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Cognitive Linguistics


       Lecture 3
Introduction
 Cognitive Linguistics is a new approach to the study
  of language that emerged in the 1970’s as a reaction
  against the dominant generative paradigm which
  pursues an autonomous view of language. Some of
  the main assumptions underlying the generative
  approaches to syntax and semantics are not in
  accordance with the experimental data in linguistics,
  psychology and other fields; the ‘generative
  commitment’ to notational formalism, that is to say
  the use of ‘formal grammars’ that views languages as
  systems of arbitrary symbols manipulated by
  mathematical rules, is used at the expense of
  descriptive adequacy and psychological realism.
Introduction
 What Lakoff refers to as ‘nonfinitary phenomena’, i.e.
  mental images, general cognitive processes, basic-
  level categories, prototype phenomena, the use of
  neural foundations for linguistic theory and so on, are
  not considered part of these grammars because they
  are not characterisable in this notation. It is from this
  dissatisfaction with the dominant model that
  Cognitive Linguistics is created. Cognitive Linguistics
  is not a totally homogeneous framework. Ungerer
  and Schmid (1997) distinguish three main
  approaches: Experiental view, the Prominence view
  and the Attentional view of language.
Introduction
 The ‘Experiental view’ pursues a more
  practical and empirical description of
  meaning; instead of postulating logical rules
  and objective definitions based on theoretical
  considerations, in this approach it is the user
  of the language who tells us what is going on
  in their minds when they produce and
  understand words and sentences. Eleanor
  Rosch et al. (1977, 1978) carried out the first
  research within this approach, mainly in the
  study of cognitive categories, which led to the
  prototype model of categorisation.
Introduction
 Within this framework, the knowledge and experience
  human beings have of the things and events that they
  know well is transferred to those other objects and
  events, which they are not so familiar with, and even
  to abstract concepts. Lakoff and Johnson (1980)
  were among the first ones to pinpoint this conceptual
  potential, especially in the case of metaphors.
  However, this does not only apply to the field of
  metaphor but to other figurative resources which are
  not considered part of the language in more
  traditional linguistics, such as metonymy.
Introduction
 The ‘Prominence view’ is based on concepts of
  profiling and figure/ground segregation, a
  phenomenon first introduced by the Danish gestalt
  psychologist Rubin. The prominence principle
  explains why, when we look at an object in our
  environment, we single it out as a perceptually
  prominent figure standing out from the ground. This
  principle can also be applied to the study of
  language; especially, to the study of local relations. It
  is also used in Langacker’s grammar, where profiling
  is used to explain grammatical constructs and, figure
  and ground for the explanation of grammatical
  relations.
Introduction
 Finally, the ‘Attentional view’ assumes that
  what we actually express reflects which parts
  of an event attract our attention. A main
  concept of this approach is Fillmore’s (1975)
  notion of ‘frame’, i.e. an assemblage of the
  knowledge we have about a certain situation.
  Depending on our cognitive ability to direct
  our attention, different aspects of this frame
  are highlighted, resulting in different linguistic
  expressions.
Introduction
 The question of the complex relationship
  between language, experience, and the mind
  has been one with which every approach to
  linguistics has grappled. The cognitive
  perspective holds that language is part of a
  cognitive system which comprises perception,
  emotions, categorization, abstraction
  processes, and reasoning. All these cognitive
  abilities interact with language and are
  influenced by language.
Introduction
 Thus, the perspective on language
 offered by Cognitive Linguistics
 emphasizes the effect of human
 experience of the world, the unique way
 humans perceive and conceptualize
 that experience, and how these are in
 turn reflected in the structure of
 language itself.
Introduction
 A central claim of a cognitive approach is that
  grammar forms a continuum with the lexicon and is
  fully describable in terms of form-meaning pairings.
  Thus, grammar is not represented as an autonomous
  component. The problem of how people construct
  meaning in thought and language is at the heart of
  research in a cognitive approach to language. As
  such it emphasizes a usage-based conception of
