1. CHAPTER ONE
BIODIVERSITY AND
CONSERVATION

4. Biodiversity
Biodiversity, or biological diversity = the sum of an
area’s organisms, considering the diversity of
species, their genes, their populations, and their
communities
There is no one exact definition of biodiversity;
people have conceived of it in many ways.

5. Components of biodiversity
Genetic Species
diversity diversity
Ecosystem
diversity

6. Components of biodiversity:
Genetic diversity – genetic variation within
populations or species.
Species diversity – numbers of species within an
area
Ecosystem diversity – variation among ecosystems,
communities, landscapes

7. GENETIC DIVERSITY
Genetic diversity can refer to the sum total of
all different forms of genetic information
carried by a particular species, or by all
organisms on Earth.
 Within each species, genetic diversity refers
to the total of all different forms of genes
present in that species.

8. Genetic diversity - genetic variability or diversity
within a species, i.e. between the individuals of a
species
Example ; 5,000 recorded varieties of mango
88,000 recorded varieties of Oryza sativa

9. Genetic diversity
• Includes the differences
in DNA composition
among individuals within a given species
Adaptation to particular environmental conditions may
weed out genetic variants that are not successful.
But populations benefit from some genetic diversity, so as
to avoid inbreeding or disease epidemics.

10. Species diversity
• The number or variety of
species in a particular region
Species richness = number of species
Species = a particular type of organism; a population
or group of populations whose members share certain
characteristics and can freely breed with one another
and produce fertile offspring

11. To date, biologists have identified and named
more than 1.8 million species, and they estimate
that at least 30 million more are yet be
discovered.

12. Species diversity - diversity between different
species
Example ; Felis tigris
Felis domestica

13. Ecosystem diversity
Ecosystem diversity refers
to the variety of habitats,
communities, and
ecological processes in
the biosphere.

15. The Value of Biodiversity
Why is biodiversity important?
Biodiversity’s benefits to society include
contributions to medicine and agriculture,
and the provision of ecosystem goods and
services.

16. Biodiversity is a natural asset that
provides goods and services
Food  Recreation
Medicine  Inspiration
Materials  Spiritual stimulation
Chemical products  Contemplation
Water & soil supply  Peace of mind
Climate regulation  Religious experiences
Science & technology
It contributes to the
It contributes to the
Sewage & garbage treatment social, economic,
social, economic,
Biological control intellectual and
intellectual and
Pollination spiritual development
spiritual development
of society.
of society.

17. The Value of Biodiversity
Intrinsic/inherent value
Extrinsic/utilitarian/
instrumental value
Source: Burmbaugh © AMNH-CBC

18. Intrinsic/inherent value
The value of
something
independent of its
value to anyone or
anything else
A philosophical
concept
Source: Frey © AMNH-CBC

19. Extrinsic Value
Extrinsic value is a broad category
encompassing many types of biodiversity
values.
Extrinsic values – also referred to as utilitarian
or use values
19

20. Extrinsic values – utilitarian or use values–
include biodiversity’s direct or indirect use to
other living things
20

21. Categorizing Values
Direct Use Value(Goods) Indirect Use Value Non-Use Values
(Services)
Food, medicine, building Atmospheric and climate Potential (or Option) Future value either as a
material, fiber, fuel regulation, pollination, Value good or service
nutrient recycling
Cultural, Spiritual and Existence Value Value of knowing
Aesthetic something exists
Bequest Value Value of knowing that
something will be there
for future generations

22. Direct Use Value: Goods
 Food
 Building Materials
 Fuel
 Paper Products
 Fiber (clothing, textiles)
 Industrial products
(waxes, rubber, oils)
 Medicine
Source: © AMNH-CBC

23. Food
 Today, most people rely on
~20 types of plants, and only
3 to 4 are staple crops.
 Diversity is critical for
developing new strains and
breeds, i.e. that suit a
particular environment or
are resistant to pests or
disease and as a source of Source: © AMNH-CBC
new crops

24. Building Materials, Paper Products, and Fuel
Source: © AMNH-CBC

25. Fiber
Source: USDA Cotton Program
Source: USDA Photo b Ken Hammond

26. Industrial Products
Originating plant or animal Product/End use
Cork oak (Quercus suber) Cork
PARē RUBBER TREE (HEVEA Rubber
BRASILIENSIS)
Lac insect (Laccifer spp.) shellac
CARNAUBA PALM (COPERNICIA CERIFERA) CARNAUBA WAX
Wax plant (Euphorbia antisyphilitica) candelilla wax
Jojoba plant (Simmondsia chinensis) jojoba oil
Cochineal insect (Dactylopius coccus) CARMINE DYE*

