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Impact of continuing professional development (cpd) of teachers in information and communication technology to learning science
1. TITLE PAGE
ATTITUDE OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS ON THE IMPACT OF
CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT (CPD) OF TEACHERS
IN INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY TO
LEARNING SCIENCE
BY
ABDULLAHI AMINAT
NOU 060241125
MINNA STUDY CENTER
BEING ORIGINAL PROJECT SUBMITTED TO SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, LAGOS, IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER
OF EDUCATION IN SCIENCE EDUCATION
JUNE 2010
1
2. CERTIFICATION
This thesis by Aminat Abdullahi has met the requirements for the
award of master of Education degree in science education of the National
Open University of Nigeria, and is approved for its contribution to knowledge.
…………………………. …………………………….. ……………….
DR. D.I WUSHISHI SIGNATURE DATE
(Supervisor)
…………………………. …………………………….. ……………….
DR. FRANCIS GANA SIGNATURE DATE
(Centre Manager)
…………………………. …………………………….. ……………….
(External Examiner) SIGNATURE DATE
…………………………. …………………………….. ……………….
(HOD Science Education) SIGNATURE DATE
2
3. DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to Mrs. Habibat Onu Suleiman for her
financial, moral, continual and unrelenting support. My Kids Fadilah, Safiya
and Mustapha. The memory of my late mother Hauwa and Husband Bello
Abdullahi. May Allah grant their souls al-jannatul firdaus.
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4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All praise and appreciation goes to Allah (S.W.T) who bestowed his
protection, guidance and mercies on me, who also granted me patience,
wisdom and knowledge in completing the thesis and studies in spite of all
odds. This work has been successful through the immerse guidance,
experience and expert supervision of Dr. D.I Wushishi of the department of
Science education, Federal University of technology, for his assistance all
through the processes of questionnaire designing and data analysis. During
this processes, he had offered invaluable suggestions and criticisms,
invaluable role of proof reading the thesis and providing necessary guidance,
correction and very useful suggestions which saw the thesis through to
completion.
My profound gratitude goes to my ever supporting sister Hajaratu and
her Husband, Moh‟d Suleiman for their overwhelming moral support. I will
also say „thank You‟ to my dear Husband Mal Salihu Isah Lemu for his moral
support which has rekindled my life. I am also indebted to Aisha Suleiman for
her patience and assistance accorded to me during the process of data
analysis. My indebtedness also goes to Aisha Mohammed a Colleague, a
friend and confidant for her understanding throughout the period of my
studies. My sincere gratitude goes to all the principals, H.O.D science and
computer teachers and students of the schools visited for this study. „Thank
you‟ to Fatima L. Yakubu C.B.N Abuja for her financial and moral support
4
5. accorded to me. I am most grateful to all my family members for the moral
support given to me throughout the period of my studies.
I am also grateful to all my colleagues and members of staff of
ETF/CERC. Most especially Sala Emmanuel Yisa head of computer unit ETF
for his patience, endurance and unrelenting assistance and guidance given
to me in the laboratory when sourcing for data and Abdulkadir K. Ibrahim for
being there for me anytime I needed his assistance. My appreciation also
goes to Mr. Suleiman Agboola Head of ICT ERC Minna for his necessary
correction and pain taken to see to the successful completion of the analysis.
I am also indebted and grateful to my typist Emmanuel Chinedu Okonkwo of
Federal University of Technology Minna. I will not fail to acknowledge my late
brother Dr. Suleiman Danjuma Suleiman for his inspiration and
encouragement to embark on this course may Allah grant him al-jannatul
firdaus.
My special gratitude goes to the entire members of staff of National
Open University of Nigeria minna study centre for their encouragement most
especially Mrs. S.A. Alao, the centre‟s manger Dr. Francis Gana and Ndagi.
Alhamdullilah.
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6. ABSTRACT
This research is on the attitude of secondary school students on the impact
of continuing professional development of teachers in information and
communication technology to learning science. Four schools were used for
this study namely El-Amin International College, New Horizon College,
Himma International College and Hill-Top Model School. Descriptive survey
method using a questionnaire tagged “QICPDTICTASSSS” was used for
data collection. It was validated by three experts and by pilot tested using
test retest method. The reliability was calculated using the pearson product
moment correlation coefficient and coefficient of relation (rxx) 0.89 was
obtained. The results were calculated using simple distribution table, Anova
and Scheffe‟s Test using statistical package for social sciences (SPSS)
software. The results obtained showed significant differences in the attitude
of students to the impact of continuing professional development of teachers
in information and communication technology to learning of science. It was
recommended that teacher training and professional development oriented
policies should be made by government to support ICT related teaching
models.
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7. CHAPTER ONE
1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Technology has changed the way people live, work and learns.
The use of technology in education is one of the main challenges for
education policy makers (Zalzadeh, 2006). Traditional methods of
education are no longer able to meet the needs of today‟s learner.
New technologies provide opportunities, including the ability to tailor
learning to the individual (Aminpoor, 2007). In view of the above
statement, there is need for continuing education of teachers to meet
these global challenges of technology to make teaching and learning
more meaningful.
However, professional development have attracted increasing
attention in recent years (Anna Craft,2000) faced with rapid change,
demand for high standards calls for improving quality of teachers and
the need to update and improve their skills through professional
development. Recently, there are pressures at national and school
levels of professionalism in information and communication
technology. These arise from the demand for increased quality and the
need to implement the national curriculum. The interest in Information
and Communication Technology (ICT) is hardly surprising given the
worldwide impact ICT is having on many aspect of modern life
especially in the field of education. Harnessing the power of ICT to
support education is a major challenge, for not only is the technology
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8. itself changing very rapidly, but education systems are culturally
bound. Fullan (1991) highlighted the possibilities of bringing about
changes in education through a deliberate process. In many parts of
the world, several initiatives appear to have had little impact, despite
significant investment in the expectation that it will improve the quality
of teaching and learning thereby having positive effect on the student
attitude. It is now widely accepted that effective use of ICT cannot be
merely introducing teachers to the technology. Harland and Kinder
(1997) suggests the need for professional development initiative to
bring about planned change.
The rapid development of ICT and having easy access to
information through the e-mail and internet is one that is inextricably
linked with modern education. As ICT is a resource to learning,
science is primarily about methods of doing science and not ICT but
students should learn how to develop scientific skills and learn about
its role, function, application, preservation and processing using the
ICT. The science teacher is not an ICT specialist and is not expected
to teach ICT as his specialism. However, like every other teacher, they
are required to support student‟s use of ICT within their subject. The
more confident and competent the science teacher is with the ICT, the
more likely he will be able to incorporate the latest, most up-to-date
and accurate resource s of ICT into his teaching. Godfrey (2001)
states that to become confident, critical and creative user of ICT,
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9. Teachers must have access to professional development programs
that enables them to have multiple skills, both in the use of technology
and in task design (p.16). Therefore teachers need not only the ICT
skills but also the models of the best practice and knowledge to
support learning. They need to understand the rationale for integrating
ICT into learning environments and interpreting curriculum documents
to make decisions about designing, delivering, managing and
evaluating instruction.
Jegede (2004) p.66 says, continuing professional development must
be created to re-skill the potential teacher, re-motivate the interested
teacher, retain the dedicated teacher and retain the practicing
teacher. It is a known fact that computer which is the major tool used
in ICT especially in the classroom depends on the attitude towards
computers {Lawton and Gerschner, 1982). Several studies states that
teachers attitude, knowledge and skills in using computers are major
factors affecting their initial acceptance of computer technology and
their future behavior regarding computer usage (violato, mariniz and
Hunter, 1989; koohang, 1989). Office of technology assessment of
the united states congress (OTA) states that a number of teachers
with access to computers purposely avoid integrating technology into
their instruction because of their lack of training, while Bulkeley
commented that few teachers publicly criticize computer for fear of
appearing technologically backwards, but many ignore the machines
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10. after one or more frustrating experiences. These fast growing use of
new technologies in schools means that modes of professional
learning are opening for the teachers to equip themselves with all the
knowledge and technical no-how {application} needed to carry out
this operation. The use of these computers without providing teachers
with professional development time to learn equipment operations
and application will eventually make the teacher to be scape goat.
Several studies have been carried out on the assessment of attitude
of students towards computer and it was found that students who
received computer training were found to have a better understanding
in the computer assisted teaching than the students who have not
received any computer training. However, Johnson and Rising (1972)
reported that computer programming helps students to learn how to
solve problems systematically, carefully and in details, and helps to
transfer acquired skills to other similar situation. They further
explained that computer helps students to develop positive attitude,
desirable interest and appreciation.
