1. REVISED EDITION
THE PHOTOGRAPHIC EYE
Learning to See with a Camera
Michael F. O'Brien & Norman Sibley

3. THE PHOTOGRAPHIC EYE
Learning to See with a Camera
Michael E O'Brien & Norman Sibley
Davis Publications, Inc., Worcester, Massachusetts

4. Copyright 1995
Davis Publications, Inc.
Worcester, Massachusetts U.S.A.
To the photography students of
Seoul American High School, past,
present and future.
No part of this work may be repro-
duced or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic or mechan-
ical, including photocopying and re-
cording, or by any information
storage or retrieval system without
the prior written permission of the
copyright owner, unless such copy-
ing is expressly permitted by federal
copyright law. Davis is not autho-
rized to grant permission for further
uses of copyrighted selections or im-
ages reprinted in this text without the
permission of their owners. Permis-
sion must be obtained from the indi-
vidual copyright owners as identified
herein. Address requests for permis-
sion to make copies of Davis mate-
rial to Permissions, Davis Publi-
cations, Inc., 50 Portland Street,
Worcester, MA 01608.
Editor: Claire Mowbray Golding
Design: Greta D. Sibley
Printed in the United States of
America
Library of Congress Catalog Card
Student photograph by Gregory Conrad. Number: 93-74644
ISBN: 0-87192-283-5
1098 7 6 5
Cover: Student photograph by Leah
Gendler.
4 The Photographic Eye

5. Contents
7 Introduction
Part 1 Getting Started
11 Chapter 1 From Blurs to Big Business
History • Photographic Careers
Part 2 Elements of Composition
35 Chapter 2 Tools
Manual or Automatic? • The Camera, Inside & Out • Exercises: Testing the Shutter & Aperture
• Loading Film
51 Chapter 3 What is Composition?
Snapshots vs. Photographs • Structure, Balance, Dynamics • Exercises: Mat Frame • Cropping
67 Chapter 4 Developing A Critical Eye
Critique Session • Evaluating a Print • Exercise: Sample Crit
83 Chapter 5 Point of Departure (f!6 at 1/125)
Starting Simply • Doing it Right
87 Chapter 6 Line
Pattern, Structure, Direction • Exercise: Pattern
95 Chapter 7 Texture
Expressing the "Feel" • Exercise: Leaves
103 Chapter 8 Shape
Mass, Proportion & Relation • Using Negative Space * Exercise: Circles & Ovals
113 Chapter 9 Light
Controlling Exposure • Information & Mood • Using a Light Meter • Other Functions of Light
• Depth of Field * Exercise: Bracketing
129 Chapter 10 Motion
The Science of Blurs • Stop and Co • Exercise: Blurred Movement
137 Chapter 11 Perspective
Lenses • Different Ways of Seeing • A Point of View • Exercise: A Point of View

6. Part 3 People, Places & Things: Exercises & Examples
151 Chapter 12 Things
Exercises: Bicycle • Hubcaps & Taillights • Eggs • Object & Its Shadow • Bottles & Classes • Water
• Old Things
167 Chapter 13 Places
Exercises: Landscape • Architecture & Environment • Neighborhoods • Zoo/Farm • Store Windows
* Construction Sites
181 Chapter 14 People
Exercises: Hands • Elders • Children • Soft-Light Portrait • Side-Lit Portrait • Prop Portrait • Detail
Portrait • Mood Portrait
197 Chapter 15 Putting It All Together
Exercises: Fairs • Open Markets • Rain • Playgrounds • Sports Events
209 Chapter 16 Breaking the Rules
Exercises: Night • Monotone • Silhouettes • Grain and Diffusion • Double Exposure • Photo-Copy
Photos • Panel Panorama • Text and Image
Appendixes
227 Appendix 1 Processing
Processing Film • Printing • Manipulation
243 Appendix 2 Color
From B&W to Color • Technical Considerations
253 Appendix 3 Manipulation & Presentation
Presentation * Manipulation
265 Appendix 4 Advanced Techniques
Tools
272 Mat Frame (template)
273 Cropping L's (template)
275 Bibliography
279 Glossary
281 Index
287 Acknowledgments
6 The Photographic Eye

7. Introduction
hotography is both an art dimensional scene. The process by control each of these factors to
P and a science. As an art, it
expresses a personal vision.
As a science, it relies on technology.
which this is done may seem like
magic. (In fact, when cameras were
first introduced, many people all over
achieve the effect you want. But it
will take time. As you may already
know, it's often hard to keep all of
This double nature is not unique to the world thought that they were them in mind every time you take a
photography. Every kind of creative magic.) Fundamentally, however, picture.
expression —such as music, dance or there's no magic in the camera. It's Fortunately, it is possible to begin
painting —has both a purely artistic just a box with a hole in it. You more simply. This book is designed
side and a more scientific or tech- supply the magic. When you, the to help you do that. It begins with a
ological side as well. For example, photographer, use a camera creative- brief summary of photography's
paints are a kind of technology, and ly, it changes from a simple, past, present and future, including a
using them well involves a consid- mechanical machine into an artist's discussion of photography careers.
rable amount of technical skill. The tool. Instead of making random This is followed by an introduction
main difference between photogaphy copies of things, it begins to say to the camera itself. Chapters 3 and
and more traditional visual arts, such something about them. 4 provide a set of guidelines for com-
as painting, is the complexity of its Here are some of the technical posing and evaluating photographs.
technology. questions a photographer must Chapter 5 explains a simple way to
In any of the arts, the first step answer for every photograph: How start producing correctly exposed
toward excellence is mastering tech- will the lighting affect the clarity and photographs. As soon as you get that
ique — learning to use a specific tech- mood of the photograph? How fast basic background behind you, you
ology skillfully and effectively. In should the shutter speed be? How will begin your first photograph
photography, this means that you large a lens opening should be used? assignments. Chapters 6 through 11
must learn to control the camera and What should be in focus? What deal with specific "elements" of
darkroom equipment, rather than let- belongs in the frame, and what photography. At the end of these
ting them control you. doesn't? What lens should be used? chapters are exercises that will help
No artist, however creative, can All these factors influence each you learn to recognize and use each
produce a masterpiece without a other, and they all affect the final element discussed.
sound basis in technique. On the photograph. A photograph is "suc- The remainder of the book is com-
other hand, no amount of technical cessful"—in the technical sense — posed of additional exercises (with
skill can make up for a lack of artistic when these factors all work well examples) and an Appendix, cover-
vision. Both are essential. The goal together and are combined with cor- ing most of the technical information
of any artist is to use good technique rect darkroom procedures. When a (including a section on color photog-
creatively. creative composition is added, the raphy). Finally, there's a glossary to
Simply speaking, a camera is a photograph becomes aesthetically clarify any confusing terminology
machine that produces a two- successfully as well. and a bibliography to help you locate
dimensional (flat) copy of a three- Eventually, you will learn how to more detailed information.
7