27. Medicine
About 80% of the
people in developing
countries use plants
as a primary source
of medicine.
57% of the 150 most-
Source: © AMNH-CBC
prescribed drugs
have their origins in
biodiversity

28. Traditional Medicine:Basis of Many Drugs
Drug Source Use
Barbaloin, aloe-emodin Aloe (Aloe spp.) antibacterial, skin
conditions, purgative
Atropine Belladonna (Atopa Relaxant, sedative
belladonna)
Codeine Opium poppy (Papaver Painkiller
somniferum)
Colchicine Autumn crocus Anticancer agent
(Colchicum autumnale)
Digitoxin Common foxglove Cardiac stimulant
(Digitalis purpurea)
Ephedrine, Joint fir (Ephedra sinica) Asthma, emphysema,
Pseudoephedrine bronchiodilator, hay fever
L-Dopa Velvet bean (Mucuna Parkinson’s disease
deeringiana)
Menthol Mint (Menta spcs.) Nasal congestion
Morphine Opium poppy (Papaver Painkiller
somniferum)
Quinine Yellow cinchona Malaria
(Cinchona ledgeriana)
Reserpine Indian snakeroot Hypertension
(Rauvolfia serpentina)
Scopolamine Thornapple (Datura metel) Sedative
Taxol Pacific Yew (Taxus Anticancer
brevifolia)
Vinblastine, vincristine Rosy periwinkle Leukemia
(Catharanthus roseus)

29. Indirect Use Values: Services
 Regulating global processes, such as
atmosphere and climate
 Soil and water conservation
 Nutrient cycling
 Pollination and seed dispersal
 Control of agricultural pests
 Genetic library
 Inspiration and information
 Scientific and educational
 Tourism and recreation
 Cultural, spiritual, and aesthetic
 Community Resilience
 Strategic
Source: © AMNH-CBC

30. Global Processes:
Atmospheric Regulation
 Photosynthetic biodiversity -
releases oxygen
 moderates the rising amounts
of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
Source: Frey © AMNH-CBC

31. Forests and other vegetation affect sun
reflectance, water vapor release, wind patterns,
and moisture loss.
31

32. Global Processes: Climate Regulation
Source: Bain © AMNH-CBC

33. Besides regulating the atmosphere’s composition, the
extent and distribution of different types of vegetation
over the globe modifies climate in three main ways:
i) affecting the reflectance of sunlight (radiation
balance)
ii) regulating the release of water vapor
(evapotranspiration)
iii) changing wind patterns and moisture loss (surface
roughness).
33

34. Vegetation absorbs water from the soil and releases it
back into the atmosphere through evapotranspiration,
which is the major pathway for water to move from the
soil to the atmosphere. This release of water from
vegetation cools the air temperature.
34

35. In the Amazon region, vegetation and climate is
tightly coupled; evapotranspiration of plants is
believed to contribute fifty percent of the annual
rainfall.
Deforestation in this region leads to a complex
feedback mechanism: as forest cover decreases,
evapotranspiration rates decline, which in turn
decreases rainfall and increases the area’s
vulnerability to fire.
35

36. Soil and Water Conservation
Example: Coastal wetlands and mangroves
• Filters excess nutrients and
traps sediments that
would otherwise impact
neighboring marine and
aquatic areas
Other services:
• Minimizes damage from
waves and floods
• Serves as a nursery for
juvenile commercial fish Source: Ersts © AMNH-CBC
• Provides habitat for many
birds, fish, and shellfish

37. Biodiversity is also important for global soil
and water protection.
Terrestrial vegetation in forests and other
upland habitats maintain water quality and
quantity, and control soil erosion.
37

38. In watersheds where vegetation has been removed,
flooding prevails in the wet season and drought in
the dry season.
Soil erosion is also more intense and rapid, causing
a double effect: removing nutrient-rich topsoil and
leading to siltation in downstream riverine and
ultimately oceanic environments.
38

39. This example focuses on services provided by
coastal wetlands and mangroves.
Wetlands are ecosystems where water is present
at or near the soil surface or root zone for part or
all of the year; the vegetation found in these
regions is adapted for these conditions.
39

