1. Introduction to
Pharmacology
Practicum of Health Science
Technology 2009 - 2010

2. What is Pharmacology?
• Pharmaceutical derived from the
Greek word for poison
• A science that studies drug effects
within a living system
• Deals with all drugs used in society
today, legal or illegal, including
street, prescription, and non-
prescription or over –the-counter
medications

3. Drug
• A drug is defined as any
substance used in the diagnosis,
cure, treatment, or prevention of
a disease or condition

4. Drug Names
• Chemical Name
• Generic Name
• Trade Name

5. Chemical Name
• Describes its molecular structure
and distinguishes it from other
drugs

6. Generic name
• Determined by the
pharmaceutical company along
with a special organization
known as the U.S. Adopted
Names Council (USAN)

7. Trade Name
• Or brand name- the
manufacturer selects alone…can
become a registered trademark.
They are the only one who can
advertise and market the drug
under that name

8. How is the Trade Name Chosen?
• The particular spelling of a brand
name drug is proposed by a
manufacturer for one of several
reasons.

9. 1. To indicate the disease
process being treated
• Azmacort- treats asthma
• Rythmol- treats cardiac
arrhythmias

10. 2. To simplify the generic
name
• Pseudoephedrine to Sudefed
• Haloperidol to Haldol
• Ciprofloxacin to Cipro

11. 3. To indicate the duration
• Slow-K slow release
potassium supplement

12. Prescription Drugs
• Or legend drugs
• Means in order to obtain drug, you
must have a legal prescription

13. Non-Prescription Drugs
• Or Over-the-Counter (OTC) drugs
• Drug that may be purchased without
a prescription

14. Sources of Drugs
Drugs and biological products have
been identified or derived from four
main sources:
• Plants
• Animals and Humans
• Minerals and Mineral Products
• Synthetic or Chemical Substances
Made in the Laboratory

15. Active Constituents of Plant
Drugs
• The leaves, roots, seeds, and other
parts of plants may be dried or
otherwise processed for use as a
medicine and , as such, are known as
Crude drugs.
• Their therapeutic effect is produced
by the chemical substances they
contain

16. Active Constituents of Plant
Drugs
• When the pharmacologically active
parts are separated from the crude
preparation, the resulting substances
are more potent and usually produce
effects more reliably than the crude
drug.

17. Active Constituents of Plant
Drugs
• Some of the types of
pharmacologically active compounds
found in plants, grouped according to
their physical and chemical
properties, are alkaloids, glycosides,
gums and oils

18. Alkaloids
• Organic compounds that are alkaline
in nature and are chemically
combined with acids in the
laboratory to form water – soluble
salts
• Example – Morphine Sulfate

19. Glycosides
• Active plant substances that, on
hydrolysis, yield sugar plus one or
more additional active substances
• The sugar is believed to increase the
solubility, absorption, permeability,
and cellular distribution of the
glycoside
• Example - Digoxin

20. Gums
• Plant exudates
• When water is added, some of them will swell and
form gelatinous masses
• Others remain unchanged in the GI tract, where
they act as hydrophilic colloids
• They absorb water, form watery bulk, and exert a
laxative effect
• Are also used to soothe irritated skin and mucous
membranes
• Example – Psyllium seeds are a natural laxative
gum
• Example – Carboxymethylcellulose are synthetic
colloids

21. Oils
• Highly viscous liquids and are
generally of two kinds
1. Volatile
2. Fixed

22. Volatile Oil
• Imparts an aroma to a plant
• Because of their pleasant odor and
taste, these oils are frequently used as
flavoring agents
• Evaporate easily
• Typically non-greasy
• Example – Peppermint

23. Fixed Oil
• Generally greasy and do not
evaporate easily
• Example – Castor Oil

24. Drug Classification
• Can be approached from two
perspectives
1. Clinical Indication
Example – Bronchodilator Drugs
2. Body System
Example – Drugs Affecting the
Nervous System

25. Controlled Substances
• Drugs which are classified according to
their use and abuse potential
• Term originated in 1970 as a result of the
Controlled Substances Act which was
developed to provide increased research
into, and prevention of, drug abuse and
drug dependence; to provide treatment
and rehabilitation of drug abusers and
drug dependent persons; and to improve
the administration and regulation of the
manufacturing, distributing, and
dispensing of controlled substances