8. part 1 Getting Started
Student photograph by Edward Maresh.
9

9. Dorothea Lange, Migrant Mother, Nipomo, California, 1936. Gelatin silver print. Library of Congress,
Washington, D.C.

10. chapter 1 From Blurs to
Big Business
urprisingly few new art made between 1816 and 1840. The rhe cent stone (one that would glow in the
IS forms have been invented in
the course of recorded his-
tory. Depending on how such terms
first recorded discovery that certain
chemicals turned black when exposed
to light was made in 1725. The basic
ain dark). He mixed powdered chalk into
a nitric acid solution and was sur-
prised to discover that the mixture
as "art" and "new" are defined, the design of the cameras we use today turned purple in sunlight. After in-
novel as a form of literature may has been in use since the 1500s. The vestigating, he discovered that his ex-
qualify, as may rock 'n' roll and Chinese figured it out even longer ago periment had been contaminated with
other kinds of electric and electronic than that — as early as the fourth cen- silver salt (silver chloride) and that
music. More recent candidates in- tury. So, photography is between this was causing the reaction to light.
clude computer graphics and the 1,500 and 150 years old. Schulze was curious enough about
current wave of digital creations this phenomenon to experiment with
known as multi-media. Prelude it. He covered bottles of his mixture
One form that certainly qualifies The first stage of photography's with stencils so the light would
is photography. From its beginnings evolution in Europe was the camera "print" letters onto it, but the letters
as a technological curiosity, it has obscura, which is Latin for "dark would disintegrate as soon as the mix-
grown into one of the most impor- chamber" (camera = chamber or ture was disturbed. Evidently, he
tant influences in our society and room; obscura = dark). The camera never thought that his discovery
culture. Every day, we encounter obscura was a room, or a small build- might have any practical application.
hundreds of images produced with ing, with no windows. One tiny hole,
cameras and film. We learn about fitted with a lens, projected images Early Prints
the latest fashion trends from photo- from outside the room onto the far In 1777, a Swedish chemist, Carl
graphs — and about the latest war or wall inside it. Wilhelm Scheele, repeated Schulze's
famine. We also learn about the re- The image was upside down and experiments. He also discovered that
markable planet on which we live not generally very clear, but it was ammonia would dissolve the silver
and about the people with whom we good enough to become a useful tool chloride and leave the image intact.
share it. for artists. The projected image could With this second discovery, the basic
be traced, providing an accurate chemistry of photography (exposing
HISTORY sketch, which might then be devel- silver chloride to produce an image
oped into a painting. Portable ver- and "fixing" it with ammonia) was
There is no single correct answer to sions of the camera obscura were established, but —again —what it
the question of how and when pho- developed by the 1660s. The camera might lead to was not recognized.
tography began. No one person can existed, but photography hadn't even Forty years later, the plot began to
be credited with inventing it. In- been imagined yet. thicken. A number of people began
stead, it emerged through centuries In 1725, a German professor of trying to produce a photographic
of tinkering. anatomy, Johann Heinrich Schulze, image on paper. In France, Joseph
The first printed photographs were attempted to produce a phosphores- Nicephore Niepce developed an
11

11. Joseph Nicephore Niepce, world's first permanent camera image. Courtesy Gernsheim Collection, Harry Ransom
Humanities Research Center, The University of Texas at Austin.
emulsion (a light-sensitive varnish) named Louis Jacques Mande Da- vapor, and finally "fixed" with a salt
out of bitumen of Judea, a kind of guerre was also trying to produce a solution, then a visible, permanent
asphalt. Instead of turning black, this camera image. He got in touch with image would result. This discovery
material is hardened by light. So, to Niepce and the two worked together formed the basis for the first photo-
produce an image, Niepce coated a on the problem. Niepce died, poor graphic process to be used outside of
glass or pewter plate with his emul- and discouraged, a few years later, a laboratory: the daguerreotype.
sion, exposed it to light and then but Daguerre continued (with In England, William Henry Fox
washed the plate with solvents. The Niepce's son Isadore as his new Talbot was also experimenting with
solvents dissolved the unexposed (and partner). camera images. By 1835 he too had
still soft) emulsion, producing a Daguerre was convinced that silver succeeded in producing a number of
print: the world's first permanent was the key to producing a better im- photographs. With his process, the
camera image. It was only some blurs age than Niepce's asphalt prints. In first exposure produced a negative
of light and dark, and the exposure 1835, his conviction paid off. He image on paper treated with silver
reportedly took eight hours, but it discovered that if a silver plate were compounds. The exposed paper was
was a real image. iodized (treated with iodine), exposed then placed over a second sheet of
Meanwhile, a painter in Paris first to light and then to mercury treated paper and exposed to a bright
12 The Photographic Eye

12. light, producing a positive image on
the second sheet.
Thus, Talbot's process —called a
calotype or talbotype —enabled
photographers to make multiple
copies of a single image. This was not
possible with a daguerreotype, which
produced a positive image directly on
a metal plate. Because the calotype's
image was transferred through a
paper negative, however, it was not
as clear as the daguerreotype.
In 1851, another Englishman,
Frederick Scott Archer, introduced
the collodian wet-plate process,
which offered the best of both
worlds: a high-quality image and
multiple copies. Talbot tried to claim
credit and licensing rights for this new
process as well. In 1854, the courts
overruled him and followed Archer's
wishes by making the process freely
available to everyone.
The collodian process, like the
daguerreotype, was difficult to use.
First, a clean glass plate had to be
evenly coated with collodian (a sub-
stance similar to plastic and contain-
ing potassium iodide). While still
damp, the plate had to be dipped into
a silver nitrate solution, inserted into
the camera and exposed. It was then
developed immediately, and finally thousands. The stereoscopic camera Julia Margaret Cameron, Alfred
allowed to dry. If the plate dried (which produced a three-dimensional Tennyson with his sons Hallam
before the process was complete, the effect by combining two images) was and Lionel, 1865-69. Albumen
emulsion would harden and the pho- introduced in 1849. By the 1860s, no print, W/2 x 8>/4" (27 x 22 cm).
tograph would be ruined. It wasn't parlor in America was considered Gift of David Bakalar, 1977.
easy, but it worked. complete without a stereo viewer and Courtesy Museum of Fine Arts,
a stack of slides to entertain guests. Boston.
Photography Goes Public Photography had more serious
Photography, dominated by the col- uses as well. As early as the 1850s,
lodian and daguerreotype processes, books of photographs were published
began to take off. Cameras were set showing the harsh conditions of life
up in studios and loaded onto carts in the streets, factories, mines and
to photograph portraits, landscapes slums of England and the United
and battles. Tourists collected inex- States. Lewis Mine, a sociologist,
pensive prints of local attractions, produced powerful photographs of
called cartes-de-visite, by the children who worked long hours in
From Blurs to Big Business 13

13. Lewis Mine, Doffer Girl in New textile mills and other industries. His that he did so to settle a bet as to
England Mill, c 1910. work helped to bring about new laws whether or not running horses lifted
to protect children's rights. all four hooves off the ground at one
At the start of the Civil War, a suc- time. By photographing a horse with
cessful portrait photographer named his device, he proved that they do. He
Mathew Brady asked President Lin- also contributed tremendously to our
coln for permission to carry his understanding of how animals (and
cameras onto the battlefields. Per- humans) move.
mission was granted, and Brady and These and other similar uses of
his staff compiled a remarkable photography often achieved a high
record of that tragic period of degree of aesthetic quality —a high
American history. Like many of pho- degree of art. Their primary pur-
tography's pioneers, he paid for the poses, however, were practical: to
project almost entirely by himself and promote social reform, record his-
died penniless as a result. torical events and aid scientific
In the 1880s, Eadweard Muybridge investigations.
invented a device called a zooprax-
iscope which produced a series of im-
ages of a moving subject. It is said
14 The Photographic Eye

14. Mathew Brady, Magazine in
Battery Rodgers, 1863. Library of
Congress, Washington, D.C.
From Blurs to Big Business 15

15. Eadweard Muybridge, Attitudes of Animals in Motion, c 1881.
But Is It Art? what a painting should look like was with their cameras, specializing in
At the same time, another group of heavily influenced by the Romanticist peaceful scenes of country life. They
photographers were dealing with the painters (such as Delacroix). The Pic- were also increasingly fond of using
purely aesthetic issue of how photog- torialist photographers, like the soft focus (blurred edges) in their
raphy relates to the traditional arts, Romanticist painters, believed that an photographs.
particularly painting. Is photography artist should improve upon nature by Despite the differences between
an art at all? If so, how should it be using it to express noble ideas. Both them, both the Pictorialists and the
used? What should "art photog- favored elaborate illustrations of Naturalists believed that a work of
raphy" look like? These same ques- scenes from ancient mythology. art ought to express a "correct senti-
tions continue to provoke discussion The other faction called themselves ment" and that it ought to be decora-
and argument even today. Photog- Naturalists. They were led by Peter t i v e — p r e t t y . This is what most set
raphy is still defining itself. Henry Emerson and George Davison. them apart from the "practical" pho-
By the 1850s, two opposing fac- The Naturalists believed that a tographers, like Brady and Muy-
tions of artist-photographers had photograph should capture nature's bridge, whose work showed the hard
been established. The Pictorialists, own truth. They preferred the Bar- edges of reality, with all its flaws.
led by Oscar Rejlander and Henry bizon painters, who took their easels
Peach Robinson, believed that a out to the forests, fields and streams,
photograph should look as much like and painted them directly. The Nat-
a painting as possible. Their idea of uralist photographers did the same
16 The Photographic Eye