Hoyle, (1983) said, the introduction of ICT into the educational
system has been hailed as a major catalyst of the long dreamed about
educational revolution, especially as ICT is designed to serve as a
major vehicle for improving the efficiency of the educational process (
Jones and Knezek, 1993). Offir-et-al. (1994) described the historical
development of ICT use in the educational process and indicated that
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11. since the introduction of ICT, the traditional open courseware
continuum succinctly and accurately depicts the progress made in the
use of ICT for learning and instruction. The traditional open continuum
provides an insight as to how ICT approaches evolved and developed
as educational media since the early 1960s. Offir et al (1993) reported
that in the early days of ICT use in the school classroom, traditional
computer assisted instruction (CAI) based on rigid and „closed‟ drill
and practice, was the dominant ICT approach. When poignant
questions were raised regarding the relative advantages and
effectiveness of drill and practice over more traditional and instruction
approaches, more flexible and open learning and instruction program
were developed and introduced into educational system. The use of
spreadsheet (Dreyfus et al, 1997) contributes to the enhancement of
learner independence and creativity, and provides students with
sophisticated graphical assistance that promotes the understanding of
complicated subject matter. According to (Appelberg, 1997) database
provides students with the opportunity of enriching their knowledge
and comprehension of subject matter by facilitating the ability to
conduct comprehensive searches for sources hitherto available only in
libraries and museums. However, the introduction of the use of
spreadsheets and databases in the educational process contributed to
the promotion of improved learning and instruction and increased
effectiveness in the educational process.
11
12. Simulations which is sophisticated, progressive and improved
form of ICT are equally used as learning instruction. (Offir and katz,
1994),said, through simulations teachers are able to provide their
students with realistic models of subject matter as experienced in real
life situations thereby facilitating students understanding and mastery.
Thus, simulations enhances ICT mediated learning by providing an
added dimension that closes the gap between theoretical subject
matter and the application of knowledge to real life situations.
However, the steady evolution of ICT (radio, television, interactive
video, electronic mail, World Wide Web) has considerably influenced
the development of learning (Jones and Knezek, 1995). Passing and
Levin (2000) provided an in-depth analysis of multimedia packages
and stated that when using multimedia approaches in learning the
student does not only study the subject matter but also learn how to
deal with the synthetically programmed environment. The ease of use
and the uniformity of the multimedia interface have significant
implications for both teacher and student, since they provide a
platform for a higher level of motivation, concentration and
understanding of the content being studied. Multimedia of educational
packages attempt to provide a clear consistent and attractive ICT
platform, which contributes towards the ability of teachers and
students to reach excellence through user friendly instruction and
learning approaches.
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13. ICT use in education can be described as a major breakthrough
for teaching, learning and instruction. In a series of studies, a number
of researchers (Chandra et al, 1988; Karz and Offir, 1991; Offir and
Karz, 1990) as well as numerous others, testified to the existence of
psychological attitudes held by elementary and secondary school
teachers towards the use of ICT as an instructional approach.
Research studies have established that psychological attitudes such
as independence, creativity, tough-mindedness, sociability, risk taking,
stimulus and sensation seeking are key attitudes connected with
effective ICT use. Similar situations have been found with elementary
and secondary school (Dunn and Ridgway, 1991; Katz, 1993; Katz,
1995; Karz and Offir, 1990). Students who held attitudes such as
positive self-image, positive social-image, independence in learning
process, self-confidence in the learning, satisfaction with learning
internal locus of control, level of control of learning, creativity and
motivation for study were significantly more positive towards the use of
ICT than students who are not typified by the same traits.The use of
technology (ICT) to teach students in the classroom challenges the
students in learning to think, interact and solve problems, learn how to
learn with the aid of technology. Using ICT equally challenges the
students to use higher level thinking skills and become active seekers
rather than passive receivers of information.Using ICT enhances
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14. student‟s collaborative construction of meaning via different
perspective on shared experiences (Chan, Burtis and Bereiter, 1997).
ICT enables students to utilize modeling and visualization as powerful
means of bridging between experience and abstraction (Gordin and
Pea, 1995).
Dertouzes and Gates (1998) reported that in developed
countries, computers and telecommunications are on the verge of
reshaping the mission, objectives, content and processes of schooling.
This is the part of a larger change in those nations from loosely,
coupled, mature industrial economies to a profoundly interconnected,
knowledge based global market (Thurow, 1999). Since one of the
educational goal is to prepare students for work and citizenship the
introduction of ICT in schools (primary and secondary) are attempting
to change their policies, practices and curriculum to meet the
challenge of making student ready for a future quite different than the
immediate past.
Furthermore, culminating ICT as a teaching aid encourages
users to rely not only upon stored knowledge, but also on uniquely
human reasoning and problem solving skills. Anita Cox remarks that
this form of technology will become more widespread and visible in
response to education‟s increasing need to prepare students for work
in the information age. These challenges will in turn make the
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15. students to realize the importance of life long learning and become
motivated participants in the world and the workplace of the future.
Computer assisted Instruction (CAI) programs are being used in
schools as a supplement to traditional instruction. CAI is a spectrum
of computer technologies that assist the teaching and learning
process. Example of CAI applications include guided drills and
practice exercises, computer visualization of complex objects and
computer facilitated communication between students and teachers.
Several programs are used for courses (chemistry, physics,
geography, mathematics etc). These programs simulate the setting
of laboratory apparatus and also guides the students through the
steps required to complete the procedure (De la cuetara and Lamba,
1995). Some programs are equally used to increase the students
understanding of specific topics. Such as Animal pathfinders that
illustrates specific application of scientific method (Matray and Proulx,
1995).
Computer assisted instruction (CAI) enhances the learning rate
of students. The students learn faster with CAI than the conventional
instruction. Capper and Copple (1985) stated that CAI users
sometimes learn as much as 40% faster than those receiving the
teacher directed instruction. Using ICT in the teaching and learning
indicates that self esteem is enhanced and improves behavior. It
equally assists in exploring new opportunities for improving classroom
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16. practice. It makes lessons more stimulating, enjoyable, interactive and
gives room for appropriate selection of technologies. Students have a
positive attitude to learning as they retain their learning better
[Bialo and Sivin 1990;Maverech and Rich 1985; Robertson,et
al.1987,Rupe 1986]. Evarest .C. (2004) stated the following impact
that ICT has on the students
1. With online teaching /learning, students can work independently with
customized instruction and at his/her own place.
2. It increases the student‟s independence and motivation for self
directed study.
3. It increases the student‟s commitment to the learning risk.
4. It assists in exploring new opportunities for improving class room
practice.
Other potential benefits of ICT (using CAI) includes:
1. It also makes students to have more of internal locus of control or
sense of self efficiency.(Capper and Copper 1985,kinnaman 1990 and
Lovie1985).
2. Students have better attendance. Capper and copper, rupees 1986
and 1990 ISTE.
3. Students have higher rate of motivation or time on task (Bialo and
Sivin, 1990; Capper and Copper 1985).
16
17. 4. Students exhibit higher rate of cooperation or collaboration and
presocial behavior (Dickson, 1986,Maverech, Stern and Levita, 1987;
and Rupe, 1986).
Having seen the relevance of ICT in education, there is need for
continuing development of teachers to meet this enormous task of
technology. However, it has argued for creating a collaborative
professional learning environment for successful school improvement
and the first order of business for those seeking to enhance the
effectiveness of teaching and learning (Eastwood and Louis,
1992:215).The department for education and employment (DfEE,
2001) in their professional strategy suggests that effective
professional learning should be focused on classroom practice,
collaborative learning together, learning from the best and learning
from what works. By so doing, an ultimate change in practice will be
achieved. Education of teachers both at pre-service and in-service
through professional learning is recognized as being the major catalyst
for change (Finger, Russell, Jamieson-Procter and Russell, 2006).
Teacher on continuous training of ICT will build more confidence,
competence and develop appropriate skills in handling curriculum.
The Research on teacher‟s education has consistently stressed
the need to regularly provide opportunities for teachers to improve
their knowledge of the subject matter they teach and the teaching
skills they learned in the pre-service courses they attended. Recent
17
18. research conducted by Tee Kay educational consultancy services
done on behalf of Universal Basic Education Commission (UBEC),
NCCE, National Teachers Institute (NTI), Teachers Registration
Council (TRC) and world Bank revealed that their exist wide or major
gaps in the present NCE and degree curricular in the following areas;
computer education, small scale research technique, health and
environmental studies, resource management, skills for teaching
multigrade classes, National curriculum modules and sexuality
education. These gaps have urgent implication for pre-service training.