40. Wetlands are among the world's most
productive ecosystems and provide a range of
ecological services, including
- filtering excess nutrients
- trapping sediments
- minimizing damage to coastal areas from floods
and waves
- providing critical habitat for many birds, fish, and
shellfish – in particular the juvenile stage of several
commercial fish.
40

41. The services of a wetland are not easy to replace if they
are removed.
Dams and water treatment facilities are the engineering
equivalent of a wetland, but are often very expensive to
build and maintain.
According to the US Army Corps of Engineers, without
the 3,800 hectares of wetlands that exist along the
Charles River in Boston, Massachusetts, flood damage
would cost $17 million per year. This is one method to
establish a value for biodiversity – by its “replacement
value
41

42. Nutrient Cycling
Biodiversity is
critical to nutrient
cycling and soil
renewal
Decomposers such as
algae, fungi, and
bacteria
Source: Snyder © AMNH-CBC

43. The flow of nutrients through an ecosystem is
critical to its health.
Biodiversity (including algae, fungi, bacteria, and
insects) decompose organic matter, recycling
and returning nutrients to soils. [The image is of
a decomposing deer.]
43

44. Pollination and Seed Dispersal
 Many flowering plants
depend on animals for
pollination to produce
food.
 30% of human crops
depend on free services
of pollinators;
replacement value
estimated billions of
dollars/year in US alone Source: Spector© AMNH-CBC

45. Source of Inspiration
or Information
Biomimicry
Applied Biology
Medical Models
Education and Scientific
Research
Source: Brumbaugh © AMNH-CBC

46. Medical Models
Hibernating bears may
improve the treatment of:
 trauma patients
 kidney disease
 osteoporosis
Source: New Jersey Fish and Wildlife

47. Biodiversity also provides a source of medical
models to better understand diseases.
Understanding how bears are able to hibernate
may uncover new ways to assist trauma patients
and treat kidney disease and osteoporosis.
47

48. Bears hibernate for 150 days, stopping all
normal functions (such as eating, drinking,
urinating, and defecating).
Bears are able to accomplish this arrest of
bodily functions by lowering their body
temperature only slightly – by 5 degrees Celsius.
Scientists have discovered a protein that
induces hibernation, slowing organ metabolism
and blood coagulation.
48

49. One application of this discovery could be to
slow bleeding in trauma patients while in transit
to the emergency room.
During hibernation, bears are also able to
recycle their urine and use it to rebuild tissue.
This ability may be useful for treating kidney
illnesses.
Finally, bears also manage to survive
hibernation with minimal bone loss, which may
provide solutions for people suffering from
osteoporosis
49

50. Aesthetic Value
Source: Brumbaugh © AMNH-CBC

51. Another example of cultural values is the
aesthetic value that different cultures find in
biodiversity.
In fact many of the first national parks and
protected areas were created to protect beautiful
and awe-inspiring landscapes.
51

52. Ecological Value: Does Diversity Make
Communities More Resilient?
 Resilient ecosystems are characterized by:
 Constancy (Lack of fluctuation)
 Inertia (Resistance to perturbation)
 Renewal (Ability to repair damage)
 Not all species are critical to an ecosystems function; many
fill redundant roles; basis for community resilience and
integrity
 If too many species or keystone species are lost, eventually
it leads to the failure of ecosystem function

53. Natural communities are finely tuned systems, where
each species has an ecological value to the other species
that are part of that ecosystem.
Species diversity increases an ecosystem’s stability and
resilience, in particular its ability to adapt and respond to
changing environmental conditions.
If a certain amount, or type (such as a keystone species)
of species are lost, eventually it leads to the loss of
ecosystem function.
Many ecosystems though have built-in redundancies so
that two or more species’ functions may overlap.
53

54. Because of these redundancies, several changes in the
number or type of species may not impact an ecosystem.
However, not all species within an ecosystem are of the
same importance.
Species that are important due to their sheer numbers
are often called dominant species.
These species make up the most biomass of an
ecosystem.
Species that have important ecological roles that are
greater than one would expect based on their abundance
are called keystone species.
54

55. These species are often central to the structure of an
ecosystem;
removal of one or several keystone species may have
consequences immediately, or decades or centuries later
(Jackson et al. 2001).
Ecosystems are complex and difficult to study, thus it is
often difficult to identify keystone species.
In the following example, the impact of removing an
individual or several keystone species from kelp forest
ecosystems in the Pacific is examined.
55