16. Peter Henry Emerson, Gunner Working Up to Fowl, c 1886.
New Tools & Processes another 100 photos. Eastman's Autochrome produced transparencies
In the late 1880s, flexible film ap- slogan was "You press the button; we (slides) that could not be enlarged
peared for the first time, replacing do the rest." (The name "Kodak," in- very much without showing the grain
clumsy and heavy glass plates. By the cidentally, doesn't mean anything. of the starch dyes used to create the
1890s, George Eastman had intro- Eastman selected it because he felt it image. It also took fifty times as long
duced the Kodak camera, the first w o u l d be easy for people to to expose as black-and-white film.
that was reasonably easy to use. The remember.) Then, in 1935, Kodak introduced
camera itself was simple: a box with In 1925, Leica introduced its "mini- Kodachrome, an improved slide film,
a lens, a cord to cock the shutter, a ature" camera, the first to use 35mm followed in 1941 by Kodacolor, for
button to release it and a crank to film. Though not quite as simple to making color prints. The family
wind the film. What made this use as the earlier Kodak model, it was photograph album, which had existed
camera special was that it came technically more sophisticated and for only 100 years, was now both
loaded with enough film for 100 quite a bit smaller As a result, widespread and increasingly in full
photographs. When the film was amateur photography became an in- color.
used up, the entire camera was ternational passion.
returned to the Eastman Kodak Other technical advances con-
Company. The film was then devel- tinued to appear all t h e time. The
oped and printed, and the camera first commercial color film, Auto-
was reloaded and returned, ready for chrome, hit the market in 1907.
From Blurs to Big Business 17

17. FOCAL POINT: Alfred Stieglitz, 1864-1946
Alfred Stieglitz was in many ways the
first "modern" photographer.
Though his early photographs were
carefully manipulated to imitate
paintings, he soon recognized that
photography was an art in its own
right —and deserved to be treated as
one. He saw the need to free photog-
raphy from the conventions and lim-
itations of painting. Consequently,
Stieglitz promoted what came to be
known as "straight" photography —
making prints with little or no crop-
ping, retouching or other alteration.
He was a founding member and
leader of the "Photo Secession," a
group of photographers who were
determined to break away from pho-
tography's past and to chart its
future. Stieglitz was editor and
publisher of the group's magazine,
Camera Work, the first publication
to deal seriously with photography as
an independent art form. He work-
ed with Edward Steichen to establish
"Gallery 291" in New York City,
which exhibited contemporary pho-
tographs along with paintings by
Picasso, Matisse and Georgia
O'Keefe (whom Stieglitz later
married). Alfred Stieglitz, The Rag Picker, New York, 1895.
When photography was first in-
vented, it was a scientific novelty. record. He returned to the straight- we use it today —as a familiar tool for
Soon, it evolved into an excellent forward approach of the early exploring reality.
record-keeping tool. Photographers photographers, but he did so with the The attitudes and interests that
could be hired to make a lasting insight and confidence of a true Stieglitz brought to photography can
record of a person, place or event. By artist. be traced to his upbringing. He was
the late 1800s, photographers were Stieglitz was among the first born in Hoboken, New Jersey, the
striving to elevate their craft into a photographers to produce work that, son of German immigrants. He orig-
recognized art. They did this by im- even today, does not look "dated." inally intended to become a mechan-
itating the content and visual effects Though clothing and architectural ical engineer. While in Berlin study-
of paintings. Stieglitz'great achieve- styles have changed considerably ing for this purpose, he happened to
ment was to bring photography full since his time, his best work still looks see a camera in a store window. He
circle: he merged its artistic potential thoroughly modern. The main reason bought it and soon decided it was
with its ability to produce a factual for this is that he used the camera as more interesting than engineering.
18 The Photographic Eye

18. Alfred Stieglitz, The 'Flat Iron', 1902.
When he returned to the U.S. at the
age of 26, he was delighted to find
that photography was extremely pop-
ular. But he was also dismayed by the
lack of publications and galleries pro-
moting it as an art. For the next 56
years, he devoted himself to correct-
ing this situation. Along the way, he Alfred Stieglitz, Sun Rays-Paula-Berlin, 1889.
produced some of the finest photo-
graphs in history.

19. FOCAL POINT: James Van Der Zee, 1886-1983
James Van Der Zee, Couple in Raccoon Coats, 1932. Courtesy Donna Van Der Zee.
James Van Der Zee was unique in "straight" prints in the style of the studio, and produce a double-
many ways. First and foremost, he Photo Secessionists (Stieglitz, exposed print showing their yet-to-be-
was perhaps the most accomplished Weston, Steichen, etc.) as well as born child as a ghost beside them.
black photographer in history, and is heavily manipulated images, which Van Der Zee's photographic career
certainly the best known today. His the Photo Secessionists had rejected. was far from easy. Though he
record of Harlem in the 1920s is un- Moreover, he used both approaches became interested in photography at
surpassed, in both quantity and interchangeably, according to his in- the age of 14 (when he purchased a
quality. But he was unique in other terpretation of a particular scene. mail-order camera and darkroom
ways as well. One day he might do a straight out- kit), he was 30 before he was able to
Stylistically, he employed both door portrait of someone on the earn a living at it. In between, he
stark realism and dreamy roman- street. And the next day he might worked as a waiter, elevator operator
ticism. Technically, he produced pose a newly-wed couple in his and even as a violinist in a dance or-
v.
20 The Photographic Eye

20. chestra. His first photographic job,
in 1914, was as a darkroom assistant
in a department store in New York
City. Two years later, he opened his
own studio in Harlem. Though he
often had to change its location, Van
Der Zee kept his studio in business
until 1969.
In addition to skill and creativity,
he was blessed with good timing.
Black culture was flourishing in
Harlem during the 1920s. Duke Ell-
ington and others were redefining
American music. Adam Clayton
Powell, Langston Hughes, Countee
Cullen and Marcus Garvey were help-
ing to build a new black identity. And
James Van Der Zee was the official
and unofficial photographer for all
of it. He photographed proud black
couples in the streets of Harlem and
in elegant clubs. Celebrities and "or-
dinary people" posed in his studio.
He photographed weddings and
funerals. All together, he compiled
some 75,000 glass plates, negatives
and prints. All of it revealing a world
that was all but ignored by the better-
known photographers of that time.
Van Der Zee received virtually no
recognition outside of Harlem until Eugene Atget, L'Escalier de L'Hotel Charron, 7900.
1967. At that time, he was featured
in an exhibit, entitled "Harlem on My A New Breed proaches to photography.
Mind," at New York's Metropolitan Photography was coming into its In Europe, Andre Kertesz, Eugene
Museum of Art. For the last 14 years own, both as an art and as a business. Atget, Brassai, and Henri Carder-
of his life, his photography was Alfred Steiglitz united photography Bresson were among the most not-
widely exhibited, published and and painting by opening "Gallery able of the new wave of artist
praised. He died at the age of 97, 291," which exhibited new work in photographers. They each devoted
while in Washington, D.C. to receive either medium. In his own photog- themselves to capturing life as it
an honorary degree from Howard raphy and in his critical judgment really was, in the boulevards and
University. Steiglitz promoted a lively realism back alleys and country lanes of
that eventually became the standard Europe. Yet each did so with a
for art photography. From 1902 to distinct and original style, a unique
1917, he published Camera Work, the "way of seeing." They saw that
first magazine devoted to artistic ap- photography was a new and indepen-
From Blurs to Big Business 21