For those already trained needs to be followed up with in-service
continuing professional development programme to correct the
deficiencies and broaden their horizon. Fitzallen and Brown (2006)
carried out a research on the factors that impact on successful teacher
implementation of professional learning while incorporating the
Schulman‟s essential teacher knowledge (1982 a,b) which Identifies
three interconnecting categories.
a. Teacher knowledge (including knowledge of; content and curriculum,
teacher characteristic, ICT content, application of ICT in context).
b. Teacher dispositions (confidence, previous success, engagement in
reflection.
c. External factors (background, professional learning, time and access).
until these interlinking contents are considered the full promise of
digital content may not be realized. Professional learning is insufficient
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19. in itself for the adoption of ICT into teaching and professional practice,
teacher belief, confidence and expertise (Jamieson- proctor and
Finger, 2006; Phelps, Graham and Kerr, 2004; Albion, 1999). Having
access to appropriate equipment and infrastructure have been
identified to be an added advantage (Norris and Soloway, 2000).
With the present pace of dispensational development, ICT is
said to be a vital tool which teachers, students and lecturers must
equip themselves with, if they must move with the trend of global
awareness to enhance their teaching skills and improve their learning
abilities. Just as computer has played vital roles in many aspect of life
such as transportation, communication, national defense, material
production and scientific research, it has also become the fastest
reliable way of communication between teachers and students in our
education today. Using computers as an aided instruction is the best
way and the fastest object of instruction in today‟s world. Computers
also serve as a medium of teaching and learning methods to students
thereby bringing the close understanding between the two. Madu
(2002) reported that there is an increasing awareness of the potentials
for the use of ICT in education and the information technologies are
tools used to produce, store, process, disseminate; and exchange
information.
The need for continuing professional development (CPD) has the
following advantages
19
20. 1. To improve the job performance skills of the whole staff or group of
staffs
2. To improve the job performance skills of an individual teacher.
3. To extend the experience of an individual teacher for career
development or promotion.
4. To develop the professional knowledge and understanding of an
individual teacher.
5. To enable teachers to anticipate and prepare for change (Anna Crafts,
2000).
6. CPD may enable practitioners to widen their understanding of society,
especially information and communication technology (Bland ford,
2000). A lot of these training have been offered to Nigerian teachers
through workshops, seminars and conferences in ICT appreciation
and programming. This raises the need to assess the impact of CPD
of teachers on ICT Minna metropolis.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Education is generally acknowledged as one of the crucial allies of the
development process. Therefore educational policy makers and social
planners, in recognition of it‟s potentials for leveraging existing social
stratifications have placed a huge premium on the development of the
education sector. This is reflected in the emphatic resonance in the
National Policy on education (NPE, 2004) that „no nation can rise
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21. above the quality of its education systems‟. Based on this evident
truth, the national policy formulators recommend, as a priority, the
training of those responsible for faciliting the education of Nigerians in
the development planning process. On this, the National policy on
education unequivocally focuses attention to all aspects of education
planning, because of its teachers. This view was crystallized by lassa
(2000) and the roles that they play in the educative process to (basic)
education, particularly in third world countries. However, the challenge
of teacher training appears to be the most daunting challenge facing
the education system in general. Researchers have observed that out
of all the educational problems that beset the African continent today,
none is as persistent or compelling as the one relating to the training
of competent teachers who directly and indirectly is bound to influence
the quality and quantity of services provided by other teachers and
professors, as poor teachers tend to produce their own kind (Fafunwa
1967; Afe, 1999) in Afe 2000).
As new technologies transform classroom and laboratories,
academics will have to learn, change or improve their teaching styles
and every body will need some necessary ICT skills regardless of their
interest or their employment. Tools that incorporate ICT will undertake
many specialist tasks, learning to perform these task and using the
tools will be part of education.
21
22. In Nigeria, teachers have been trained in several for a in ICT
teaching and learning especially in programmes organized by
UNESCO and UNICEF and government also occasionally organizes
ICT training for teachers of primary and secondary schools. As a result
of these, this study attempts to investigate the impact of continuing
professional development of teachers on the attitude of secondary
school students to learning science. It will also investigate the
difference between senior secondary school (SSS)1, SSS 2 and SSS
3 students attitude on the impact of CPD of teachers in ICT to learning
science. It will also do the same on variables such as age groups and
male and female students.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The main purpose of the study is to find out the impact of continuing
professional development of teachers in information and
communication technology (computers) on secondary school student‟s
attitude to learning science. Specifically, this research is designed to
Investigate the difference between the impact of continuing
professional development of teachers on student‟s attitude to learning
science in relation to variables such as class level, age of students
and gender of students.
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23. 1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. What is the attitude of secondary school students on the impact
of continuing professional development of teachers in
information and communication Technology to learning science?
2. What are the differences between SSS1, SSS2 and SSS3
student‟s attitude on the impact of continuing professional
development of teachers in information and communication
Technology to learning science?
3. Are there differences between student‟s age groups (13-15years
and 16-18years) attitude on the impact of continuing
professional development of teachers in information and
communication Technology to learning science?
4. What would be the difference between male and female
student‟s attitude on the impact of continuing professional
development of teachers in information and communication
Technology to learning science?
1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
Ho.1 There is no significant difference between SSS1, SSS2
and SSS3 student‟s attitude on the impact of continuing
professional development of teachers in information and
communication Technology to learning science.
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24. Ho.2 There is no significant difference between students age
groups(13-15years and 16-18years) attitude on the
impact of continuing professional development of teachers
in information and communication Technology to learning
science
Ho.3 There is no significant difference between male and
female student‟s attitude on the impact of continuing
professional development of teachers in information and
communication Technology to learning science.
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study would benefit the Federal ministry of Education, National
Teachers institute (NTI), National Board for Technical Education
(NBTE), Nigeria University commission (NUC), proprietors of private
schools, principals, teachers, lecturers, students and users of
information and communication technology facilities to designed
appropriate curricular materials for teaching and learning of science by
the use of ICT. This study will be a guide to curriculum developers of
science to develop and integrate ICT in to learning and interpreting
curriculum documents to make decisions about designing, delivering,
managing and evaluating instruction. Through continuing professional
development, teachers will also benefit in getting new and better ways
24
25. of improving their methods and techniques of teaching. Students will
not only learn how to use computers, but effectively use it through the
internet to learn outside the class and beyond the given syllabus. They
will be able to access the web ICT for course information, such as
course outline, objectives, information about assessment and note for
the subject. This study will serve as a yardstick for Federal
Government, National Teachers Institute (NTI), National Board for
Technical education (NBTE), and Universal Basic Education (UBE) to
evaluate the achievement of the set national educational objectives.
1.7 SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY
This study will cover all the students in secondary schools in Minna
metropolis but specifically restricted to students from Himma, New
Horizon College, El-Amin International Schools and Hill-Top Model
Schools Minna. This is because the schools have computer
laboratories and have teachers that went on CPD in ICT.
1.8 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
There are limited literature about CPD of teachers in Nigeria, so
it limits the scope of generalization of the findings of this study.
Samples are drawn mostly from among private secondary school
students in Minna Niger State, because most of the public schools
have no computers and their teachers have received limited or no
CPD on ICT. .
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26. CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 INTRODUCTION
The importance of continuing professional development (CPD) cannot
be over –emphasized, especially in field as vital as education. Only by
continually arming oneself with the latest research techniques and
knowledge in the profession can one hope to stay effective in one‟s
career.
Any training programme is thus concerned with improved ways of
doing things of carrying out various activities in a professional manner.
The contribution of the ICT can be very useful tool for the development
of skills on it provides effective training programme which can be
attributed to its capacity for stimulation, model-building and interactive
adaptation. This usage applies not only to subjects like sciences but
also to various aspects of professional courses like engineering and
teacher training. The concept of life long education is associated with
a learning society, in the contemporary society; the end of formal
education does not mean the end of one‟s learning.
The University of Wisconsin –Madison in 1907 was the first academic
institution in the united state to offer an identifiable continuing
education program (schugurensky, Daniel (1907). In 1969, Empire
state college, a unit of the state university of New York, was also the
26
27. first institution in the united state to exclusively focus on providing
higher education to adult learners. While in 1976, the University of
Florida created its own division of continuing Education and most
courses were offered on evenings or weekends to accommodate the
schedule of working student‟s .Hopkins, Ainscow and west, 1994;
southworth 1994; Sammons, Hillman and mortimore, 1995; Green,
1999) reported that learning is a worth while process and not a static
or bounded process, however learning of education professionals
throughout ones career is essential. These researchers, commentators
and policy makers equally explained that teacher‟s development to
raising of pupils standards of achievement is a central policy.
