1. A & P Terminology
Bones and joints
Synovial – Freely moveable joints
Appendicular skeleton – bones of the limbs / Axial Skeleton – bones of the central core.
Hyaline Cartilage – covers the ends of bones to reduce friction and absorb shock
Joint capsule – tough fibrous covering of the joint that strengthens and secretes fluid
Ligament – strong bands connecting bone to bone
Bursae – Sac containing fluid that prevent friction where ligaments, bones and muscles rub
Meniscus – wedge of cartilage that improves the fit between bone ends
Pad of Fat – provides cushioning between bone and muscle
Types of joints- B&S, Hinge, Pivot (neck), Condyloid (wrist), Gliding (spine), Saddle (thumb)
Medial – towards the middle / Lateral –towards the outside
Flexion-reducing joint angle/ Extension-increasing joint angle
Horizontal flexion & extension – movement pointing at the horizon
Abduction / adduction – movement away from and towards the midline of body
Pronation / supination – palms down / bowl of soup
Dorsiflexion / plantarflexion – toes to shin / pointing toes
Muscles
Skeletal muscle –attaches to and moves the skeleton
Origin / insertion – muscle attachment to bones that stay still / move
Agonist / Antagonist – muscle that is responsible for movement / opposite muscle
Fixator muscle – stabilises the origin so movement occurs freely
Know major muscles working across joints and strengthening exercises
Isometric contraction – muscle exerts a force but there is no movement
Isotonic contraction - a muscle exerts a force but changes length by shortening (concentric –
usually against gravity) or lengthening (eccentric usually with gravity)
Slow oxidative muscles – red, small, lots of capillaries, slower and weaker in contraction, low
fatigue resistance eg. gastrocnemius of marathon runner.
Fast glycolytic muscles – white, big, few capillaries, fatser and stronger contractions, fatigue
quickly eg. Gastrocnemius of 100m sprinter
Fast oxidative glycolytic muscles – in the middle eg. gastrocnemius of1500m
Effects of a warm-up on muscle – Greater strength and speed of contraction due to improved
elasticity, nerve transmission, temperature, enzyme activity. Reduce injury.
Motion
Linear motion –movement in a straight or curved line at the same distance, direction and speed
Eg. Toboggan or shot put in flight
Angular motion – when a body or part moves in a circle around an axis. Eg.Gymast on high bar
General motion – combination of above. Eg. Most sport (javelin thrower)
Force – push or pull that alters the state of motion by either causing a body at rest to move
(penalty kick), a moving body to change direction(snooker ball), accelerate (tennis serve) or
decelerate (Stopping on skis) and/or change it’s shape (squash ball)
Newtons 3 laws – Inertia (staying at rest or in motion), Acceleration (proportional force to
change in movement) and equal and opposite reactions (pushing off the ground to sidestep)
Centre of Mass – point at which the body is balanced in all directions. May be inside or outside
the body.
Stability –hoe difficult it is to disturb a body. Depends upon position of C of Mass, line of
gravity, base of support and mass of the athlete
Direct force – acts through the C of M creating linear motion (no spin)
Eccentric force – passes outside the C of M creating angular motion (topspin in tennis)

2. Cardiovascular system
Aerobic / anaerobic – exercise that takes place with or without oxygen
Aerobic exercise involves the interaction of respiratory, heart and vascular systems
Structures in the heart – atria, ventricles, valves, septum, veins and arteries entering/leaving
Pulmonary – linked to the lungs
Conduction system – myogenic electrical impulse that stimulated the heart to contract. SA
node (R atrium)-delay-AV node, bundle of His, left and right branches, Purkinje fibres
(ventricles)
Cardiac cycle – corresponding actions of diastole (relaxation) and systole (contraction) that
make up one heart beat. Happens because of the conduction system.
Bradycardia – a resting HR below 60.
Hypertrophy – increase in size of muscle ( can be heart or skeletal)
Cardiac output – the volume of blood ejected from the ventricles in one minute
Stroke volume – blood ejected from the ventricles in one beat
Max Heart rate = 220 –age, Q=SV x HR
Know resting and maximal values for SV, HR, Q
Max SV is limited by HR.
SV is limited by venous return (blood flow back to the heart) Starling’s Law. This may be
effected by exercise position.