21. Edward Steichen, Gloria Swanson,
1924.
dent art, not merely a cheap imitation
of painting. Because of this, they —
along with Steiglitz and other
American peers — may be thought of
as the first modern photographers.
More practical applications of
photography also continued. One of
the most notable examples was a
photographic survey, begun in 1935,
of conditions during the Great
Depression. Dorothea Lange, Walk-
er Evans and other first-rate pho-
tographers were hired by this pro-
ject by the U.S. government's Farm
Security Administration and com-
piled hundreds of photographs that
rank among the best ever produced.
The use of photographs in publica-
tions, a novelty as recently as 1900,
was expanding rapidly. Life magazine
started in 1936 and began a whole
new kind of publishing: photo-
j o u r n a l i s m . Alfred Eisenstat,
Margaret Bourke-White and other
photographers on Life's staff quickly
became famous as they recorded the
world's events with their cameras.
By the end of the 1930s, all the
basic ingredients that continue to
define photography were in place:
Photography was increasingly ac-
1937 1938 1939 1947 1954
The SLR Automatic Electronic First First
(single lens exposure flash Polaroid high-speed
reflex) initiated by developed by camera film, Tri-X,
camera Kodak with Dr. Harold developed by comes onto
introduced to its 6-20 Edgerton. Edwin Land. market.
the U.S. by camera.
Exacta.
22 The Photographic Eye

22. Yousef Karsh, Ethiopian Bride,
1963. Courtesy Woodfin Camp
and Associates.
cepted as an art in its own right.
Photojournalists were a major source
of information and insight for the
general public (a role that has since
been largely taken over by television
reporters). Advertising had begun
using photography to catch attention
or communicate a message. Portable
cameras had made snapshots a na-
tional hobby.
Where Now?
The list of technical advances in
photography continues to get longer
and longer (see the photographic time
line), and the ranks of great
photographers has expanded steadily
as well. Edward Steichen, Minor
White, Sebastiao Salgado, Edward
Weston, Ansel Adams, Diane Arbus,
Ernst Haas, Eugene Richards...the list
is long and subject to fierce debate.
Photography is still a young art.
Painting, sculpture, writing, dance,
acting and music have all been
around for thousands of years. Even
they continue to change at an often
alarming rate. This is all the more
true of photography, which has
1959 1966 1972 1985 1987 1991
Development Konica Polaroid Minolta Canon Kodak
of first introduces adds introduces debuts first launches
zoom lens, first color the first "Commercial Photo CD
the Zoomar professional toils professional Still Video" system and
36-82. quality instant quality system. digital
automatic cameras. automatic camera.
exposure focus camera,
camera. the Maxxum.
From Blurs to Big Business 23

23. FOCAL POINT: Manuel Alvarez Bravo, 1902-
Throughout the world, photog-
raphers have used the camera to
observe, interpret and record their
own cultures and environments. In
the process, some have also achiev-
ed unique styles that are particularly
appropriate to specific times and
places. Manuel Alvarez Bravo is
among a select group of photog-
raphers who have gone a step
further —discovering a way of seeing
that seems to express the spirit of an
entire culture.
Great works of art are rarely
created in a vacuum. Instead, even
the most gifted artist draws on a
lifetime of experiences and impres-
sions. The work of other artists is
almost always an important in-
fluence. Additional influences may
include one's level of wealth or
poverty; the personalities and values
of friends and family; the climate,
colors, sounds and rituals that are
part of daily life. By combining a
variety of local and international in-
fluences, some artists are able to
create art t h a t breaks t h r o u g h
cultural barriers without losing a Manuel Alvarez Bravo, Retrato de lo Eterno (Portrait of the Eternal),
sense of cultural roots. Bravo is one 1935. Courtesy The Witkin Gallery, New York.
photographer who has done this.
In his case, the culture is that of leaders of a creative surge in Mexican In his best work, Bravo combines
Mexico. He was born in Mexico City, art. the technical skill and confidence of
and has continued to be based there His first solo exhibit was held in photographers like Strand and
throughout his life. His father and Mexico City in 1932. Soon after, he Evans; the ability to capture a
grandfather were both artists, one a became acquainted with Paul Strand, "decisive moment" that is char-
painter and the other a photographer. Henri Carder-Bresson, Walker Evans acteristic of Carder-Bresson; and the
Before becoming interested in pho- and other photographers who were often disturbing dreamlike qualities
tography, Bravo studied literature, gaining international attention. of Surrealist paintings. To this mix of
music and painting, beginning in Bravo also met Andre Breton, who artistic influences, he adds a deep and
1917. In 1922, he began experimen- is credited with creating the Surrealist proud understanding of Mexican cul-
ting with photography. By 1926, he style of painting. Surrealism, which ture and a keen awareness of light
was using a camera to produce employs the symbols and imagery of and mood. The result is a vision that
abstract images of folded paper. By dreams, became a major influence on is both highly private and universally
the early 1930's he was among the Bravo's photographic style. accessible.
24 The Photographic Eye

24. Minor White, Moon and Wall Encrustations, 1964.
barely passed its first century of wide- and how it works) is in the midst of The old distinctions between one
spread use. radical transformation — a techno- form of art and another are breaking
With most of the traditional arts, logical revolution. Photography it- down. Words, images and music are
change has primarily been a matter self is mutating into something new all beginning to merge. The music
of style. Michaelangelo and Picasso and strange and unpredictable. videos on MTV are one typical ex-
used essentially the same materials Compared to that, stylistic changes ample of this trend. They aren't sim-
and techniques to produce vastly dif- hardly seem to matter. ply songs and they aren't quite
ferent results. Writers may use com- What is actually happening is that movies. They are a new hybrid: mu-
puters now, rather than quill pens, but photography (along with computer sic and film merging into a new form
the process of writing hasn't really graphics, electronic music and other of creative expression. Some of them
changed very much since Shake- technology-based arts) is moving tell stories. Some are more like mini-
speare's day. Writing styles, however, away from the traditional, "manual" documentaries. Some resemble the
have changed enormously. arts (such as painting or classical song-and-dance numbers of a
In the case of photography, al- music). As a result, we are discover- Broadway musical. Similarly, it is in-
most the opposite is now true: Pho- ing entirely new ideas of how art may creasingly difficult to define the dif-
tography's essential nature (what it is be created and experienced. ference between a painting and a
From Blurs to Big Business 25

25. photograph, or even between a pho-
tograph and a poem.
In addition, all of the arts are be-
coming more participatory. In the
very near future, it may no longer be
standard procedure for an artist to
create some specific "thing" - a
photograph or a symphony — which
others simply receive by looking or
listening. Instead, each individual
viewer or listener will have the power
to edit, combine and transform an
enormous array of images and
sounds. Your photograph will be raw
material which you may manipulate
in any way you please, and to which
others may then add their own inter-
pretations — and it will all be done
by computer. It is far too early to tell
if all of this is actually an improve-
ment, but it is certainly a change.
That is what's coming. But it isn't
quite here yet.
We are standing on the bridge be-
tween photography's past and its fu-
ture. And so we are able to move
back and forth between them. We
can shoot a roll of film on Uncle
Frank's old Pentax, make a print in a
traditional darkroom and then re-
interpret it on a copy machine — or
scan it into a Mac and make it all
look really weird. There is still a se-
cure place for conventional art pho-
tography, and a wide open field for
experimentation.
We are at the end of an era — and Wedding photography requires technical accuracy, good social skills and and
at the start of a new one. This is a the ability to quickly arrange natural poses for individuals and large groups.
privileged place to be. Enjoy it. Photograph by Donald Butler.
PHOTOGRAPHIC pictures for pleasure. Even many of photographers have died penniless.
CAREERS the best-known art photographers At least a few have made good liv-
pay their bills by doing commer- ings without having much skill or
The number of people who earn a cial photography or other work on creativity. That's the way of all art —
"living wage" from any art is always the side. timing, luck and who you know are
relatively small. Photography is cer- Unfortunately, being "good" or at least as important as mastering
tainly a case in point. Most pho- even "the best" won't necessarily your craft.
tographers are hobbyists who take make any difference. Many excellent
26 The Photographic Eye

