical Effects of Radiation Alpha, Beta, and Gamma Radiation Differ in Penetrating Ability Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 36
37.
Section 11.9
Detection of Radiation • Photographic plates • Geiger counter Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 37
38.
Section 11.9
Detection of Radiation Film Badges Are Used to Determine a Person’s Exposure to Radiation Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 38
39.
Section 11.9
Detection of Radiation Geiger Counter Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 39
40.
Section 11.10
Sources of Radiation Exposure Background Radiation • Radiation that comes from natural sources to which living organisms are exposed on a continuing basis. Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 40
41.
Section 11.10
Sources of Radiation Exposure Sources of Background Radiation • Cosmic radiation • Rocks and minerals • Food and drink • Radon seepage in buildings Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 41
42.
Section 11.10
Sources of Radiation Exposure Components of the Estimated Annual Radiation Exposure Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 42
43.
Section 11.11
Nuclear Medicine • A field of medicine in which radionuclides are used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 43
44.
Section 11.11
Nuclear Medicine Criteria Used in Selecting Radionuclides • At low concentrations, the radionuclide must be detectable by instrumentation placed outside the body. • Radionuclide must have a short half-life. • Radionuclide must have a known mechanism for elimination from the body. • The chemical properties of the radionuclide must be such that it is compatible with normal body chemistry. Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 44
45.
Section 11.11
Nuclear Medicine Diverse Uses of Radionuclides in the Human Body • Determination of blood volume. • Location of sites of infection. • Diagnosis of impaired heart muscle. • Location of impaired circulation. • Assessment of thyroid activity. • Determination of tumor size and shape. Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 45
46.
Section 11.11
Nuclear Medicine Therapeutic Uses for Radioisotopes • Selectively destroy abnormal (usually cancerous) cells. • The radionuclide is often, but not always, placed within the body. Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 46
47.
Section 11.12
Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion Fission Reactions • A nuclear reaction in which a large nucleus (high atomic number) splits into two medium-sized nuclei with the release of several free neutrons and a large amount of energy. • Basis for operation of nuclear power plants. Uranium-235 Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 47
48.
Section 11.12
Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion Characteristics of the U-235 Fission Reaction 1. There is no unique way in which the U-235 nucleus splits. 2. Very large amounts of energy are emitted during this process. 3. Neutrons, which are reactants in the fission process, are also produced as products. Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 48
49.
Section 11.12
Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 49
50.
Section 11.12
Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion A Fission Chain Reaction Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 50
51.
Section 11.12
Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion Fusion Reactions • A nuclear reaction in which two small nuclei are collided together to produce a larger nucleus and a large amount of energy. • Opposite of nuclear fission. • How the sun generates its energy. Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 51
52.
Section 11.13
Nuclear and Chemical Reactions Compared Return to TOC Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved 52
Notas del editor
The correct answer is d.
(16 hours)(1 half-life / 5.98 hours) = 2.68 half-lives (0.75 g)(1 / 2 2.68 ) = 0.12 g
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