Generally, continuing professional development is acknowledged to be
centrally important in maintaining and enhancing the quality of
teaching and learning in schools (craft 2000, Harland and Kinder 1997,
Harri 2002). The International research literature has consistently
shown that professional development is an essential component of
successful school level change and development (day, 1999b,
Hargreaves 1994).It has confirmed that where teachers are able to
access new ideas and to share experiences more readily, there are
greater potentials for schools and classroom improvement .Improving
schools, invest in the development of staff and create opportunities
for teachers to collaborate and to share best practice. Evidence also
suggests that attention to teacher learning can impact directly upon
27
28. improvements in student learning and achievement. Teachers expand
and develop their own teaching repertoires and are clear in their
purposes, it is more likely that they will provide an increased range of
learning opportunities for students (Joyce et al,1999). The research
literature demonstrate that professional development can have a
positive impact on curriculum, pedagogy as well as teachers sense of
commitment and their relationship with students (Talbert and
McLaughlin 1994).
Several and resent research has reiterated that quality of professional
interaction, focus on staff development and the relentless pursuit of
improved teaching and learning are the characteristic of successful
school improvement ( Gray 2000; Harris 2000; Maden and Hillman J.
1996; OFSTED 2000). However, it also acknowledges the
importance‟s of teachers engaging in continuing career long
development that will meet their own personal and professional needs.
These needs will vary according to circumstances, personal and
professional histories and current dispositions. Matching appropriate
professional needs of the teacher and the selected activity is critically
important in ensuring that there is a positive impact at the school and
classroom level, where staff development improvement is paramount
(DfEE,P3) and offers a number of new initiatives to achieve particular
important goal. The richer mix of professional development
opportunities will allow teachers to focus upon their own learning,
28
29. career and promotion ambitions and to consider new responsibilities
within their own school content. This will lead to an improved and
enhanced sense of professionalism for teachers, plus an increased
motivation to stay within the profession.
2.1 DEFINITION OF CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT (CPD)
Debates around CPD have been numerous in recent years. Much of
the recent debate regarding CPD has been concerned with who and
what is being develop, by whom and most importantly, in whose
interest (Nofke, 1997, p.334). Wikipedia defines CPD as the skills and
knowledge attained for both personal development and career
advancement. It encompasses all types of facilitated learning
opportunities, ranging from college degrees to formal coursework,
conferences and informal learning opportunities in practice. Analytic
quality Glossary defines CPD as the study (that may accumulate to
whole programmes with awards) designed to upgrade knowledge and
skills of practitioners in the profession, while higher education funding
council for England (HEFCE, 2003), sees CPD as a range of short and
long training programmes, some of which have an option of
accreditation, which foster the development of employment related
knowledge, skills and understanding. Northeast Texas Network
consortium (NTNC, 2007), defines professional development as
courses offered to improve knowledge and skills in a specific
29
30. professional area, such as professional certification programs. Usually
not offered for academic credit.
David Hargreaves (1998), refined his definition about the nature of
CPD exploring the need for better professional knowledge which a
transition towards a knowledge society requires. He argues that
knowledge transmission in the past has failed partly because
University-based researchers were not very successful in either
knowledge creation or dissemination. He argues further that new
knowledge transmission models are required which involves a radical
reconceptualization of knowledge creation and its dissemination in
education, and the consequent restructuring that is necessary to
support it (p.1). To these new models, for Hargreaves is the
knowledge creating school. This would involve schools conducting a
knowledge audit, managing the processes of creating new
professional knowledge, validating the knowledge creating and
disseminating the created knowledge (p.2). The support and co-
ordination of schools and networks of school engaged in this new form
of knowledge creation and dissemination would require a rethinking of
the nature and role of CPD.
Welsh (2002) endorses that collaborative professional development
which could bridge research, policy and power at the same time
recognizing the potential for element of political conflict inherent in
restructuring teacher and school development. Similarly, Barber (1996)
30
31. argues that professional development should not be founded on
„narrowly conceived idea about in-service education for teachers but
the idea of the teacher as a life long learner who is a member of a
research- based profession. It has been suggested that continual
development is a relatively straight forward concept to accept. But, the
term „professional‟ is much more problematic (Bolam, p.280). Bolam
suggests that professional development is the process by which
teachers learn, enhance and use appropriate skills and knowledge and
the essence of such profession development for educators would
presumably be, therefore the learning of an independent, evidence-
informed and constructively critical approach to practice within a Public
framework of professional values and accountability, which are also
open to critical scrutiny. (Bolam, 2000, p.272).
In the current climate of professional issues in teacher‟s live, relating to
teacher workload, shortage and retention, it has been argued that the
focus of CPD should both be more structured and more teacher-led,
offering opportunities not just to minorities but to all irrespective of
factors such as geographical constraints and the size of the school.
Carol Adams, Chief Executive of the general Teachers council (GTC)
voiced her concerns, she said her biggest worry was about how to
ensure we have a proper, structured programme and avoid lots of little
pilots with only short term horizons and limited impact (quoted in
cordingley, 2001, p.82).
31
32. CPD is seen as part of the career development of all professionals
which is a shared responsibility with their employers because it serves
the interest of both. Day, (1999) says, professional development
consists of all natural learning experiences and those conscious and
planned activities which are intended to be of direct or indirect benefit
to the individual, group or school which constitute through these, to the
quality of education in the classroom. It is a process by which, alone
and with others, teachers review, renew and extend their commitment
as change agents to the moral purposes of teaching; and by which
they acquire and develop critically the knowledge, skills and emotional
intelligence essential to good professional thinking, planning and
practice with children young people and colleagues throughout each
phase of their teaching lives (Day, 1996. b.). In February 2000, the
government published its consultation document on professional
development (Green paper, DfEE, 2001). The document argues that
good professional development requires time to reflect and set
objectives, recognition and commitment, opportunity, particularly for
work based learning. The documents equally argued that professional
development reflect three perspectives; Individual teacher‟s needs and
aspirations, the need of the school and national strategic priorities.
In a study conducted by National Foundation for educational Research
CPD. Teachers perspective (2000), stated that CPD is mostly needed
in the development of knowledge in the teachers own subject area; the
32
33. use of ICT and the internet in the curriculum; assessment; support for
pupils with special educational needs and leadership skills. Gatewood
and Conrad (1997) also explained at another workshop held at
implementing technology in the school curriculum that teachers‟
training is essential for computers to be effective teaching tool. They
reported that training opportunities enable teachers to build skills and
confidence and learn strategies to integrate computers into their
curriculum. Epstein (1993), identified four critical components of
training, practical experience, workshops, models and mentors and
supervisory follow-up.
2.2 IMPORTANCE OF CPD
CPD are undertaken by teachers beyond the point of initial training.
The following are the resource for undertaking professional
development.
1. To improve the job performance skills of the whole staff or group
of staff.
2. To improve the job performance skills of an individual teacher.
3. To extend the experience of an individual teacher for career
development or promotion.
4. To develop the professional knowledge and understanding of an
individual teacher.
5. To extend the personal or general education of an individual.
33
34. 6. To make staff feel value.
7. To promote job satisfaction.
8. To develop an enhanced view of job.
9. To enable teachers to anticipate and prepare for change.
10. To clarify the whole or department policy ultimately all
teachers development will have as one of its aims the
improvement of pupils learning.
Blancd Ford (2000) emphasizes that professional development enable
practitioners to widen their understanding of society in particularly of
ICT.
2.3 THE CONCEPT OF CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
The concept of CPD is often left ill-defined, being in many cases
conflated with related concepts of in-service training and on the Job
learning. Both are more limited to CPD, as CPD encompasses a wide
variety of approaches and teaching and learning styles in a variety of
setting (inside or outside of the workplace) it is distinguishable from the
broader concept of learning. It is primarily related to people‟s
professional identities and roles and the goals of the organization they
are working for (Galloway, 2000).
34
35. The concept of lifelong education is based on post formal education
and it assumes learners to adults or near adults who can mange their
learning on their own.
In a paper presented by Dr. Ahmed Modibbo Mohammed of NTI on
creating opportunities for CPD, he said teacher‟s professional
development has two main phases: Initial preparation and continuing
professional development. He said initial teachers training takes the
form of full time residential pre-service programmes in teachers
colleges or universities. The initial training may also be available to
serving unqualified teachers through distance education or out of
school programmes during vacations or on release from schools for
extended periods of time. The pedagogical or professional
components of initial teacher training programmes can be either
conservative or concurrent with academic subjects. However, initial
teacher training has been criticized for its inadequacy in preparing
students for teaching. Learning to teach is a process that requires
continuing support and resources. Continuing professional
development of teachers comes from various sources and in various
forms; orienting teachers to curriculum or examination changes,
upgrading qualification levels, donor- funded projects, professional
teachers association in developing subject teaching e.g. STAN;
sometimes teachers unions, school based improvement initiatives or
individual teachers working to improve their qualifications, career
35
36. prospects or teaching skills. In our national situation where both
qualified and unqualified teachers are employed in schools, pre-
service and in-service education may go on simultaneously. Therefore,
structured and unstructured approaches of professional development
of teachers should be employed.