26. Fortunately, however, commercial the day. Freelancers tend to earn Arnold Newman, Igor Stravinsky,
photography can be a very rewarding more than staff photographers for 1946.
career or sideline. Everything from each day they work, but staff photog-
weddings to wars seems to require a raphers work more steadily. In other flash photography, since much of
photographic record. Most commer- words, staff photographers are less their work is done indoors on loca-
cial products rely on photography for likely either to get rich or to go broke. tion. In addition, they must be skilled
packaging and advertising. And there Freelancers take more risks and have at interacting well with all sorts of
is even a steadily growing market for a better chance of making it big. people. By and large, wedding
photographs as pure art — though it's photography does not demand much
not likely to make you rich. Weddings and Portraits artistry —most clients don't want art.
The basic categories of profes- Probably the largest number of pro- It's a good line of work for anyone
sional photographic work include: fessional photographers are primarily who enjoys the technical side of
weddings and other social events, devoted to photographing social photography and who likes to
portraiture, journalism, product events, especially weddings. The pay socialize.
photography and fashion. Depending can be quite good —several hundred Closely related to weddings and
on the work you choose, the time you dollars per day. Many wedding pho- social events is p o r t r a i t u r e -
devote to it and your luck and skill, tographers are represented by an photographing a single person or
you could earn from a few hundred agent who sets up photo assignments small group. Whether it's for a
to over a thousand dollars a day. for them. Many work only a couple passport photo or a prom portrait,
In each of these categories, there of days each week, generally week- everyone needs a photographer some-
are two ways of working: staff and ends (when weddings are most com- time. Virtually every town in the
freelance. A staff photographer is monly held). Wedding photographers country has at least one studio for
just like any employee, receiving a must be able to produce consistently just these kinds of things. Here again,
salary and clocking regular hours. A good results, since there's no chance the main requirements are technical
freelance photographer is hired for for re-shooting if things get messed consistency —particularly in terms of
specific jobs and is generally paid by up. They must be especially good at studio lighting —and social grace.
From Blurs to Big Business 27

27. Photojournalism
Journalistic photography ranges
FOCAL POINT: Margaret Bourke-White
from covering a fire on Elm Street for
the local newspaper to traveling to Today we take photojournalism for After becoming a staff photog-
Tahiti for a major magazine. Photo- granted. We expect our magazine ar- rapher for Life magazine in 1936,
journalists must possess good in- ticles to be illustrated with photo- Bourke-White continued to cover
stincts above all else. Sensing when graphs that add insights and impact both technological progress and
a photo opportunity is about to oc- of their own. But, like photography human suffering. The very first issue
cur and knowing how to handle it are itself, photojournalism had to be in- of Life featured one of her photo-
of vital importance. Being a first-rate vented. One of the people who played graphs on the cover: a dramatic
photo-technician is helpful . . . but a major role in inventing it was image of a massive dam construction
not strictly essential. Margaret Bourke-White. project. She provided extensive
A more commercial field related to While in college, Bourke-White coverage of World War II, most
photojournalism is freelance location discovered that she excelled at pho- notably the horrors discovered when
photography. Corporate annual tography. After graduating from the Allies liberated the concentration
reports, slide presentations, promo- Cornell, she began working as a pro- camps. She photographed the gran-
tional brochures, in-house publica- fessional photographer. She was deur and starvation of India in the
tions, trade magazines (Plumbers' especially intrigued by the surge of late 1940s, black South African
Digest or New England Beverage technological developments at that Miners in 1950, and the Korean War
Retailer, for example) all require time and used her camera to convey in 1952.
professional-quality photography. the power and beauty she saw in By the mid-1950s, Bourke-White
Being able to handle any lighting or everything from clock parts to steel was suffering from Parkinson's
composition challenge quickly and mills. From 1929 to 1933, she was an Disease, which progressively reduces
accurately is the critical factor here. industrial photographer for Fortune the body's ability to control its move-
An ability to blend into the corporate magazine. Her work there was not ments. She left the staff of Life in
environment is also essential. limited to machine parts and con- 1969 and died two years later.
Razzle Dazzle struction projects, however. In 1934, Though she was neither a master
At the top of the career heap finan- she covered the drought known as the stylist nor an exceptional technician,
cially are illustration, product, food "Dust Bowl" that swept through the Bourke-White was among the first to
and fashion photography. This is Great Plains, showing how that trag- clearly understand the camera's
where knowing the right people and edy affected the lives of farmers and power to record "history in the mak-
being in the right place at the right their families. This article was a mile- ing." She helped establish standards
time are of critical importance. A stone in photojournalism. Though for commitment, concern and sheer
flair for style helps too. You also other photographers, such as Lewis energy that photojournalists have
have to be very good if you expect to Hine, had done similar reporting on struggled to live up to ever since.
have more than a brief career. The social issues, none had done so for a
competition is stiff because the major magazine.
rewards are high. A top-notch pro-
duct, food or fashion photographer
will charge $2,000 or more per day.
A comparable illustration photog-
rapher might earn the same amount
for a single photograph. Nice work
if you can get it.
28 The Photographic Eye

28. 1904-71
Margaret Bourke-White, Airship Akron, Winner Goodyear Zeppelin Race, 1931.
From Blurs to Big Business 29

29. A flair for the exotic and a sophisticated sense of humor are important assets in fashion photography. Photograph by
Bane Kapsu.
30 The Photographic Eye

30. Variations services to other photographers. prints, but be sure to include the run-
Mixed in with these general categories Retouchers, for example, are paid ning head or foot that indicates the
are numerous photographic special- handsomely to fix mistakes or other- name and date of the publication.)
ties: scientific, sports, underwater, wise alter a photo's appearance. Your portfolio should also be tai-
travel, architectural, art reproduc- Skilled darkroom techicians, special- lored to the kind of work you're
tion, etc. Matching your skills and in- izing in black and white or color, are seeking. If you hope to be hired as a
terests to one of these niches may be highly regarded and well paid. lab technician, emphasize print
the most satisfying career path of all. Finally, there are many other jobs quality. If you want to cover local
By specializing in one particular that don't require regular use of a news events, include some good
aspect of photography, rather than camera or darkroom but can, none- action shots. If advertising interests
competing in a broader category, you theless, keep a photographer "in you, try to create some still-life pho-
have a good chance of establishing a touch." These include selling and tographs that have the "look-and-
clear identity and of focusing in on repairing cameras, maintaining feel" of studio composition and
a steady market. Word-of-mouth rec- photographic libraries or stock- lighting. If you'd like to pursue fash-
ommendation is always a photog- agency files, curating in photography ion photography, you might team up
rapher's best advertising. You stand galleries or museums, or even help- with a friend who aspires to a career
to benefit most from it if you earn a ing to develop new designs, formulas in modeling — working together to
good reputation for a specific set of and processes for cameras or film. produce some fashion shots that you
skills. both can use. And, of course, if you
If you enjoy photographing build- Looking Ahead hope to sell your work as art, then
ings, for example, you can make a In virtually any photography-related your portfolio must show that you've
career of it, hiring yourself out to ar- field, the key to getting started is to attained a high level of skill and crea-
chitectural and construction firms or put together a winning portfolio — tivity.
to design magazines. If you're very an elegant, professional collection of As you progress through this
precise and detail oriented, you might your best work. Your portfolio will course, it is a good idea to keep your
get into photographing art for tell a prospective employer or client long-range goals in mind. It's never
museums. If you like flying, you what you can do, so it should be of a too early to begin preparing for
might consider aerial photography. If consistently high standard — right them. Even if you have no interest in
you prefer swimming, consider down to the details of excellent print a photographic career, your portfo-
underwater photography. quality, good mounting technique lio is your own record of achieve-
There are career opportunities in and slick presentation. If you are ment. And you never know when it
photographic processing as well. fortunate enough to have some of may come in handy, so you may as
Here again, developing a specific set your photographs published (by a lo- well do it right.
of skills is recommended. Some pho- cal newspaper, for example, or even Effective presentation (and atten-
tographers specialize in a photo- in a school publication) these - tion to detail) is vitally important in
graphic style that requires certain called tear sheets (as in a torn-out any line of work. Mastering photo-
processes, such as antique style sepia- page) — should be included as well: graphic technique and preparing a
toned or hand-tinted prints. When Cut out the full page on which your good portfolio will teach you valu-
someone needs that particular style photograph appears and mount it as able skills which will serve you well,
for a magazine illustration or cor- you would a standard print, or slip it no matter what career you ultimately
porate annual report, a specialist will into a plastic sheet. (Use part of a choose.
generally be selected. The same rule page if the whole thing is too big to
applies to those who offer processing fit the size mat you're using for your
From Blurs to Big Business 31