26. Schedule of Controlled
Substances
• Classifies drugs solely according to
their use and abuse potential
• Drugs are classified into numbered
levels, or schedules, from Schedule I
to Schedule V
• Drugs with the highest abuse
potential are placed in Schedule I;
those with the lowest potential for
abuse are in Schedule V

27. Investigational Drugs
• The multibillion dollar
pharmaceutical industry is constantly
screening substances with potential
to market as new drugs
• Prospective drugs take anywhere
from 5 – 10+ years and huge amounts
of money to progress through the
Food and Drug Administration
required testing sequence

28. Drug Design
• New drugs are discovered in one of
two ways
1. Totally new chemical substance
2. Derived from molecular
manipulation of a current drug

29. Drug Design
• Until recently,designing a new
drug by changing the
molecular structure of an
existing drug was a very slow
process of trial and error

30. Recombinant DNA technology
Gene splicing or genetic engineering
• Aided by computer design and use of
enzymes, researchers are able to
remove DNA chemically from one
organism and transplant into other

31. Testing
• In vitro- in glass
• In vivo- in living
• Many guidelines set by FDA

32. Animal Phase
• Precedes human testing
• Watching for toxic effects,side
effects, addictions, cancerous
tumors or fetal deformities

33. Animal Phase
• Calculating the Therapeutic
Index (TI) …. The difference
between the dosage that
produces a Therapeutic Effect
and the dosage that produces a
Toxic Effect

34. Animal Phase
• NOT always a reliable
indicator of how well a drug
will perform in humans.

35. Animal Phase
• Modes of Absorption
• Distribution
• Metabolism
• Excretion

36. Human Testing
• Occurs in three phases
• All participants must be given
informed consent

37. Informed Consent
• Written consent to an experimental
procedure by an individual after he
or she has been given a careful
explanation of the purpose of the
study, procedure to be used, the
expected effects, and the risks
involved

38. Nuremberg Code
• Developed under the guidance of
American physicians as a result of
the post World War II trials at
Nuremberg of Nazi physicians who
had conducted experiments on
political prisoners without their
consent

39. The Code states:
• Truly voluntary consent of the
human subject is critical
• The experiment must be proved to be
valid or made possible only through
the use of human subjects
• The results and risks are justified by
the study

40. The Nuremberg Code
• Unnecessary suffering, death, or
disability will be avoided
• The experiment will be conducted in
a careful and professional manner by
scientifically qualified persons
• The subject or the investigator may
terminate the experiment at any
point that it is felt unendurable or
impossible

41. Human Testing: Phase I
• Healthy volunteers used to study
absorption, distribution, metabolism,
and routes of elimination or
excretion
• Safe dose range, evaluate side effects
and establish a correct dosage for
therapeutic effect.
• Blood tests, urine analysis, vital signs,
and specific monitoring tests are
performed during this phase

42. Human Testing: Phase II
• Drug is administered at gradually
increasing dosages to selected
individuals with the targeted disease
• During this phase individuals are
closely monitored for drug
effectiveness and for side effects
• If no serious side effects occur, the
study will progress to Phase III

43. Human Testing: Phase III
• Drug is ready for testing at various
different centers in larger numbers
than previous phases
• Standard protocols have been
established to be followed at each
center

44. Human Testing: Phase III
• Objectives for this phase are:
- Determination of clinical
effectiveness
- Drug Safety determination
- Establishment of tolerated dosage
or dosage range

45. Human Testing: Phase
III
• Group A
• all patients with the disorder
receive the new drug being
studied
• results compared to next two
groups for side effects and ability
to treat disorder

46. Human Testing: Phase
III
• Group B
• all patients have disorder meant
to be treated by new drug
• all patients receive a placebo and
results are compared to other 2
groups

47. Human Testing: Phase
III
• Group C
• all patients have disorder meant
to be treated by new drug
• patients will be treated by
another drug currently being
used to treat disorder

48. FDA Approval
• After reviewing all
documentation on the safety
and effectiveness of the new
drug
• May be protected by a patent
for up to 17 years

49. Pregnancy Safe Categories
• Before using any drug during pregnancy,
the expected benefits should be considered
against the possible risks to the fetus
• The FDA has established a scale to indicate
drugs that may have documented
problems in animals and/or humans
during pregnancy
• For many drugs, this information is
unknown

50. Category A
• Adequate and well – controlled
studies indicate no risk to the fetus in
the first trimester of pregnancy, and
there is no evidence of risk in later
trimesters.