2.4 RATIONALE FOR CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHERS
The pace at which new knowledge is being generated and old
knowledge is becoming outdated, demands that an individual should
continue to learn throughout one‟s life. ICT can be very effective for
facilitating lifelong education, both an tutor and as a tool.
The teacher is increasingly becoming an important factor in the
educative process. According to Sprinthall, Reiman and sprint
(1999:666), there is no such thing as a teacher-proof curriculum. They
pointed to the massive failure of national curriculum projects of the
1960‟s with the attendant “failed ideas, unused curriculum guide, and
tarnished hopes. By implication, teacher‟s characteristics, attitudes,
conception of self and intellectual and interpersonal dispositions in
large measure determine both the explicit and the hidden agenda of
the classroom. The formal curriculum is represented by the materials,
lesson plan and objectives, but the informal agenda is the atmosphere
36
37. or climate in the classroom as indicated by important teacher
characteristic.
The society expects great deal from their educational systems. New
goals are being continuously set such as life long learning, life skills
education, and competency in the use of ICT etc. As key agents in
these changes, teachers face high expectations, new roles which they
can get through CPD. One of the key elements of teacher quality, is
the provision of adequate opportunities for personal growth and
professional development.
Research on teacher‟s education has consistently stressed the need
to regularly provide opportunities for teachers to improve their
knowledge of the subject matter they teach and the teaching skills the
learned in the pre-service courses they attended. This is based on the
recognition of the fact that we live in a rapidly changing world such that
whatever knowledge and skills teachers acquired in their pre-service
training becomes stale very fast as new challenges and realities
emerge in the socio-economic and political environments.
2.5 MODEL OF CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Various model for teacher professional developments have emerged.
Most CPD models and practices emphasize formal CPD programmes
and activities. Spark, D and Loucks-Horsley, S (1989, fall) says there
are five models of staff development for teachers (Journal of staff
37
38. development, 10(4), 40-57). Sparks and Loucks-Horsley (1989) who
are influential researchers suggests five models that are useful for
accomplishing the goals of staff development. These models includes
a. Individually Guided Development
b. Observation and Assessment
c. Involvement in a Development or improvement process.
d. Training
e. Inquiry
In Nigeria, three commonly used models are workshop models,
school-based teacher professional support and in-service training of
teachers (INSET).
The workshop model is the commonest form of CPD in Nigeria. It
entails drawing participants out of their school to a venue where they
are exposed by experts to a core of information and skills. The
workshop may be short or long term. The nature of skills and
processes to be acquired also vary.
The school-based teacher professional support and mentoring is a
recent alternative for in-service training of teachers. Pupils, teachers,
supervisors and facilitators are involved collaboratively in carrying out
a series of classroom/school-based activities that will help the teacher
to improve. The teachers get professional support from facilitators and
supervisors who serve as mentors. Activities may include direct
38
39. classroom support by the facilitators and supervisors, staff meeting
within the school and involving head teachers and the participating
teachers, demonstration lessons by teacher educators (mentors); visit
to the school by mentors etc. Erant, (1994) suggest that any
framework for promoting and facilitating professional learning should
take into account the following;
1. An appropriate combination of learning settings (on the Job, near
the Job, home, library, course).
2. For study consultation and reflection.
3. Availability of suitable learning resources.
4. People who are prepared (i.e. both willing and able) to give
appropriate support.
5. The learners own capacity to learn and take advantage of the
opportunities available.
In-service training of teachers (INSET) has relied upon teachers
participating in courses delivered by external providers either at the
school or at dedicated training centers.
39
40. 2.6 EFFECTIVE CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPPMENT
A key factor of ensuring effective CPD is matching appropriate
professional development provision to particular professional needs. This
„fit‟ between the developmental needs of the teacher and the selected
activity, is critically important in ensuring that there is a positive impact at
the school and classroom level (Hopkins and Harris, 2001). Where staff
development are poorly conceptualized, insensitive to the concern of
individual participants and make little effort to relate learning experiences
to workplace conditions, they make little impact upon teachers or
pupils(Day,1999). There have been claims that CPD needs to be linked
to both individual and organizational goals, if both individual and
organization change are to be achieved (Jones and Fear, 1994).
2.7 FORMS OF CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Continuing professional opportunities ranges from a single workshop to a
semester long academic course, to service offered by a medley of
different professional development providers and varying widely with
respect to philosophy, content and format of the learning experiences
(Goggle). Other forms of CPD includes on the Job, in- house activities,
work shadowing or secondment (Michael Fullan).
Some examples of approaches to professional development includes:-
40
41. 1. CASE STUDY METHOD: - The case method is a teaching approach
that consists in presenting the students with a case, putting them in
the role of a decision maker facing a problem (Hammond, 1976).
2. CONSULTATION: - To assist an individual or group of individuals to
clarify and address immediate concerns by following a systematic
problem solving process.
3. COACHING: - To enhance a person‟s competencies in a specific skill
area by providing a process of observation, reflection and action.
Flaherty (1999) presents coaching as a way of working with people
that leaves more competent and more fulfilled, so that they are more
able to contribute to their organizations. He described the product of
coaching as
Long term excellent performance.
Self correction.
Self generation.
4. LESSON STUDY: - To solve practical dilemmas related to intervention
or instruction through participation with other professionals in
systematically examining practice.
5. MENTORING: - To promote an individual‟s awareness and refinement
of his or her own professional development by providing and
recommending structured opportunities for reflection and observation.
41
42. 6. TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE: - To assist individuals and their
organization to improve by offering resources and information,
supporting networking and change effort.
7. RELECTIVE SUPERVISION: - To support, develop and ultimately
evaluate the performance of employees through a process of inquiry
that encourages their understanding and articulation of their rationale
for their own practices.
In united State of America, many American State have professional
development requirement for school teachers. Arkansas teachers must
complete 60 hours of documented professional development activities
annually. Teachers in Idiana are required to earn 90 continuing
renewal units (CRUs) per year. In Massachusetts, teachers need 150
professional development points (PDPs) and in Georgia 10
professional learning units (PLUs) (Wikipedia). In Singapore, every
teacher is required to submit himself/herself to 100 hours of re-training
every year. In Scotland, every Thursday during term time, teachers
have an opportunity to take part in some live on line CPD in part of the
glowing Thursday programme.
2.8 CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA.
From time immemorial, the training of teachers has been an issue of
concern to researchers and lay members of society alike. Fafunwa
(1974) argued that teacher education continues to be the key to
42
43. educational development, In Nigeria and else where, for without
adequately trained teaching cadre, Nigeria cannot hope to expand her
educational facilities.
Till-date, the pre-service training and in-service professional
development of Nigerian teachers has not reflected the attention and
focus of these observers of our education system. Jegede (2002)
observed that the teacher training system in Nigeria has failed to
adhere to the provisions of the National policy on education that the
teacher education shall continue to take cognizance of changes in
methodology and in curriculum and that teachers shall be regularly
exposed to innovations in their professions. But, Okebukola (2002)
opined that in times past the teacher as well as his/her education did
enjoy some pride of place….. But teacher education in Nigeria and
indeed decades had been characterized by incessant instability, not
unconnected with attempts by practitioners in the field to better their
lot.
Afemikhe (2004) quoting taiwo (2002) added that teacher education
suffered some setbacks as greater emphasis was then laid on how to
teach rather than on what to teach.
However, it appears obvious that teachers need CPD and substantial
research seem to have confirmed this, not much importance seem to
be attached to continuing professional development of teachers in
Nigeria. For most teachers, training ends as soon as they graduated
43
44. and no opportunities exist for updating their knowledge and skills by
attending seminars, conferences, and workshops that will enhance
their knowledge and skills and ultimately classroom practice (Ahmed
Modibbo, 2006).
2.9 A MODEL OF ICT APPLICATION FOR TEACHERS’
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA
The pace at which new knowledge is being generated and old
knowledge is becoming outdated, demands that an individual should
continue to learn throughout one‟s life. Information and
communications technologies can be very effective for facilitating
lifelong education, both as a tutor and as a tool. The concept of
lifelong education is based on post formal education and it assumes
learns to be adults or near adults who can manage their learning on
their own.
However, teacher training process in Nigeria is regarded as the
foundation of quality and relevance of education at all levels of the
levels of the national educational system of the initial teacher training
process and the CPD of Nigerian teachers is currently besortted by
number of challenges.
However, ICT is having a major impact across all curriculum areas
most especially in science subjects, easy worldwide communication
provides instant access to vast array of data, challenging assimilation
and assessment skills (Fowowe, 2006). Rapid communication plus
44
45. increased access to ICTs in the home, at work and in educational
establishment, learning becomes a truly lifelong activity- an activity in
which the pace technological change forces constant evaluation of
teaching process itself.