31. part 2 Elements of Composition
Student photograph by Michael Grassia.
33

32. Student photograph.
34 The Photographic Eye

33. chapter 2 Tools
hotographic technology is
IP changing so fast that it is ut-
terly impossible to define
the standard tools-of-the-trade with
any degree of precision. Cameras
now in use range from clumsy boxes
with lots of knobs and dials to the
latest high-tech whiz-bang contrap-
tions which look like props from Star
Trek. Photographic images can now
be stored on an astonishing array of
films — plus CDs, computer disks
and video tape. By the time you read
this, it is likely other new technolo-
gies will have appeared, promising
even greater ease, efficiency and op-
portunities.
This is all well and good, but there
is also real value in understanding
the basic principles of photography
— and that is much easier to do with
the old fashioned, manual ap- If you choose your camera carefully and practice with it often, you'll soon
proach. True, it does take more time learn to use it with very little effort or conscious thought. It will become
to produce a photograph in this way. simply an extension of eyes and hands—responsive, accurate and
And potentially great shots can be comfortable. (Student photograph by Trevor Bredenkamp.)
missed while you fiddle with those
knobs and dials. But there is a writing with an antique fountain pen full of clever attachments and acces-
unique satisfaction in knowing ex- is infinitely preferable to tapping at a sories. In fact, odds are that you will
actly what your camera is doing and computer keyboard, there are bene- become a better photographer if you
why, controlling it to achieve the ef- fits to cameras that lack the latest begin with a second-hand, second-
fect you choose rather than merely automation. rate old clunker that looks like an
pointing and shooting. The essential point to all this is artifact from the Stone Age.
So, it is perhaps fortunate that that there's no need to worry if you Not everyone needs the same kind
technological advances take some can't afford to buy a slick new cam- of tool —whether that tool is a
time to settle in and push aside the era with all the bells and whistles, a camera or a musical instrument. A
past. Just as there are times when stash of fancy lenses and a suitcase concert violinist may require the best
35

34. violin money can buy, but a blues
singer may make fine music with an
old beat-up guitar. Similarly, some of
the world's best photographers use
the latest "high-tech" cameras; others
use antiques held together with rub-
ber bands and tape. The right choice
for most of us is somewhere between
these extremes.
Like any tool, each camera has a
"personality" —a mixture of oppor-
tunities and limitations that you con-
trol to express your personal vision.
The goal in selecting a camera is to
find one that does what you need it
to do, no more and no less. In other
words, the right camera for you is
one with a "personality" that matches
your own.
So, the first rule for choosing a Manual cameras provide a greater amount of creative control, especially
camera is to make the best of what with lighting. This photograph would have been virtually impossible with
you already have or can easily afford. most purely automatic cameras, since the lighting effect is not "normal."
After you become more experienced, (Student photograph.)
you'll be more able to decide exactly
what features you need. That's the used to make distant objects appear want to try other lenses, so it is a
time to invest in your particular closer. good idea to use a camera that will
dream machine. For now, however, The most popular and inexpensive allow you to do this. Once again,
use what you have. If you don't yet cameras have a fixed lens. A fixed however, it is not essential. If your
own a camera, buy the least expen- lens cannot be removed and, there- budget restricts you to a fixed-lens
sive one that meets your basic needs. fore, cannot be changed. Though not camera, you will still be able to take
The money you save can be spent on essential, interchangeable lenses can perfectly good photographs.
film and chemicals, which are far be a great asset.
more important at this stage than the Some modern cameras offer a Manual or Automatic
quality of your camera. compromise between fixed and inter- If you are buying a camera, you have
One thing that is important, no changeable lenses: permanently at- two basic choices: manual or
matter which camera you buy, is tached zooms. Others allow you to automatic. Manual cameras have
durability. No matter how careful switch from a wide-angle to a tele- been in use far longer than automatic
you are, your camera is likely to get photo lens, both of which are at- cameras, and they are still preferred
knocked around a bit. Get one that is tached to the camera body. by many professionals. They require
strong enough to take abuse. Generally, these kinds of lenses are you to load and wind the film, select
One of the most important dif- too limited to be very useful, but the shutter speed, set the aperture,
ferences among cameras is the lenses they'll do in a pinch. and focus. Automatic cameras will
that can be used with them. An inter- There is no need to rush out and do some or all of these things for you.
changeable lens can be removed from buy a telephoto or any other non- The big advantage of a manual
the camera body and replaced with standard lens immediately. For your camera is that you always control
another lens that produces a different first assignments, you will be using what it is doing. You make the deci-
effect. For example, a telephoto lens, only the standard 50mm lens. Even- sions, and the camera does what you
which works like a telescope, may be tually, however, you will probably
36 The Photographic Eye

35. what the camera is doing, you can use
the automatic light meter most of the
time and still learn how to use light
effectively. If you don't make that ef-
fort you won't learn much, and you'll
end up taking a lot of "normal" and
probably boring pictures.
If you are shooting a lot of "can-
dids" (quick, unposed photographs),
like most photojournalists, the
automatic option can be a big help —
since you won't miss a good shot or
annoy your subject while you fumble
with knobs and dials. If you're doing
a lot of still-life or nature photog-
raphy, or if you prefer to take your
time, as most art photographers do,
a manual camera will do just as well,
and will teach you more.
All the other automatic features
Automatic cameras are especially useful for "grab shots," when there's no are far less important. Loading and
time to fiddle with knobs and dials. By letting the camera make the winding the film manually will soon
technical decisions, the photographer is able to concentrate on getting the become second nature to you, so hav-
timing just right. (Student photograph by Lauren McDermott.) ing it done automatically is not much
of an advantage (unless you have
tell it to do. As a result, you will learn this may sound very appealing, there reason to be in a real hurry). Auto-
what works and what doesn't. You is a problem — and that problem is the focus is another asset for the "grab-
will also make mistakes (which is how "probably." shooter," though focusing shouldn't
you learn). The main disadvantage of As you become a more experienced take more than a split second once
a manual camera is the amount of photographer, you will sometimes you get the hang of it.
time required to set up a shot. disagree with your camera's choice.
Most manual cameras now avail- You may want a picture to be a bit What Format?
able in the 35mm format have a built- darker or lighter for effect, or the Most modern cameras use 35mm
in light meter. The meter informs you camera may be "confused" by a com- film. This is a relatively small format
of the lighting conditions, and you set plex lighting situation. With full that allows many frames to fit on a
the speed and aperture accordingly. automatic, there's not much you can single roll. As a result, it costs less per
Older cameras, and many studio do to change the camera's decision. shot than larger formats. In addition,
models, require you to use a hand- This is a poor choice for anyone the smaller format means the camera
held light meter to "read" the light, who really wants to learn about can be smaller and lighter, so it's
before you set the camera. photography. easier to carry and use.
Cameras with automatic light Manual-override offers a solution. There is one advantage to larger
metering also fall into two categories: When you're sure the camera will formats: the grain of the film. All
full automatic and manual-override. make the right decisions (i.e. when film stores images in tiny dots. When
A full automatic chooses the aperture you want a normal photograph in a the film is enlarged, the dots begin to
or shutter speed, or both, according normal lighting situation), you let the show. This is grain. If you are mak-
to a built-in computer that is pro- camera decide. When you disagree, ing a large print (such as for an ex-
grammed to make the decision you you set the camera manually. If you hibit or a full page in a magazine),
would probably make anyway. While make an effort to pay attention to grain can be a problem. Too much
Tools 37