  language and evidences a concern for
  contextualized, dynamically constructed meanings
  and for the grounding of language use in both
  cognitive and social interaction.
Introduction
 Cognitive Linguistics has been developed by
  scholars like George Lakoff and Ronald
  Langacker. Basically Cognitive Linguistics
  relates language to conceptualization and
  human experience. Meaning is said to reside
  in conceptualization, and grammar is not
  seen as autonomous. Cognitive processing
  plays an important role in this model, and
  basic cognitive abilities such as viewing,
  distancing and scanning are incorporated into
  the theory.
Introduction
 Experiental realism or experientalism is the
  term used to describe the philosophical view
  that linguistic meaning cannot be described
  independently of the nature and experience of
  the organisms doing the thinking. Conceptual
  structure is meaningful because it comes
  from and is linked to our pre-conceptual
  bodily experiences.
Introduction
 There is no objective, disembodied truth, and
  consequently the world is not objectively
  reflected in language. Language is much
  more than just a mirror, it describes our
  individual and collective experiences of the
  world. Conceptual and linguistic universals
  arise from the fact that we have similar
  bodies and brains, that we inhabit similar
  environments and that we communicate with
  each other.
Introduction
 Cognitive Linguistics is by nature cross-disciplinary
  and among the most obviously related fields are
  psychology, neurophysiology, computer science and
  general cogntive science. In my view, this openness
  is part of what makes cognitive linguistics such an
  exciting venue. Much of the research has focused on
  metaphor, semantic change, prototype effects,
  blends, prepositional expressions and many other
  topics. There has also been a great deal of work
  carried out in establishing appropriate formalisms.
  Key concepts include metaphors, prototype theory,
  radial structures, mental spaces and embodiment.
MAIN TENETS
 As human beings the way in which we interact with
  our world through our spatial and temporal
  orientation, our manipulation of objects, our
  perception of the things that surround us and our
  bodily movements influences how we construct and
  understand meaning. Based on empirical research in
  different areas such as Cognitive Psychology, and
  Anthropological Linguistics, Cognitive Linguistics
  argues that both the design features of languages,
  and our ability to learn and use them are accounted
  for by general cognitive abilities, our human
  categorisation strategies, together with our cultural,
  contextual and functional parameters.
MAIN TENETS
 Human conceptual categories, the meaning
 of words and sentences and the meaning of
 linguistic structures at any level, are not a set
 of universal abstract features or uninterpreted
 symbols. They are motivated and grounded
 more or less directly in experience, in our
 bodily, physical, social and cultural
 experiences, because after all, “we are
 beings of the flesh”.
MAIN TENETS
 The second main idea is related to the theory of
  linguistic meaning. Most cognitive linguists reject
  ‘objectivist’ theories of meaning. For Cognitive
  Linguistics, meanings do not exist independently from
  the people that create and use them; all linguistic
  forms do not have inherent form in themselves, they
  act as clues activating the meanings that reside in
  our minds and brains. This activation of meaning is
  not necessarily entirely the same in every person,
  because meaning is based on individual experience
  as well as collective experience.
MAIN TENETS
 Therefore, for Cognitive Linguistics, we
 have no access to a reality independent
 of human categorisation, and that is
 why the structure of reality as reflected
 in language is a product of the human
 mind. Semantic structure reflects the
 mental categories which people have
 formed from their experience and
 understanding of the world.
METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
 Human categorisation is one of the major issues in
  Linguistics. The ability to categorise, i.e., to judge that
  a particular thing is or is not an instance of a
  particular category, is an essential part of cognition.
  Categorisation is often automatic and unconscious,
  except in problematic cases. This can cause us to
  make mistakes and make us think that our categories
  are categories of things, when in fact they are
  categories of abstract entities. When experience is
  used to guide the interpretation of a new experience,
  the ability to categorise becomes indispensable.
METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