51. Category B
• Animal reproduction studies indicate
no risk to the fetus and there are no
well – controlled studies in pregnant
women

52. Category C
• Animal reproduction studies have
reported adverse effects on the fetus;
and there are no well – controlled
studies in humans, but potential
benefits may indicate use of the drug
in pregnant women despite potential
risks

53. Category D
• Positive human fetal risk has been
reported in data from investigational
or marketing experience, or human
studies
• Considering potential benefit versus
risk may, in selected cases, warrant
the use of these drugs in pregnant
women

54. Category X
• Fetal abnormalities reported and
positive evidence of fetal risk in
humans is available from animal
and/or human studies
• The risks involved outweigh the
potential benefits
• These drugs should NOT be used in
pregnant women

55. Medication Orders
• Verbal Order
• Telephone Order
• Incomplete Order
• Incorrect or Inappropriate Order
• Invalid Order
• Orders for Unfamiliar Drugs

56. Medication Order
Should Include:
• Name of patient medication is to be
administered
• Medication name
• Dosage
• Route
• Time of administration
• Signature of prescriber

57. Verbal Order
• Given or received verbally
• All orders must be written prior to
administration

58. Telephone Order
• An order given over the telephone
• Prescriber must sign order within
48h of administration
• Person receiving the orders should
listen to the order, write it down,
then repeat it back to the prescriber
completely for verification prior to
ending the call

59. Incomplete Order
• Orders that are not complete in
patient name, medication name, dose,
route, time, or signature must be
clarified and corrected BEFORE
administration

60. Incorrect or Inappropriate
Order
• May be judged by the administrator as
being incorrect, or inappropriate for the
client it is ordered
• It is the administrator’s RIGHT and
RESPONSIBILITY to question ANY
order or action that is potentially harmful
to the patient
• To carry out an order that one knows to
be incorrect constitutes negligence
• To change an order by modifying any part
of it without the consultation with the
prescriber is ILLEGAL

61. Incorrect or Inappropriate
Order
• Validate the order by consulting an
authoritative reference source such as a
drug reference book
• If the order is apparently incorrect,
objectively report the conflicting facts and
discuss it with the prescriber
• If the prescriber still wants the medication
given as ordered after the objections have
been stated the immediate supervisors, or
managers should be sought

62. Incorrect or Inappropriate
Order
• If the prescriber decides to
administer the medication themselves
make sure the documentation reflects
the objections and actions that have
taken place

63. Invalid Order
• Orders signed by medical students,
unlicensed interns and medical
residents; and physicians who do not
have prescriptive authority at your
institution should not be
administered until the order is
verified and clarification is made

64. Order for Unfamiliar Drug
• Prior to administration of an unfamiliar
medication, the administrator should
“Look It Up” or “Ask the Pharmacists”!
• Administration of an unfamiliar
medication while remaining in ignorance
of its actions, its intended effects and side
effects, and its adverse reactions is
considered negligence if it results in harm
to the patient

65. 5 Rights of Drug Administration
1. Right Medication
2. Right Patient
3. Right Dosage
4. Right Route
5. Right Time

66. Medical Terminology

67. Instructions
Define the following terms in your
interactive note book. Utilize KIM
technique with the K = Key word/
key term; I = Information/
Definition; and M = Memory Cue –
something that will help you to
remember the term. Maybe a
picture, word, or phrase.

68. Terms
• Pharmacology • Alkaloid
• Pharmacopeia • Glycoside
• Drug • Gums
• Chemical Name • Hydrophilic
• Generic Name • Water – soluble
• Trade Name • Volatile oil
• Prescription Drug • Fixed oil
• Non-prescription
Drug

69. Terms
• Controlled • Toxic effect
Substance • Alkaline
• Therapeutic Index • Hydrolysis
• Therapeutic effect • Distribution
• Informed Consent • Metabolism
• Crude drugs • Excretion

70. Medical Abbreviations

71. • USAN – United States Adopted Name
Council
• OTC – Over – the – Counter
• PDR – Physician’s Desk Reference
• FDA – Food and Drug Administration
• DEA – Drug Enforcement Administration
• TI – Therapeutic Index
• VO – Verbal order
• TO – Telephone order

72. VIP of the Week

73. Alexander Fleming
Instructions: Research this person and write
the following in your interactive notebook.
• Who is he? Describe him as a person.
• What significance did he have to medicine,
science, or health care?
• How can you utilize his contribution in
your profession?
• How did his contribution affect the world?