36. Each kind of lens has its own characteristics and uses. The wide-angle lens used for this photograph produced a
slightly surreal effect. Much of the photograph's impact would have been lost with either a normal or a telephoto
lens. (Student photograph by John Berringer.)
grain reduces the image quality. It Choosing a Lens look the same as what you see with
begins to look "grainy." In many ways, choosing the right lens your own eyes. Whatever lenses you
For most uses, including most ex- or lenses is even more important than eventually buy, you will want to in-
hibit formats, the ease of using choosing the right camera. clude the 50mm range. (By the way,
35mm outweighs the drawbacks of Once you've selected some brand if you find 50mm lenses and 35mm
grain. And, as films continue to im- names you trust and can afford, you film confusing, don't worry. These
prove, grain is becoming less and less face another choice: which lenses to and other terms will gradually
of a problem. After you've devel- buy. Most cameras come equipped become familiar to you as you use
oped your skill and style, you may with a 50mm lens. This is the stan- them.)
want to move up to larger formats, dard lens for 35mm photography, If you have a choice (and you often
but you can decide that later. because it is closest to normal vision. won't) you might consider buying the
What you see through the camera will camera body and lens separately.
38 The Photographic Eye

37. This will enable you to choose a your photo career with only a wide- camera manufacturers make lenses
variable focal-length, or "zoom," lens angle or only a telephoto. It's per- for their cameras that you can trust
instead of a "fixed focal-length" lens. fectly all right to start it with only a to be as well-made as the cameras. In
As explained in Chapter 11, the 50mm. Once again, the best pro- addition, cameras with automatic
focal-length of a lens determines how cedure is probably to start simply, features may require that you stay
wide an area you can see through it. with just a standard lens, and add with the same brand when buying
In effect, the 50mm lens draws a box others as you decide you need them. lenses. However, many companies
within which objects are normal in If you are thinking of investing in produce lenses designed for use with
size and proportion. A shorter lens, more than one lens, review Chapter a variety of cameras. These may be
such as a 35mm, draws a larger box, 11 before making any decisions. as good as or better than the camera
and makes objects appear smaller manufacturer's own lenses and often
and somewhat "bent" or distorted. A What Price? cost less. Read the reviews in camera
longer lens, such as a 135mm, draws How much should you pay for a magazines and ask for the advice of
a smaller box, making objects appear camera? Well, it really depends on experienced photographers before
larger and more compressed (with what you can easily afford. Good you decide.
less space between them). With each cameras are available for as little as One final note on lenses: Buy a UV
fixed focal-length lens you have only $50. Top professional models can (ultraviolet) or a "skylight" filter for
one choice. cost several thousand dollars. each lens, attach it and leave it on at
With a zoom (variable focal- If your budget limits you to under all times. Either of these filters will
length) lens, you have many choices. $100, buy the best manual camera help a little to reduce haze under
A zoom lens is essentially several you can f i n d —perhaps a good some lighting conditions, but their
lenses in one. For example, if a zoom second-hand model. If you can af- real use is to protect the lens itself
lens ranges from 35mm to 135mm, ford more, take a careful look at the from damage. Should you acciden-
you will have the same choices as you $100 to $500 range, keeping in mind tally scratch the filter, it can be inex-
would if you bought the three focal- the features you care most about pensively replaced. Replacing the lens
lengths just mentioned (35mm, (automatic features, manual features, would of course be far more costly.
50mm and 135mm), plus all the durability, lenses), and buy the one
focal-lengths in between. that best suits you. A fully profes- Summary
Any good modern zoom lens will sional camera system —which you ab- There are only three key points you
match the image quality of a typical solutely do not need at this stage — i s need to understand at this point:
fixed focal-length lens. (Early zooms likely to cost over $1,000, depending First, start with the basics —a simple,
produced poor image quality at "in- on your choice of lenses. relatively inexpensive camera with a
between" focal-lengths, such as Before buying any camera, read 50mm lens. Ideally, your camera will
42mm. This problem has been cor- reviews of several in camera permit you to use other ("inter-
rected on most modern models.) You magazines (see the Bibliography for changeable") lenses as well. You
will, however, almost certainly lose names of some good ones). Ask should have at least one lens that
some of the lower (larger) apertures someone you know who does a lot of opens up to f/2.8, and all lenses
offered by fixed focal-length lenses. photography to give you some should have UV or skylight filters at-
Since a large aperture lets in more recommendations. Then make an in- tached. Second, choose a camera that
light than a small one, a zoom lens formed decision. includes manual controls for aperture
may limit your ability to photograph Selecting a lens may be more dif- and shutter-speed. Full manual is
in low-light situations or at high shut- ficult. The quality of the glass and fine; automatic features are nice ex-
ter speeds. construction varies considerably. A tras, but they are not necessary.
If your budget permits, it is useful cheap lens may result in photographs Third, make sure that both your
to have the three basic lens ranges: that are always out of focus, blurry camera and lens are manufactured by
wide-angle, "normal" (50mm), and around the edges or grainy. a reliable company. If you begin with
telephoto. However, the normal lens A good rule of thumb is to stick these essentials, you'll be well
is the most important. Do not start with the brand names you know. All equipped to learn photography.
Tools 39

38. Additional Tools tions for your camera available at all mini-computers. Many are utterly
Once you've selected a camera and times. If you are buying a new unlike the traditional models. Some
lens (or lenses), you have taken care camera, this will be easy. If not, you new ones, for example, come with a
of the big decisions. Later, you may may have to search a bit, or buy one built-in auto-winder and don't have
want to add other tools, such as a of the many books available describ- a film advance lever at all.
tripod and flash, but they can wait. ing different camera models. If you So, the following pages are not in-
Refer to Appendix 4 for more infor- can't locate instructions, have some- tended as a substitute for your
mation on them when the time one who knows the camera well show camera's manual. No one list can be
comes. There are, however, a few you how it works —and be sure to correct and complete for all camera
other inexpensive tools you'll need in take notes. brands and models. You may have to
order to get started. hunt a bit to locate some of the com-
As soon as you begin producing Basic Tools Checklist ponents on your camera, since each
photographs, you'll want to store The following tools are all you will model tends to have its little quirks.
your negatives and prints, to keep need to get started. Check to see that Check your own manual to be sure
them clean and organized. Plastic you have them, and that your camera that you know where each compo-
sheets specially designed for storing and lens meet the key requirements nent is located on your camera and
negatives are available that fit into a listed here: how it works.
standard three-ring binder. Buy a box The following pages are intended
Camera Requirements
of these and a binder to file them in. as a summary of the basic com-
Durability
Immediately after developing and ponents of a typical, traditional
Manual Aperture & Shutter-
drying each roll of film, you will cut camera. This will give you an idea of
Speed Controls
the roll into shorter lengths (five how your camera compares to most
Reliable Manufacturer
frames each) and slip them into the others.
Interchangeable Lens
negative file. The next step is to place You may not find all of the com-
Capability
the film directly onto a piece of ponents that are listed here, either
photographic paper to make a con- Lens Requirements because they are not included in your
tact print (see Appendix 1 for ex- Standard Focal-Length camera or because they have been
planation). With a plastic negative (50mm) replaced by an automatic feature. It
file, this can be done directly. Paper 172.8 is still a good idea to become familiar
files are also available. They require Reliable Manufacturer with all of them. Understanding each
you to remove the film to make a _ UV Filter component of a traditional camera
contact print, however, so are not as will help you understand how even
Additional Tools
easy to use as plastic sheets. the simplest or most automatic
Plastic Negative Files
Similar sheets are available for camera works. And knowing how a
Plastic Print Sheets
storing prints. If your photo store camera works is vital to using it well.
Grease Pencil
doesn't carry them, you can probably As you read this section, compare
find them in an office supply store. Operations Manual or Other
each description with your own
Any plastic sheet that will hold Instructions for Camera
camera. Be sure to have your own
8'/2" x 11" paper, with holes for a THE CAMERA, INSIDE camera's manual on hand to clarify
three-ring binder, will do fine. & OUT any questions. Look for each compo-
You will also want an ordinary nent as it is described, and try it out.
grease pencil (yellow or white) to Most 35mm cameras are fairly similar Do not put film into the camera un-
mark your contacts when you're in the design and placement of key til instructed to do so.
deciding which frames to print. controls. For example, the film ad-
Grease pencil marks show up well vance lever (the "winder") is generally
in the darkroom, and they can be on the top right, next to the shutter
rubbed off if you change your mind. release. Advances in electronics,
Finally, be sure to have the instruc- however, are turning cameras into
40 The Photographic Eye