HR graphs for maximal and submaximal exercise
Oxygen debt – additional oxygen required during recovery above that usually required at rest
CCC – medula oblongata, regulates HR by monitoring the receptors (sense organs that monitor
the body) and increase SA node firing (sympathetic nerve) or decrease firing (para
sympathetic)
Neural control – proprioceptors (movement), chemoreceptors ( CO2, O2, pH in blood),
Baroreceptors (stretch in blood vessel walls)
Hormonal control – adrenalin monitoring
Intrinsic control – temperature and venous return monitoring
Blood supply
Pulmonary and systemic circulation – blood flow to and from the heart, lungs and body
Arteries / Arterioles – O2 rich blood away from heart, large muscle wall (more pressure),
Vasodilate and vasoconstrict, Pre-capillary sphincters control blood flow into capillaries
Veins / venuoles – de-oxygenated blood back to heart, large lumen and thin walls, pocket
valves direct blood flow
Venous return – is the transport of blood through the veins back to the heart, Starling’s law
states that VR effects SV and hence Q so 5 mechanisms work to maintain venous return:
Pocket valves – one-way valves prevent back flow, muscle pump – skeletal muscle contracts
near veins helping to squeeze blood, respiratory pump- large veins in the abdomen being
squeezed by deeper/faster breathing, smooth muscle – muscles in vein walls contract,
Gravity – blood from upper body is pushed by gravity. Link with active cool-down.
Blood pooling – heavy legs caused by blood sitting in veins after exercise with no cool-down.
Q at rest vs exercise- rest 15% muscles, 85% organs, exercise 85% muscles, 15% organs.
Redistributing Q = vascular shunt. Brain gets the same amount, skin gets more in heavier
work (heat loss).
VCC - chemoreceptors ( CO2, O2, pH in blood), Baroreceptors (stretch in blood vessel walls) tell
VCC to open arterial and venous walls and pre-capillary sphincters to open during exercise.
O2 carried in blood by haemoglobin (97%) as oxyhaemoglobin, and blood plasma (3%).
CO2 carried in blood by RBC as Carbonic acid (70%) (acid in blood?) , haemoglobin as
carbaminohaemoglobin (23%) and plasma (7%).
Warm-up benefits on vascular system- vascular shunt (vaso constriction/dilation in muscles
and organs), Increase temp increases O2 dissociation (enzymes), decreases blood viscosity
and decrease OBLA (onset of blood lactic acid)
Cooldown benefits on VS – maintains respiratory/muscle pumps, blood pressure and removes
lactic acid.

3. Respiratory system
1. Pulmonary ventilation- getting air in/out of lungs
Lung structure- lobes, bronchii, bronchioles, alveoli (sacs). Alveoli gas exchange by large
surface area, thin cell layer, lots of blood capillaries and moist lining.
Pleura attach lungs to ribs allowing for movement.
Mechanics – muscles (diaphragm, intercostals) create movement (ribs and sternum)
changing thoracic cavity changes (bigger IN, smaller OUT) changing lung air pressure (low
IN, high OUT) and movement of air. More muscles and force cause greater changes during
exercise. Know table Page 95 and values P96
VE (minute ventilation) = TV (tidal volume) x f (frequency). This and ventilation response to
exercise (p 97) is very similar to the heart.
Inspiratory and expiratory reserves – maximum capacities after a normal breath
Know the graph of a respiratory trace
2. External respiration – exchange of O2 and CO2 in lungs and blood
Partial pressure – pressure of a gas within a mixture of gases PPO2, PPCO2
Gases always move from areas of high to low pressure so O2 is drawn out of the air in CO2
forced back into it as we breathe.
PPO2 – atmosphere 159, alveoli 100, arteries 100, muscles (rest) 40, muscles (exercise) <5.
PPCO2 – atmosphere 0.3, alveoli 40, veins (rest) 46, muscles (rest) 46, muscles (ex) 80?
Diffusion gradients – (difference between high and low pressure) become greater during
exercise – hence more gas is exchanged
3. Internal respiration – exchange of O2 and CO2 in blood and muscle tissue.
Haemoglobin transfer O2 to myoglobin for use in mitochondria as energy production
Oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve – more gas is exchanged during exercise (the
graph or S curve moves to the right) because of an increase in Temp, increase in acidity
(pH Bohr effect), decrease in PPO2, increase in PPCO2.
RCC - proprioceptors (movement), chemoreceptors ( CO2, O2, pH in blood), Baro (lung
stretch) thermoreceptors monitor changes and change inspiration / expiration accordingly.
Hering-breuer reflex – safety mechanism to stop over inflation of lungs
Altitude effects respiration by lower PPO2 in air effecting diffusion gradients and causing
fatigue and hyperventilation, colder air increases water loss – dehydration.
Long term training increases Haemoglobin levels and RBC production increasing Ext. Resp.
and O2 transport