56. Kelp Forest Food Webs
Source: Brumbaugh © AMNH-CBC
http://research.amnh.org/biodiversity/crisis/index.html

57. Kelp forests, as their name suggests, are dominated by
kelp, a brown seaweed of the family Laminariales.
They are found in shallow, rocky habitats from
temperate to subarctic regions, and are important
ecosystems for many commercially valuable fish and
invertebrates.
Sea otters (Enhydra lutris) are considered a keystone
species, as a result of their role in structuring the kelp
forest habitats found off the coast of western North
America.
57

58. The illustrations show kelp forest food webs in the
presence and absence of sea otters, and demonstrate
how the loss of this keystone species can drastically alter
and reduce ecosystem function and complexity.
58

59. Non-Use or Passive Values
Existence value
Bequest value
Potential or Option value

60. Valuing Biodiversity
 Biodiversity is one of Earth’s greatest natural
resources. When biodiversity is lost, significant value
to the biosphere and to humanity may be lost along
with it.
 Biodiversity’s benefits to society include
contributions to medicine and agriculture, and the
provision of ecosystem goods and services.

61. Biodiversity and Medicine
 Wild species are the original source of many
medicines. For example, a foxglove plant contains
compounds called digitalins that are used to
treat heart disease.
 These plant compounds are assembled
according to instructions coded in genes.
 The genetic information carried by diverse species
is like a “natural library” from which we have a
great deal to learn.

62. Biodiversity and Agriculture
 Most crop plants have wild relatives. For
example, wild potatoes in South America come in
many colorful varieties.
 These wild plants may carry genes we can use
—through plant breeding or genetic
engineering—to transfer disease or pest resistance,
or other useful traits, to crop plants.

63. Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services
The number and variety of species
in an ecosystem can influence that
ecosystem’s stability, productivity,
and value to humans.

64. Sometimes the presence or absence of a single
keystone species, like the sea otter, can completely
change the nature of life in an ecosystem. When the
otter population falls, the population of its favorite
prey, sea urchins, goes up. Population increases in sea
urchins cause a dramatic decrease in the population of
sea kelp, the sea urchin’s favorite food.
 Also, healthy and diverse ecosystems play a vital
role in maintaining soil, water, and air quality

65. Benefits of biodiversity
Preserving biodiversity preserves ecosystem
services, and directly provides things of pragmatic
value to us.
• Food, fuel, and fiber
• Shelter and building materials
• Air and water purification
• Waste decomposition
• Climate stabilization and moderation
• Nutrient cycling
• Soil fertility
• Pollination
• Pest control
• Genetic resources

66. Benefits of biodiversity: Food security
Many species not now
commonly used for
food could be.
Genetic diversity
within crop species
and their relatives
enhances our
agriculture and
provides insurance
against losses of
prevalent strains of
staple crops.
Figure 15.11

67. Benefits of biodiversity: Medicine
Many species can provide
novel medicines; we don’t
want to drive these extinct
without ever discovering
their uses.
Ten of our top 25 drugs
come directly from wild
plants; the rest we
developed because of
studying the chemistry of
wild species.

68. Benefits of biodiversity:
Economic benefits
For all nations, ecotourism can be a major
contributor to the economy—especially for
developing nations rich in biodiversity.
Affluent tourists pay good money to see wildlife,
novel natural communities, and protected
ecosystems.

69. Benefits of biodiversity: “Biophilia”
Biophilia = human love for and attachment to other living
things;
“the connections that human beings subconsciously seek
out with the rest of life”
e.g., Affinity for parks and wildlife
Keeping of pets
Valuing real estate with landscape views
Interest in escaping cities to go hiking,
birding, fishing, hunting, backpacking…

70. Hot- spots of Biodiversity
 A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with a
significant reservoir of biodiversity that is threatened
with destruction.
 An area is designated as a hot spot when it contains at
least 0.5% of plant species as endemic.
 There are 25 such hot spots of biodiversity on a global
level.

71. Criteria for determining hot-spots
 No. of Endemic Species i.e. the species
which are found no where else.
 Degree of threat, which is measured in
terms of Habitat loss.

72. THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

73. Threats to Biodiversity
What are the most significant threats to
biodiversity?

74. Biodiversity loss and species
extinction
Extinction = last member of a species dies and the
species vanishes forever from Earth
Extirpation = disappearance of a particular
population, but not the entire species globally
These are natural processes.
On average one species goes extinct naturally
every 500–1,000 years—this is the background rate of
extinction.
99% of all species that ever lived are now extinct.

