1. Media Effects Paul Emerson TeusnerAugust 2011

2. Effects tradition Asks the question: How do mass media affect us?

3. Why this question?

4. Mass media are... communication/messages/information emanating from an individual or organisational source through electronic or mechanical coding giving multiplication of message to a relatively large heterogeneous and anonymous audience with limited and indirect means of feedback

5. In a mass-mediated society... …we are bombarded by symbolic messages… …derived by others with power… …who are generally inaccessible… …in which individuality is not respected… …over which we have little control through feedback or protest.

6. Different Effects theories Hypodermic Social learning Psychological theory Uses and gratifications Cultivation analysis

7. The “hypodermic” or “magic bullet” approach Based on the Shannon & Weaver model The broadcaster injects his message unhindered into the minds of people Laden with many assumptions

8. Modifications to the theory Intervening variables Opinion leadersExposure, access or attention to the media Differential nature of media Nature and organization of the content Attitudes and psychological disposition of the audience Personal relations of audience members

9. Wilbur Schramm The dominant influence of media = reinforcement Long-term effects that are hard to measure:

10. Lab experiments Bobo Doll

11. Lab experiments Bobo Doll Children who viewed the adult film were more aggressive They used the same type of behaviours as viewed Reward increased aggression More -> more Other experiments

12. Results? It was believed that these experiments demonstrated a link between media and violence. · Direct imitation of play aggression · Vicarious consequences and the acquisition performance distinction · Studies of disinhibitoryeffects

13. Reasons for effect? Social learning theory Arousal Aggression becomes primed Desensitization Included measures of justification and consequences Moral threshold The natural - tempered by morals - reduced by viewing

14. The U.S. Surgeon-General’s Report - 1972 Range of issues studied and methodologies used Conclusions None rejected the nil effects No agreement on what effects “TV violence held unharmful to youth”

15. A crisis in “objective” research Human behaviour is too complex to explain and predict objectively The limitations of empirical methodologies Difficulty in defining “violent media” Policy is not made on the basis of data or even common sense alone

16. The Uses and Gratifications Approach Media as Instruments

17. The Uses and Gratifications The social and psychological origins of needs… …which generate expectations… …of the mass media or other sources… …which lead to differential patterns of media exposure… …resulting in need gratifications… …and other consequences, perhaps mostly unintended ones.

18. Katz, Gurevitch & Haas: "On the Use of Mass Media for Important Things." A. MODE B. CONNECTION 3. REFERENT 1. To Strengthen 2. To Weaken 3. To acquire 1. Cognitive needs(Information, knowledge, understanding) 2. Affective needs(Emotional experience or gratification) 3. Integrative needs(Credibility, confidence, stability/status) 4. Contact 5. Escape with respect to 1. Self 2. Family 3. Friends 4. State, society 5. Tradition/culture 6. World 7. Others

19. Some interesting findings from U & G research The uses and gratifications derived from the different media differ for different population groups and change over an individual's life span. 2. Different media typically serve different needs, although all may be turned to for entertainment and relaxation, and any one may serve all needs to some degree. 3. The mass media become more important the greater the "distance" from a referent. 4. The medium most readily available at a given period will be most heavily used by those with fewest resources.

20. Some interesting findings…. 5. Television as the most accessible medium is very frequently the recourse when there is no involvement in other activities. 6. Media aimed at broad audiences tend to appeal to the least positive in outlook. Those more forward looking tend to prefer the more specialised media. 7. Taste in part reflects what the medium offers.

21. Some interesting findings 8. The search for more satisfying sources of gratification tends to be characterized by "satisficing" behaviour i.e. seeking and choosing alternatives which are satisfactory rather than optimal and reducing one's expectations to the level achieved. 9. Even in media-related needs, personal communication is seen to be more helpful in satisfying needs than mass media. 10. The uses of a new medium may be such that established interests and activities are affected.

22. Reviewing the effects theoretical tradition

23. What they have in common Focus on communication as process Focus on cause and effect Research process: Isolate variables Manipulate and test Explain Predict & control Test of truth: quantify and measure Research methodologies = quantitative

24. The attractiveness of effects theories Relatively simple Builds on our tacit understanding that action has consequences Theories for action Simple theory sets mind free for strategy Learn the techniques you can achieve the results Purports to offer “objective” information – apolitical, indifferent Reinforces the knowledge power structures

25. Criticisms Effects theories tackle social problems backwards The “objective” claim of knowledge hides vested interests Atomistic and fragmenting Treats audiences as dumb Downplays difference Ignores meaning-making