2.10 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
If students of today are to be prepared for the workplace of tomorrow,
computers must become an integral part of the current curriculum of
the school system.
2.10.1 DEFINITION OF COMPUTER
A computer can be defined as an electronic device or contrivance that
works under the control of stored instruction known as programs to
speedily accept data, process the inputted data into meaningful
information and then present its output in a well organized format
predefined by the user.
2.10.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers are grouped into various classes depending on the
character they exhibit, the way they look or the way they are located.
Classification of computers by type: -
Analogue Computers: Computers which does not compute
directly with discrete values (digits), rather, it measures quantity
45
46. in continuous flow e.g. current, temperature, voltage. Examples
of such computers are diagnosis, thermometer, analog watch.
Digital Computers: These computers cannot measure quantity in
continuous flow. I.e. measures discrete values such as digit (0-
9), understands binary(0 or 1) letter of alphabets(a-z). Examples
are calculators, desktop, laptop, gaming computers.
Hybrid Computers: These computers have the features of the
analog and digital computers. It can measure quantity in
continuous flow as well as those in discrete values .e.g. the
system used in the electricity reading is hybrid.
2.10.3 CLASSIFICATION BY SIZE/CAPACITY
a. Mainframe Computers: these computers are bulky and stored in
control rooms with air-conditioning accommodation. They are
the largest form of computers. Examples IBM370, ICI 900.
Mainly used in research institute.
b. Mini Computers: These computers are smaller in size and can
perform arithmetic and logic operational functions, can process
task that do not require access to large masses of stored data.
Examples are Vax series, PDP-8 etc.
c. Micro Computes: these are the personal computers (Pc). They
are the smallest form of computers and uses micro processor as
46
47. its central processing unit (CPU). Examples are the Desktop,
Laptop, Notebook and palmtop.
d. Super Computers: These are faster than mainframe and are
designed for specialized application. E.g. monitoring and
controlling space flights and weather forecasting.
2.10.4 CLASSIFICATION BY NATURE OF LOCATION
Computers are also classified by the way they are located or located in
other devices. In this class, are the embedded computers.
Embedded Computers: Are computers that are located within other
machines to make them act like computers e.g. Speedometer.
2.10.5 CLASSIFICATION BY GENERATION
Computers passed through series and chains of development called
computer generations. The computer generations are:-
1. First generation Computers
2. Second generation Computers
3. Third generation Computers
4. Fourth generation Computers
5. Fifth generation Computers
6. Sixth generation Computers
47
48. 2.10.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
The characteristics is that, it is a general purpose device which take
input from output devices like mouse, keyboard, bar code reader etc.
Some of these characteristics include
1. Speed- Computer works at very high speed.
2. Accuracy- Can do billions of calculation in a second
without error.
3. Storage- Can store data permanently.
4. Versatility- Can do various type of job at a time without
error.
5. Automation- It can run itself without human interaction. It
is an automatic machine because once it start on a job
they carry until job is finished.
6. Diligence- Unlike human being, a computer is free from
monotony, tiredness and lack of communication.
7. Reliability
8. Convenience
9. Flexibility
10. Power of Remembering
11. Larger Storage
48
49. 12. No Feeling
Wikipedia (2009).
2.10.7 COMPUTER SYSTEM
The computer consists of vital components which are very essential for
information processing. The component are divided into two main
categories namely
i. Hardware.
ii. Software.
HARDWARE includes all equipment or physical devices used in
processing data and delivering information. It encompasses everything
that is tangible. I.e. any part that can be seen, touched and felt.
Hardware can belong to any unit such as the input unit (keyboard,
mouse, scanner), output unit (monitor or console, printer, speaker),
storage unit ( Hard disk, flash disk, Floppy disk, compact disk,
Diskette, memory card) processing unit (Ram, Rom) and other
peripheral parts such as power pack, plotter etc.
SOFTWARE: - These are the invisible or intangible portions of the
computer. A software is a set of instruction the computer programs
that are used to command the computer. Computer software are
divided into two categories
i. System Software.
49
50. ii. Application Software.
System Software is also referred to as operating system. This software
provides routines needed to allow application software‟s to interact
with the hardware. I.e. it interprets user‟s programme commands. This
operating system is a collection of programme modules that act as
interface between the computer hardware and the user.
Application Software:- These are programmes created specifically to
meet the user‟s need. The ones developed by the manufacturer are
called Generalized Application Software, while the one developed by
the user are called user program or user-define software. Examples of
Generalized Applications packages are word processing software‟s,
spreadsheet software, Graphics etc.
Pelgrum and law (2003) state that near the end of the 1980s, the term
computer was replaced by Information Technology (IT). Information
Technology according to Ayo,(2001) is the use of computer system
and telecommunication equipment in information handling. He
identifies three basic component of information technology. These
components include
a. Electronic processing using the computer.
b. Transmission of information using telecommunication
equipment.
50
51. c. Dissemination of information in multimedia. Oketunji, (1999)
quotes Marghalana M.A as being of the view that information
technology encompasses the notion of application of
technologies to information handling. This includes generation,
storage, processing, retrieval, dissemination etc.
However, Cole (1956) supplied a useful definition which was given by
the Department of Trade and Industry in Britain, which states that
information technology is the acquisition, processing, storage and
dissemination of vocal, pictorial, textual and numeric information by a
micro-electronic based combination of computing and
telecommunication. Some of the IT facilities are computers of various
types, scanners, printers, servers, word processors, photocopiers etc
and other devices for information acquisition and dissemination such
as teleconferencing/video conferencing, Networks, tele-text, facsimile,
internet, e-mail and voice mail etc. These signify a shift of focus from
computer technology to the capacity to store and retrieve information.
This was followed by the introduction of the term ICT (information and
communication technology) around 1992, when e-mail started to
become available to the general public (Pelgrum, w.J law N, 2003).
Literature search revealed quite a number of studies globally on the
impact of ICT on teaching, learning and other research activities.
However, Itegboye (2002) describes ICT as the application of
computers, telecommunication equipment to process, store, retrieve
51
52. and send information of all kinds. She added that information is power
and technology is the bedrock of development of any nation. Adeya,
(2002) describes ICT as electronic means of capturing, processing,
storing and disseminating information. According to another definition
by Adeya, 2002, ICTs are embedded in networks and services that
affect the local and global accumulation and flowing of public and
private knowledge. But according to united Nation report (1999) say
that ICT covers internet services provision, telecommunication
equipment and services, information technology equipment and
services, media and broadcasting, libraries and documentation
centres, commercial information providers, Network-based information
services and other related information and communication activities.
UNESCO (2002) studies on the stages of teaching and learning using
ICT facilities, the report draw out some broad stages in the way
student and teacher learn about and gain confidence in the use of ICT.
These stages are discovering, learning how, understanding how and
when, and specializing in the use of ICT tools. It described discovering
stage as a link to the emerging approach in the ICT development,
which the impact of teaching, learning and research using ICT has not
been quantified and the implication is that technology is still not fully
explored and hence no research in the classroom is been done.
Learning how to use ICT tools, in this stage where learners and
teachers begin to make use of ICT tools in different disciplines and this
52
53. is linked to the applying approach in the ICT development that in most
development. This study therefore discovered that in most developing
countries, tertiary institutions are generally at this stage, common
application of ICT includes editorial work and internet. Actual research
on how students learn and use ICT tools has just begun in most
institutions. The third stage, understanding how and when to use ICT
tools to achieve particular purposes. The ability to recognize situation
where ICT will be helpful choosing the most appropriate tool for a
particular task, and using these tools in combination to solve real
problems. In study, an example was cited using Excel by students to
plot graphs of statistical data generated from a classroom exercise.
This stage is linked with infusing and transforming approaches in the
ICT development. The last stage in the study is specializing in the use
of ICT tools, here students study ICT as a subject to become
professional as opposed to the general knowledge in the use of ICT
where courses are supposed to be handled together with basic ICT
tools associated with it. The above four stages are closely related and
do provide a framework or a model for an ICT curriculum. Teachers
expertise is finely tuned to the teaching and learning setting, what is
flexing and responding to the introduction of digital technologies. They
further lamented that integration of ICT with teaching and learning
activities support knowledge building and consolidation and application
to new contexts. Although ICT can be adapted to different needs, its
53
54. exploitation is limited by forceful constraints‟. These include
resourcing, technical and classroom management issues. They
concluded that success relies on exploiting dynamic visual
representations as a reference point in order to exchange ideas,
negotiate meanings, build knowledge, and restructure problems. A
supportive classroom culture is characterized by structured activities
and interactions which promote teachers insights into teachers
thinking and vice versa. These incorporate proactive and responsive
guidance that continually assesses and accommodates learners
various and shifting needs.