75. .
Mass extinctions
Earth has experienced five mass extinction events in
which over half its species were wiped out suddenly.
Figure 15.8

76. Today’s mass extinction
Currently Earth is undergoing its sixth mass extinction
—because of us.
Humans have increased the extinction rate by a factor
of 1,000.
1,100 species are known to have gone extinct in the
past 400 years.
The Red List, from the IUCN, lists species that today
are facing high risks of extinction.

77. Today’s mass extinction
Species of large
mammals and birds
plummeted with the
arrival of humans,
independently, on
each of three
continents—
suggesting that
human hunting was
the cause.
Figure 15.9

78. Causes of species extinction
Primary causes spell “HIPPO”:
• Habitat alteration
• Invasive species
• Pollution
• Population growth
• Overexploitation

79. “HIPPO”: Habitat alteration
The greatest cause of extinction today
Accounts for 85% of population declines of birds and
mammals
Habitat change hurts most organisms because they
are adapted to an existing habitat.
Alteration due to:
Forest clearing Urban development
Agriculture Global climate change

80. “HIPPO”: Invasive species
Accidental or intentional introduction of exotic
species to new areas
Most do not establish or expand, but some do—likely
because they are “released” from limitations imposed
by their native predators, parasites, and competitors.
In today’s globalizing world,
 invasive species have become perhaps the second- worst
threat to native biota.

81. “HIPPO”: Invasive species
Examples: • Gypsy moth
• Mosquito fish • European
starling
• Zebra mussel
• Indian
• Kudzu mongoose
• Asian long-  Caulerpa
horned beetle algae
• Rosy wolfsnail  Cheatgrass
• Cane toad  Brown tree
snake
• Bullfrog
Figure 15.10

82. “HIPPO”: Pollution
Air and water pollution; agricultural runoff, industrial
chemicals, etc.
Pollution does serious and widespread harm, but is not
as threatening as the other elements of HIPPO.

83. “HIPPO”: Population growth
Human population growth exacerbates every other
environmental problem.
Magnifies effects of the other elements of HIPPO:
 More people means more habitat change, more invasive
species, more pollution, more overexploitation.
Along with increased resource consumption, it is the
ultimate reason behind proximate threats to
biodiversity.

84. “HIPPO”: Overexploitation
Two meanings:
 Overharvesting of species from the wild
(too much hunting, fishing…)
 Overconsumption of resources
(too much timber cutting, fossil fuel use…)
Usually overexploitation is not the sole cause extinction, but
it often contributes in tandem with other causes.

85. Causes of species extinction
In most cases, extinctions occur because of a combination
of factors.
 e.g., current global amphibian declines are thought
due to a complex combination of:
• Chemical contamination
• Disease transmission
• Habitat loss
• Ozone depletion and UV penetrance
• Climate change
• Synergistic interaction of these factors

86. Benefits of biodiversity
Preserving biodiversity preserves ecosystem
services, and directly provides things of pragmatic
value to us.
• Food, fuel, and fiber
• Shelter and building materials
• Air and water purification
• Waste decomposition
• Climate stabilization and moderation
• Nutrient cycling
• Soil fertility
• Pollination
• Pest control
• Genetic resources

87. Conservation biology
 Scientific discipline devoted to understanding the factors, forces, and
processes that influence the loss, protection, and restoration of biological
diversity within and among ecosystems.
 Applied and goal-oriented: Conservation biologists intend to prevent
extinction.
 This discipline arose in recent decades as biologists grew alarmed at the
degradation of natural systems they had spent their lives studying.
Figure 15.13

88. Conservation approaches:
Umbrella species
When habitat is preserved to meet the needs of an
“umbrella species,” it helps preserve habitat for many
other species. (Thus, primary species serve as an
“umbrella” for others.)
Large species with large home ranges (like tigers and
other top predators) are good umbrella species.
So are charismatic ones that win public affection, like the
panda.