 The classical view on categorisation, that of Aristotle,
  claims that categories are defined in terms of a
  conjunction of necessary and sufficient binary
  features, that is to say that linguistic analytical
  categories impose a set of necessary and sufficient
  conditions for the membership in the category. This
  requirement not only implies that categories have
  clear boundaries and that all members of a category
  have equal status but also that there is an abstract,
  general definition with which all the members of that
  category must comply.
METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

 Instead of relating these different senses to
  an abstract default sense that includes all of
  them, the cognitive approach adopts a
  prototype categorization model. In this model
  human categories have two types of
  members: the ‘prototype’ and several less-
  central members related to the former in a
  motivated way. The prototype is the best, the
  most prominent and the most typical member
  of a category.
METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

 Another consequence of the primacy of cognitive
  abilities is that there is no strict distinction between
  encyclopaedic and linguistic knowledge. Objectivists
  differentiate between these two different
  epistemological types of knowledge. On the one
  hand, ‘linguistic’ or ‘definitional’ knowledge that
  “corresponds to the essential properties of the
  entities and categories that the words designate”; and
  on the other, ‘encyclopaedic’ knowledge
  “corresponds to the contingent properties of the
  entities and properties that the words designate”.
METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

 This dictionary-encyclopaedia distinction
  leads objectivists to postulate a ‘meaning per
  se’, independent of whatever the speaker
  may know about the states of affairs that he is
  referring to. This paradigm also induces the
  distinction between literal (objectively true or
  false) and figurative meaning (no direct
  correspondence to entities and categories in
  the real world).
METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

 This continuum between language and
 experience has led cognitive linguists to
 study how conceptual structures or
 cognitive models are reflected in
 language. According to Langacker,
 most concepts invoke other concepts
 and without making an explicit
 reference to them, they cannot be
 adequately defined.
METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

 Research on metaphor occupies a central position in
  Cognitive Linguistics. One of the major problems that
  cognitive linguists still face is the question of how to
  constrain metaphorical mappings. Attempts to
  constrain the mapping process in metaphorical
  production and comprehension can be found in
  Lakoff’s ‘Invariance Principle’, i.e. “metaphorical
  mappings preserve the cognitive topology of the
  source domain in a way consistent with the inherent
  structure of the target domain”.
METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

 The Invariance Principle is useful in order to
  constrain the nature of those mappings: that
  is to say, it is not possible to map from the
  source domain structure that does not
  preserve the inherent structure of the target
  domain. The only problem with this principle
  is that it does not show exactly what part of
  the source domain is the one that must be
  consistent with the structure of the target
  domain.
METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
 Another important and interesting area of research is
  the interaction between metaphor and metonymy.
  Goossens proposes the term ‘metaphtonymy’ to
  cover the possible interrelations between metaphor
  and metonymy. Among these interrelations, he
  distinguishes two as the dominant patterns: one
  where the experiential basis for metaphor is a
  metonymy (‘metaphor from metonymy’) and another
  where a metonymy functioning in the target domain is
  embedded within a metaphor (‘metonymy within
  metaphor’).
Thank you for your
    attention