In concrete terms, ICT enhances teaching and learning through its
dynamic, interactive, flexible and engaging content. It provides real
opportunities for individualized instruction. Further more, the
application of ICT enhances and facilitates teachers pedagogical
activities. For instance, e-learning is one most common means of
using ICT to provide education to students both on and off campus by
means of on-line teaching offered via web based system (Yusuf, 2005;
Mutula, 2003). Abifarin, (2003) asserted that the Nigeria educational
system cannot afford to ignore the potentials of ICT for its continued
survival, because no other delivering model or medium can cope with
demand for up-to-date information and ideas across the world. The up-
to-date training facilities depend to a very large extent on the ability to
harness ICT as a source of knowledge and man power development.
54
55. However, according to Finger, Russell, Jamieson Proctor and Russell,
2006, p.17) says without adequate infrastructure and technical support
meaningful ICT learning experiences by students might not happen at
all. Similarly, training and professional development for teacher in ICT
use needs to be effective.
2.10.8 ELEMENTS OF ICT
Hess, Leal (2001), reported that four elements of ICT are
distinguished.
a. Equipment or hardware: physical devices, such as personal
computers and mobile phones.
b. Content/data/information/subject matter: Thing to be learned
and to be learned about.
c. Connectivity: communication infrastructures which enable
data/content to be passed between and shared by the users of
hardware devices.
d. Software which control and functions and operation of the
hardware and communications and allow data/content to be
manipulated by users of hardware devices. Software is
increasingly built into (embedded in) hardware but may also be
passed between devices (just as though it is data) and then
used by them to allow new or better functionality.
55
56. This is of course a much simplified picture: for other purposes it is
useful to distinguish many more separate categories. Educational
software is any combination of content and software used for
educational purposes. For each of the four categories, there is or
maybe both a general and an application (education) specific
subcategory, with overlaps between them of these categories, content
is the most important, the rest are means of improving its effectiveness
and delivering. ICT provides many different modes of and tools for
information processing, including calculation, text/word processing,
spreadsheets, Databases, graphics, animation, sound, communication
(e-mail), dissemination, information retrieval and virtual reality.
2.10.9 USES OF COMPUTERS
The use of computer and its application areas are
a) E-Marketing: This can simply be defined as achieving marketing
objectives through use of electronic communications technology.
It involves moving elements of marketing strategies and
activities to a computerized networked environment such as the
internet. It is the strategic process of creating, distributing,
promoting and pricing goods and services to a target market
over the internet or through digital tools.
b) E-Banking: Internet banking or online banking is a term used for
performing transactions, payments etc over the internet through
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57. a bank‟s secure website. Example is the automated money
transfer (ATM).
c) Health Service: The automatic monitoring of patient records,
diagnosis and therapy administration has been made easy with
the use of computers. The auto Doctors, magnetic resonance
scanners and computerized axial tomography are inventions
brought about by the use of computers.
d) E-Business: Electronic business is conducting business on the
internet. It includes buying, selling, servicing customers and
collaborating with business partners via internet.
e) E-Entertainment/Re-creation: The internet offers host of
entertainment such as games, music, sports. The presence of
film industry on the internet along side with various
entertainment and News websites makes the internet an avenue
for catching fun.
f) Education: Computers can be used in education in the following
ways
i. On-line Education: This term encompasses any kind of
learning that is done exclusively online. At times the
learning is through free self study website e.g. WEBCT.
ii. Application Packages: Computer aided instruction (CAI)
and computer aided learning (CAL) has tremendously
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58. reduced the work load of teachers and increased students
successes.
Internet resources that are used in education includes
i. E-Mails (Electronic mail): This is the exchange of electronic
messages and computer files between computers that are
connected to the internet or other computer network. E-mail can
be used by students to communicate with lecturers, teachers
and colleagues.
ii. Virtual Library: This is one of the best ways of getting library
information via the internet.
iii. World Wide Web (www): This is a hypermedia based system for
browsing internet sites. It is called the web because it is made
up of many sites linked together; students can travel from one
site to another by clicking on hyperlinks.
iv. Usenet: This is the discussion groups on the internet that talks
about specific topics. A newsgroup is a repository, usually within
the Usenet system where students can post educational topics
for discussion.
v. File Transfer: This is the transfer of files, software‟s etc between
a host and remote computers.
vi. Data Conferencing: This is a communication session in which
two or more participants are sharing computer based data in
real time. Any participants keyboard/mouse can control screens
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59. of other participants. Voice mail or voice communication can be
out of band using a totally separate voice connected or in- band
using a simultaneous voice and data technology.
vii. Video Conferencing: It involves the using of a computer, video
camera and network such as internet to conduct a live
conference between two or more people (students and
lecturers/teacher). Video Conferencing is an extremely useful
method of communication because it saves people the time and
expense of travel and can often accomplish many of the things a
physical meeting can. A two person video conference is known
as point to point, while more than two people involved in a
session is a multipoint conference.
viii. Teleconferencing/Web cast: This is the use of electronic
channels to facilitate real time communication among groups of
people at two or more locations. Teleconferencing is a generic
term that refers to a variety of technologies and application
including audio-conferencing, audio graphic, video-conferencing,
data conferencing, business, television and distance learning or
distance education.
ix. Gopher: Gopher is a distributed document search and retrieval
system. It takes a request for information and then scans the
internet for it.
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60. 2.11 ICT IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN UK
The use of ICT in secondary school has a recent but relatively fast
moving history in the school curriculum in the UK. In the early to
middle 1960s, computers were rarely seen in the schools and few
teachers had any formal training. With the increased availability of
computers at the end of the 1970s, computer studies examinations
courses became popular and were taught in specialist computer rooms
(DES, 1990s). Boyd Barrett (1991) argued that the interest was
restricted to male teachers of science and mathematics departments.
It was with the introduction of microcomputers in the 1980s, that it
became possible to introduce computers into individual classrooms to
support the curriculum. However, it was the introduction of national
curriculum in 1990 that established a need for computers in the school
curriculum. Pupils/students were required to use computers for their
lessons to communicate and handle information, design, develops,
explore and explore models of real or imaginary situations and
measure and control physical variables and movement (DES, 1990b).
The latest National curriculum document for design and technology (D
& T) highlights the compulsory nature of computer- aided design and
manufacture (CAD/CAM) in secondary schools as an integral part of
designing and making (DFEE, QCA, 1999). Similarly, the postgraduate
certificate of education (PGCE) students to gain qualified teachers
status (QTS) must demonstrate by the end of their courses that they
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61. have achieved all the „Standard‟ required on courses of initial teacher
training (DFEE,1998). These include knowledge and understanding of,
and competence with ICT in the subject to enable them to decide
when the use of ICT is appropriate and effective to achieve their
teaching objectives.
2.12 ICT AND SECONDARY EDUCATION
Secondary education is concerned with acquiring additional
knowledge, behavioral and other skills. Possession of basic
knowledge, skills and attitudes will be assumed. Presentation of the
intellectual content will be ICT-based and largely under the control of
the pupil/student. It will involve studying subjects and skills in greater
depth. The aim will be to enable each learner to maximize their
individual potential in individual subjects. It will be concerned with
building on those, so that learners acquire further knowledge and skills
according to their aptitudes, needs and preferences. Posen and
Michelle (1995).
Education and training are fundamental to achieving priorities for the
Nigerian economy in the twenty-first century. All Nigerians need to be
“enterprising, innovative, adaptable and socially responsible
participants in the information economy‟‟ and Nigeria will be at a
serious disadvantage in the global knowledge economy if it fails to
produce workers, professionals and managers. With the skills to work
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62. in the online environment (National Office of the Information Economy,
1999, p.11). These national views also are reflected in the Nigerian
Curriculum framework.
To meet this challenge, the Nigeria government has invested on
information technology in schools. However, increased spending on
ICT in schools does not necessarily quarantee improved teaching and
learning environments and improved student‟s outcomes. [Centre for
Research on information technology and organization, 1999, EDNA,
1999a; While, 1999]. Education has a poor history of successfully
meeting the challengers of shifts in information technology (Trinidad,
1998). There has been far too little research into the implementation
and educational benefits of technology rich school learning
environments. Therefore, this research as part of the larger study is
investigating on the impact of continuing professional development of
teachers in ICT on the secondary school students, as well as the
attitudes of students to using ICT in learning food science. Preston
(1998) describes some of the information technology (IT) products that
would be used in the classroom of the future to include electronic
whiteboards, which teachers can use to write on the board in the
conventional method while integrating with the computer at the same
time; delivery of lesson notes in the form of interactive presentations,
which will be projected onto the whiteboard incorporating video
animation and sound; and liquid crystal display LCD projectors, which
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63. will be used in a similar way to project video images and live television
programmes. The white board helps students to develop cognitive
skills, enables ICT use to be more integrated into classroom, allow text
and images to be moved around the board and/ or changed, and
finally allows work to be saved or to be printed out (Gage, 2006).
