1. Science , the Environment
Chapter 17:
And Society

2. Science and Society
• Sociologists of science look at the interactions
between science and society.

3. Science and Society
• Normative science is the idea that science follows
objective rules of evidence and is unaffected by the
personal beliefs or values of scientists.
• In practice, however, social factors like funding,
government policies, interest groups, and
international pressure or competition can affect
choices about what scientific research is pursued.

4. Science and Society
• Boundary work refers to research conducted on
the border between legitimate and non-
legitimate science, either within a specific
scientific discipline or between disciplines.

5. A genetic researcher is saying that Bigfoot DNA tests prove that the
hairy creature really does exist. Dr. Melba S. Ketchum says she and
her team sequenced three complete Sasquatch nuclear genomes
and concluded the species is a human hybrid -- a mosaic of human
and novel non-human elements. Their findings have yet to pass
peer review .

6. Scientists perform boundary work when they engage in debates
about the legitimacy of scientific theory. For instance, most
scientists would consider the research on evolution in the journal
Nature legitimate science, but they would not accept the alternate
theories promoted by the Creation Museum in Petersburg,
Kentucky (pictured above). You May Ask Yourself, 2nd Edition
Copyright © 2011 W.W. Norton & Company

7. Science and Society
• Sociologists of science look at the interactions
between science and society.
• A paradigm is the framework within which scientists
operate. There are particular paradigms for
particular branches of scientific research.

8. Science and Society
• Thomas Kuhn theorized that scientific
revolutions, also called paradigm shifts, occur
when enough anomalies accrue during the
practice of normal science to challenge the
existing paradigm.

9. Paradigm Shift
• What animal do you see?
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10. Science and Society
• Anthropologists Bruno Latour and Steve
Woolgar claim that scientific facts don’t just
reveal themselves through experiments and
research but are socially constructed as
scientists debate findings, discuss results, and
work through disagreements, all of which is
influenced by unequal power relations between
researchers.

11. Science and Society
• The Matthew effect, a term coined by Robert
Merton, refers to the notion that certain scientific
results get more notice and have more influence
based on the existing prestige of the researchers
involved.

12. Agriculture and the Environment
• The majority of scientists agree that the roots of
global warming can be linked to human activity
such as deforestation and the burning of coal,
gas, and oil.

13. Agriculture and the Environment
• At the same time, global warming is predicted to
have a strong impact on human society, primarily
through devastating natural disasters such as
prolonged heat waves, more and bigger
hurricanes, and debilitating droughts.

14. Agriculture and the Environment
• The term organic is often used as a catchall for
foods that are seemingly healthy, “natural,” or
produced on a small scale. In the United States
there are specific guidelines that have to be followed
in order for food products to be labeled “organic” or
“made with organic ingredients.”

15. Agriculture and the Environment
• The organic food market creates stratification in two
ways:
– Organic farming is expensive. Many smaller farmers
cannot afford to farm this way, so megafarms dominate
the market and use their influence to change policies
and guidelines to their advantage.
– Organic products are expensive, so high-income
individuals are much more likely to purchase them and
reap their benefits than low-income people.

16. Agriculture and the Environment
• Green revolution refers broadly to two agricultural
trends of the twentieth century:
1. the introduction of high-yield crop varietals in
developing countries and
2. improvements in agricultural technologies such as
irrigation systems, fertilizers, and pesticides.

17. Agriculture and the Environment
• Genetically modified foods, also referred to as
genetically modified organisms (GMOs), are
products whose genetic structures have been
altered, usually to make them produce higher yields.

18. Agriculture and the Environment
• Proponents argue that GMOs help bring down food
prices, reduce dependence on pesticides and
herbicides, reduce waste, and even provide vitamin
and mineral content that may be missing from a
population’s diet, all of which is particularly significant
for developing countries.
• Critics of GMOs argue that they create risks to the
environment and human health that have not been
adequately evaluated.

20. Ingo Potrykus’s genetically modified golden rice might
prevent health problems for millions of poor children. You May Ask Yourself, 2nd Edition
Why is it controversial? Copyright © 2011 W.W. Norton & Company

21. Greenpeace activists dressed to symbolize the bul-ul, a
traditional ifugao rice guardian, protest genetically modified
rice in April 2007, outside the Philippines’ Department of
You May Ask Yourself, 2nd Edition
Agriculture in Manila. Copyright © 2011 W.W. Norton & Company

22. Agriculture and the Environment
• The green revolution is widely credited with
increasing agricultural productivity throughout the
developing world, thus:
– increasing incomes.
– increasing the value of formal schooling.
– making farming more of a collective,
community endeavor.

23. Agriculture and the Environment
• Critics of the green revolution argue that it
makes farmers more dependent on a smaller
number of crops. This can:
– increases risks if crops fail.
– reduce variety in the diet.
– deplete the soil of nutrients.
– increase pressure on water resources.

24. Is our food killing us?
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25. Biotechnology and the Human Genome
• The goal of the Human Genome Project was to
identify and map all of the genes in human DNA.
• Researchers involved in the project recognized that it
raised many social, ethical, and legal issues, like
privacy, stratification, and stigmatization.

26. Biotechnology and the Human Genome
• DNA testing is now marketed for a variety of
purposes, one of which is to determine a person’s
racial origins.
– However, there are still questions about the
accuracy of the testing and how this information
might be used.
– DNA testing is not simply a straightforward
scientific process but one that is closely
intertwined with social factors.

27. Biotechnology and the Human Genome
• Reproductive cloning involves making a genetic
copy of an existing person or organism.
• Research cloning involves making a genetic copy of
cells that can be used for research purposes.
Human cloning does have potential benefits, but it is
fraught with legal, ethical, and moral questions.

28. Agriculture and the
Environment
John Evans discusses his research on religion,
bioethics, and genetically modified organisms.
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