89. Conservation approaches:
Endangered species
Trying to preserve single species threatened with
extinction is the goal of endangered species laws,
although they often also achieve umbrella
conservation.
U.S. Endangered Species Act, 1973:
• Restricts actions that would destroy endangered
species or their habitats
• Forbids trade in products from species
• Prevents extinction, stabilizes and recovers
populations

90. Conservation approaches:
Endangered species
The ESA has had notable successes:
 Bald eagle
 Peregrine falcon
 40% of all declining populations held stable
However, there is much popular resentment
against the ESA:
Many citizens believe it will restrict their freedom if
endangered species are found on their land.

91. Conservation approaches: Captive
breeding
Many endangered species are being bred in zoos,
to boost populations and reintroduce them into the wild.
This has worked so far for the
California condor
(in photo, condor hand
puppet feeds chick so it
imprints on birds, not
humans).
But this is worthless if there
is not adequate habitat left
in the wild.
Figure 15.17

92. Conservation approaches:
Cloning
A newly suggested approach is to use molecular
techniques to clone endangered or even extinct
species, raise them in zoos, and reintroduce them to
the wild.
Even if this succeeds technically, though, it will be
worthless if there is not adequate habitat and
protection left for them in the wild.

93. Conservation approaches:
International treaties
Various treaties have helped conserve biota.
A major one is CITES, the Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora,
prepared in 1973.
It bans international trade and transport of body parts
of endangered organisms.

94. Conservation approaches:
International treaties
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), from the
Rio Conference in 1992, aims to:
• Conserve biodiversity
• Use it sustainably
• Ensure fair distribution of its benefits
The CBD has been signed by 188 nations, but not by the
United States.

95. Conservation approaches:
Biodiversity hotspots
Biodiversity hotspot = an area that supports an
especially high number of species endemic to the
area, found nowhere else in the world
Endangered golden lion
tamarin, endemic to
Brazil’s Atlantic
rainforest, which has
been almost totally
destroyed
Figure 15.18

96. Conservation approaches:
Biodiversity hotspots
Global map of biodiversity hotspots, as determined
by Conservation International
Figure 15.19

97. Conclusions: Challenges
We still have little idea of how many species inhabit
our planet.
We have set the sixth mass extinction in motion.
Population declines, extirpations, and extinctions
result from habitat alteration, invasive species,
pollution, population growth, and overexploitation.
Fragmentation of habitats causes loss of species from
habitat islands.
Conservation biology is fighting an uphill battle to
save species, habitats, and ecosystems.

98. Conclusions: Solutions
Biologists are making strides in determining how many
species inhabit our planet.
There is still time to halt the sixth mass extinction.
We have ways to minimize habitat alteration, invasive
species, pollution, and overexploitation, but success will
ultimately depend on halting human population growth.
Fragmented habitats can be restored, but preserving areas
before they are fragmented is best to avoid species loss.
Conservation biology has developed numerous and varied
ways to save species, habitats, and ecosystems.

99. QUESTION: Review
Which of these pairs of terms is included in the acronym
“HIPPO” that describes causes of biodiversity loss?
a. Pollution and Indicator species
b. Harvesting and Population decline
c. Habitat alteration and Invasive species
d. Overexploitation and Pollination
e. Indicator species and Population growth

100. QUESTION: Review
Which is NOT a benefit of biodiversity to humans?
a. Economic benefits through ecotourism
b. New potential sources of food
c. New potential sources of drugs
d. Ecosystem services
e. All of the above are benefits of biodiversity.

101. QUESTION: Review
Which has NOT been an approach of conservation
biologists?
a. Identifying and mapping areas with large
numbers of endemic species.
b. Applying island biogeography theory to habitat
fragments.
c. Breeding animals in captivity.
d. Requiring landowners to give up their land.
e. Working with local communities to get them
invested in conservation.

102. QUESTION: Weighing the Issues
When North American pharmaceutical companies go
“bioprospecting” in developing countries for compounds for new
drugs and medicines, should they be required to pay the host
country for its biodiversity?
a. Yes; the biodiversity is a natural resource of the host
country, and it should be paid a fee up front.
b. Yes; the biodiversity is a natural resource of the host
country, and it should share in any eventual profits
from any medicines developed.
c. No; the company is the one doing all the work, so all
profits should go to the company.

103. QUESTION: Viewpoints
Are parks and protected areas the best strategy for
protecting biodiversity?
a. Yes; it is absolutely necessary to preserve
untrammeled habitat for species to persist.
b. No; parks won’t matter because climate change
will force the biota out of them.
c. No; it is more effective to work with local people
and give them economic incentives to conserve
nature
d. Both parks and other strategies are necessary.