Similarly, detachable LCD displays from laptop computers will be used
to give presentations using an overhead projector. To achieve the
effective use of these tools, scholars must learn or improve on the use
of the new set of skills associated them, such as strategies to search
for relevant materials skills in evaluating the quality of documents
found, knowledge of such web design skill in using discussion forum
and chat rooms and a basic understanding of how to send e-mail
attachment(Lacey, 1999 quoted in Ojedokun and Owolabi 2003).The
classroom of the future should have a mobile furniture i.e. tables with
mounted wheels and rolling chairs. This mobility of furniture allows the
students to see the fixed interactive white board and also makes
possible to change direction of teaching and gives students more
surface to work in groups. This classroom of the future promotes not
only a sense of well being and produces a home-like atmosphere and
its interior is technically well equipped and designed for effective
teaching. Jervis and Steeg (2000) discussed the use of internet in
secondary schools in British schools to support teaching and learning.
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64. 2.13 TEACHING AND LEARNING STYLES AND ICT
People have preferred styles of learning. For example, some people
prefer to read or listen while others like a highly visual approach.
Research [Carbo, 1986; campell and Campbell, 1999] continues to
show what when learners are able to use their own particular styles of
learning and processing information on their motivation, initiative and
result improve.
People have preferred ways of absorbing, processing, and retaining
information (schunk, 2000) Not synonymous with academic ability, this
preference is called learning or cognitive styles. The term learning
styles or cognitive style are often used interchangeable (James and
Garduer, 1995). Gregore (1982a) defines learning styles as the way
that people perceive, sort, absorb, process and retain information.
Within and Good enough (1981) elaborated that cognitive styles are
individual differences in how people process information. Similarly,
James and Garduer (1995) defined learning style as “the ways
individual learners react to overall learning environment” (p.19). While
Dunn and Dunn (1993) added that both biological and environment
characteristics contribute to a student‟s learning style.
Teacher centered learning approaches often our passive reception of
knowledge, whereas learner centered approaches encourage a
process of active inquiry. Learners are best motivated to learn when
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65. they can take responsibility for their own learning as it is an active
process.
Interactive technologies encourage active learning and with the
increased popularity of computers, today‟s students are learning with
technology, as opposed to learning about technology. Schweizer,
1999; Nelson, 2001) show, teachers can provide powerful learning
opportunities through ICT when students are responsible for their own
learning and are active learners defining their learning needs; finding
information on their own knowledge base and communicating their
discoveries. These ICT (computers) need to be carefully designed,
giving thought to the different learning styles of students and the way
in which students learning. In the information age, the implication of a
move from teacher- centered to learner centered education are that it
is important for students to be able to analyze and synthesize
enormous amount of information, thus determining what should be
learned, how it will be learned and when it will be learned.
The specific ICT competencies refer to the special skills a teacher
trainee acquires in other to enhance the quality of the teaching and
learning that takes place in the school. The special skills cannot be
acquired without the general abilities, and the general abilities are not
of much benefit if the teacher does not possess specific skills for
applying ICTs in his teaching activities. Studies in ICT development in
both developed and developing countries identify at least four broad
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66. approaches through which ICTs could be adopted for teacher training
and professional development.
EMERGING APPLYING INFUSING TRANSFORMING
Model depicting a continuum of approaches to ICT application for
teacher training and development
The continuum model above indicates that the skills of teacher trainee
flow from the emerging to the applying into the infusing and then
culminates in the transforming processes of the educative activities
which takes place in schools. The Emerging approach is the first stage
of ICTs skills development in teachers, here the focus is on
appreciation of technical functions, components and general uses of
ICTs, especially for education and training. This approach tends to be
theoretical and the practical components involves the personal use of
ICT such as the use of word processing to prepare worksheets,
locating information on CD-ROMs or on the internet, or communicating
with friends and family via e-mail. The emphasis here is on training of
teachers in a range of tools and applications, and increasing teachers‟
awareness of the opportunities for applying ICT to their teaching in the
future.
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67. The next level of the continuum model emphasizes the application of
ICTs to teachers‟ subject areas. In the applying approach, teachers
use ICT for professional purposes, focusing on improving their subject
teaching especially in science subject (Physics, Chemistry,
Mathematics, Biology, Geography etc) in order to enrich how they
teach with a range of ICT applications. This approach often involves
teachers in integrating ICT to teach specific subject skills and
knowledge; beginning to change their methodology in the classroom;
and support their training and professional development. The infusing
approach involves the inclusion of ICT in all aspects of teacher‟s
professional lives in such ways as to improve student learning and the
management of learning processes. The approach supports active and
creative teachers who are able to stimulate and manage the learning
of students, integrating a range of preferred learning styles and uses
of ICT in achieving their goals. The infusing approaches other subjects
into project based curricula.
Transforming teaching through ICTs involves teachers and other
support staff in the school system regarding ICT as a natural part of
everyday life of the system that they begin to look at the processes of
teaching and learning science in new ways. The emphasis changes
from a teacher-centric to a learner-centric system where the teachers
is seen as a „guide by the side, rather than sage on the stage‟, helping
students as the facilitator of their learning experiences to construct
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68. new learning paradigms out of the various offerings that the school
makes available to them. This shift in emphasis in learners need also
calls for new training needs on the part of the teachers, where they
would be imbued with such components of knowledge that prepares
them to annex the potentials of ICTs in sourcing and disseminating
information to their students.
2.14 TEACHER TRAINING IN NIGERIA
The initial teacher training process and the continuing professional
development of Nigerian teachers is currently besotted by a number of
changes. These are directly connected with the incessant modification
of the planning policies several times before such policies have been
appropriately implemented in its original form. These problems have
been further accentuated by the parlous state of economic
development, which has made „teaching‟ a less desirable profession
for many youth.
The NPE (1977, revised 1998, 2005) provided the objectives of
teacher education in Nigeria as follows:
To provide highly motivated, conscience and efficient classroom
teachers;
To encourage further the spirit of enquiry and creativity in teachers;
To help teachers commitment to the teaching profession.
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69. However, many researchers have noted that these „lofty‟ objectives
have scarcely been met (Okebukola, 2002; Isyaku, 2002; Ukeje, 2002
& Afemikhe, 2004). For instance, the same policy document provided
that the Nigerian Certificate of Education (NCE) shall be the minimum
qualification of teachers in any level of education system (NPE, 1997,
revised 1998, 2005; p.33), but the reality is completely at variance with
this provision. According to the Situations and policy Analysis jointly
published by the UNICEF and the Federal Government of Nigeria
(1993) the Teachers Grade II certificate is still found among the
qualification of teachers in Nigerian primary schools, in many states in
Nigeria. Also, with the launching of the Universal Basic Education
(UBE) scheme in 1999, when it was found that there exists an
inadequacy in the number of available teachers for the compulsory
basic education scheme for Nigerian school children.
The National Teachers Institute (NTI) was required to introduce the
Pivotal Teachers Training Programme (PTTP) to train a cadre of
teachers for qualification much lower than the NCE and the teachers
Grade II Certificate to cater for the shortage in supply of primary
school teacher needed to met the demands of the demands of the
UBE scheme (NTI, 2004; Tahir, 2001). Amidst this obvious inadequacy
of teacher in sufficient number and quality, Ukeje (2002) echoed the
fact that teachers are the foundation of quality in the school; it is upon
their number, their quality, their effectiveness, their efficiency, and their
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70. education, that depend the quality of the educative process and the
education system.
Whatever is needed in the society is always made a central part of
the school curriculum, so that learners can jointly and severally proffer
potent and innovative solutions to social challenges. But this can only
be meaningful and successful if we have the right caliber of teachers.
All existing teacher education programmes in Nigeria, Diploma in
Education, Bachelor of Education, postgraduate Diploma in Technical
education and the Nigeria Certificate in Education, all have three major
components (Afemikhe, 2004).
These are, to wit, the Foundations of education (Historical,
Psychological, Sociological, Philosophical and Religious Foundations);
Pedagogy courses (classroom Management, Curriculum Design &
Development, Counseling, Design & Construction of Methodology,
Measurement & Evaluation, Counseling, Design & Construction of
Instructional Aids, etc.); and teaching Subjects under the broad
categorizations-science, arts, social sciences. In addition, there is
usually a teaching practice exercise whose duration varies across
institutions. This is what the teacher training model looks like in a
Nigerian Teaching education institution. This model is rather restrictive
in the sense that it fails to take into cognizance the burgeoning
possibilities of information and communication technologies in the
teacher production process. Compounding the issues related to
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