39. The Camera Body: Outside
• Viewfinder
The first thing to look at on your
camera is the part that allows you to
look through it. The viewfinder, in
simplest terms, is just a rectangular
window that shows you what will be
in your photograph when you click
the shutter. (Actually, viewfinders
generally show you a bit less than
you'll actually get. This is usually an
advantage, as it gives you a little
"slack" when you're making a print.)
Your viewfinder is probably quite
a bit more than just a window,
however. It certainly will include
some kind of focusing aid. One com-
mon focusing aid is a split circle
(called a split-image focusing screen)
in which out-of-focus objects do not
line up correctly. Another common
kind is a series of circles (called a
ground-glass focusing screen) that go
in and out of focus as you turn the
focusing ring on the lens.
The split-image screen is especially
helpful if you're at all nearsighted. To
use it, you simply adjust the focus-
ing ring until both sides of the circle
line up. It works best when the split
is placed across a line of some kind,
such as an eyelid or a branch, so you
can see what you're lining up.
In addition, most modern cameras
use the sides of the viewfinder to
show you important information.
This may include the aperture of your
lens, the camera's shutter-speed,
Tools 41

40. whether the camera is in manual or You must remember to change the
automatic mode, whether your flash ISO setting every time you use a dif-
has recharged, etc. ferent kind of film. If you are using
Take some time to explore your any automatic exposure system, your
viewfinder. If you aren't certain what camera will base its decisions on the
everything in it means, consult the ISO setting you've selected. If it's
user's manual for your camera or ask wrong, all your photos will be incor-
an experienced photographer. rectly exposed.
The same holds true for the cam-
era's internal light meter. If you're • Shutter-Speed Control
setting the shutter speed or aperture The shutter-speed control is almost
according to the meter, your ex- always on the top right of the camera.
posures will only be correct if the ISO It determines how long the shutter
setting is correct. Even if you're do- will remain open for each photo-
ing everything manually, the ISO set- graph. It is simply a timer. When you
ting is an important reminder of what press the shutter release, the shutter
kind of film you're using. opens, light enters through the lens,
To change the ISO setting, you and the timer begins counting. When
generally turn a knob that moves the the shutter has been open for the
• ASA/ISO numbers through the indicator win- amount of time you have selected, it
The first step of any photo assign- dow. You may first need to press a closes again. The numbers on the
ment is to set the correct film speed. button, lift the knob or otherwise shutter-speed control indicate frac-
This will be listed on the film carton, release a lock designed to prevent you tions of a second (60 = 1760 of a sec-
or box, (and also on the canister, the from changing the setting acciden- ond, and so on), so the timer has to
metal container holding the film) as tally. On many modern cameras, count very quickly.
ASA or ISO. These two terms are you'll change the ISO by pressing a The most commonly used shutter
used to describe the same thing: the button until the right number comes speeds are probably 60 and 125. Both
film's sensitivity to light. In fact they up in a display panel. Some cameras are fast enough to stop most action
often appear together, as ASA/ISO. will set the ISO for you automat- with a 50mm lens, while allowing for
ISO is becoming the more common ically, reading the proper setting from a fairly small aperture in most
term, however, so we'll be using it a code on the film canister. (Film that lighting conditions.
throughout this book. (Both "ASA" has been coded for this purpose is Notice that 125 (or 1/125 of a sec-
and "ISO" are the initials of labeled "DX.") ond) is almost exactly twice as fast as
organizations —the American Stan- Locate the ISO indicator on your 60 (or 1/60 of a second). The next
dards Association and the Interna- camera. Adjust the setting to see how speed above 125 is 250— twice as fast
tional Standards Organization —that low and high it goes. Professional again. Depending on your camera,
establish scientific measurements.) cameras will provide ISO settings as the highest speed may be 1000 or even
The ISO indicator is generally built low as 6 and as high as 6400. Many higher, fast enough to "freeze" a bird
into the rewind knob, on the left side popular models have a range of 12 to in flight or a race car at the Indy 500.
of the top of the camera. The ISO 3200. Don't worry if yours doesn't go Moving down from 60, the next
numbers are usually visible through as high or as low as that. Most films speed is 30. Again depending on your
a little window in the rewind knob. fall between ISO 25 and 1200. camera, the shutter speeds may go as
Each number is usually double the Once you've checked out the limits low as 1, for 1 second. Some cameras
preceding number: 25, 50, 100, 200, of your camera's ISO indicator, set provide even longer automatically
400, 800, etc. Dots between the it to ISO 125. This is the speed for timed exposures, even as long as a
numbers indicate settings in between Kodak's Plus-X film, which you will minute or more.
these numbers. So, for example, ISO be using in your first assignment. The last indicator on the shutter-
125 is one dot above ISO 100. speed control should be a "B." This

41. stands for "bulb." In the early days
of photography, the shutter was
released by squeezing a rubber bulb,
and it stayed open as long as the bulb
was squeezed. The photographer had
to decide when enough light had
entered the camera, and then let go
of the bulb to close the shutter. Since
film was very slow in those days, that
wasn't as hard as it sounds. • Film Advance Lever • Rewinder
Today, although everything about The film-advance lever (or winder) is Once you've released the film lock,
the cameras we use is far more com- generally located directly behind the you'll need to crank the film back in-
plex, this term remains the same. The shutter release, making it easy to to its canister, using the rewind knob
"B" simply means that the shutter will click-and-wind quickly. on the left side of the camera's top.
remain open as long as the release is Try turning the winder (counter- Generally, a small crank is lifted out
held down. This is useful for very clockwise). If it doesn't move more of the rewind knob for this purpose.
long exposures, primarily at night. than an inch, press the shutter There should be an arrow indicating
To use the "B" setting, you will release. You should hear a sharp that the crank turns clockwise, in case
almost certainly need to use a tripod click. Then try the winder again. It you get confused. As you rewind the
and a cable release, which (like the should swing easily out to the side of film, it is a good idea to keep your
old-fashioned bulbs) is used to avoid the camera and snap back into place finger on the rewind release button so
shaking the camera. when you let go of it. If you had film it doesn't lock again and tear the
in the camera, you would have just film's sprocket holes.
taken a photograph and advanced the • Battery Compartment
film to the next frame. Another important component is
• Rewind Release generally located on the bottom of
As you wind film through the the camera: the battery compart-
camera, it travels from its canister (on ment. If yours is there, it will prob-
the left) to the "take-up reel" below ably have a round metal cover with
the advance lever (on the right). a slit in it. To open the compartment,
When you reach the end of a roll, the you place the edge of a coin (a penny
lever will jam. You will no longer be works well) into the slit and turn it
able to turn it easily. The next step counter-clockwise. When the cover is
• Shutter Release is to rewind the film back into the removed, a small packet with one or
Next to the shutter-speed control (top canister. two coin-shaped batteries should slide
right of the camera) you should find Before you can do that, you'll need out. These batteries are very sensitive
the shutter release. It is simply a but- to release the lock that keeps the film and may not work if you get dust or
ton which, when pressed, triggers the from slipping backwards by acci- fingerprints on them. So treat them
shutter mechanism. (Note: On some dent. Remove the camera from its carefully. Fortunately, your batteries
cameras, the shutter release is pressed case and look on the bottom of the rarely need changing.
part-way down to measure the light camera body. You should find a If you found a round metal cover
or "freeze" the aperture setting.) small button directly below the film with a slit in it, but did not find any
advance lever. batteries under it, then you've prob-
Pressing this button will release the ably just discovered your camera's
lock, so you can rewind the film. motor-drive connector. This is a gear
(Until there is film in the camera, that connects a separate motor-drive
however, it won't have any effect, so unit to your camera's film advance
don't bother testing it yet.) mechanism. (To learn more about
Tools 43