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Pragmatic3

  • 2. Introduction  Cognitive Linguistics is a new approach to the study of language that emerged in the 1970’s as a reaction against the dominant generative paradigm which pursues an autonomous view of language. Some of the main assumptions underlying the generative approaches to syntax and semantics are not in accordance with the experimental data in linguistics, psychology and other fields; the ‘generative commitment’ to notational formalism, that is to say the use of ‘formal grammars’ that views languages as systems of arbitrary symbols manipulated by mathematical rules, is used at the expense of descriptive adequacy and psychological realism.
  • 3. Introduction  What Lakoff refers to as ‘nonfinitary phenomena’, i.e. mental images, general cognitive processes, basic- level categories, prototype phenomena, the use of neural foundations for linguistic theory and so on, are not considered part of these grammars because they are not characterisable in this notation. It is from this dissatisfaction with the dominant model that Cognitive Linguistics is created. Cognitive Linguistics is not a totally homogeneous framework. Ungerer and Schmid (1997) distinguish three main approaches: Experiental view, the Prominence view and the Attentional view of language.
  • 4. Introduction  The ‘Experiental view’ pursues a more practical and empirical description of meaning; instead of postulating logical rules and objective definitions based on theoretical considerations, in this approach it is the user of the language who tells us what is going on in their minds when they produce and understand words and sentences. Eleanor Rosch et al. (1977, 1978) carried out the first research within this approach, mainly in the study of cognitive categories, which led to the prototype model of categorisation.
  • 5. Introduction  Within this framework, the knowledge and experience human beings have of the things and events that they know well is transferred to those other objects and events, which they are not so familiar with, and even to abstract concepts. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) were among the first ones to pinpoint this conceptual potential, especially in the case of metaphors. However, this does not only apply to the field of metaphor but to other figurative resources which are not considered part of the language in more traditional linguistics, such as metonymy.
  • 6. Introduction  The ‘Prominence view’ is based on concepts of profiling and figure/ground segregation, a phenomenon first introduced by the Danish gestalt psychologist Rubin. The prominence principle explains why, when we look at an object in our environment, we single it out as a perceptually prominent figure standing out from the ground. This principle can also be applied to the study of language; especially, to the study of local relations. It is also used in Langacker’s grammar, where profiling is used to explain grammatical constructs and, figure and ground for the explanation of grammatical relations.
  • 7. Introduction  Finally, the ‘Attentional view’ assumes that what we actually express reflects which parts of an event attract our attention. A main concept of this approach is Fillmore’s (1975) notion of ‘frame’, i.e. an assemblage of the knowledge we have about a certain situation. Depending on our cognitive ability to direct our attention, different aspects of this frame are highlighted, resulting in different linguistic expressions.
  • 8. Introduction  The question of the complex relationship between language, experience, and the mind has been one with which every approach to linguistics has grappled. The cognitive perspective holds that language is part of a cognitive system which comprises perception, emotions, categorization, abstraction processes, and reasoning. All these cognitive abilities interact with language and are influenced by language.
  • 9. Introduction  Thus, the perspective on language offered by Cognitive Linguistics emphasizes the effect of human experience of the world, the unique way humans perceive and conceptualize that experience, and how these are in turn reflected in the structure of language itself.
  • 10. Introduction  A central claim of a cognitive approach is that grammar forms a continuum with the lexicon and is fully describable in terms of form-meaning pairings. Thus, grammar is not represented as an autonomous component. The problem of how people construct meaning in thought and language is at the heart of research in a cognitive approach to language. As such it emphasizes a usage-based conception of language and evidences a concern for contextualized, dynamically constructed meanings and for the grounding of language use in both cognitive and social interaction.
  • 11. Introduction  Cognitive Linguistics has been developed by scholars like George Lakoff and Ronald Langacker. Basically Cognitive Linguistics relates language to conceptualization and human experience. Meaning is said to reside in conceptualization, and grammar is not seen as autonomous. Cognitive processing plays an important role in this model, and basic cognitive abilities such as viewing, distancing and scanning are incorporated into the theory.
  • 12. Introduction  Experiental realism or experientalism is the term used to describe the philosophical view that linguistic meaning cannot be described independently of the nature and experience of the organisms doing the thinking. Conceptual structure is meaningful because it comes from and is linked to our pre-conceptual bodily experiences.
  • 13. Introduction  There is no objective, disembodied truth, and consequently the world is not objectively reflected in language. Language is much more than just a mirror, it describes our individual and collective experiences of the world. Conceptual and linguistic universals arise from the fact that we have similar bodies and brains, that we inhabit similar environments and that we communicate with each other.
  • 14. Introduction  Cognitive Linguistics is by nature cross-disciplinary and among the most obviously related fields are psychology, neurophysiology, computer science and general cogntive science. In my view, this openness is part of what makes cognitive linguistics such an exciting venue. Much of the research has focused on metaphor, semantic change, prototype effects, blends, prepositional expressions and many other topics. There has also been a great deal of work carried out in establishing appropriate formalisms. Key concepts include metaphors, prototype theory, radial structures, mental spaces and embodiment.
  • 15. MAIN TENETS  As human beings the way in which we interact with our world through our spatial and temporal orientation, our manipulation of objects, our perception of the things that surround us and our bodily movements influences how we construct and understand meaning. Based on empirical research in different areas such as Cognitive Psychology, and Anthropological Linguistics, Cognitive Linguistics argues that both the design features of languages, and our ability to learn and use them are accounted for by general cognitive abilities, our human categorisation strategies, together with our cultural, contextual and functional parameters.
  • 16. MAIN TENETS  Human conceptual categories, the meaning of words and sentences and the meaning of linguistic structures at any level, are not a set of universal abstract features or uninterpreted symbols. They are motivated and grounded more or less directly in experience, in our bodily, physical, social and cultural experiences, because after all, “we are beings of the flesh”.
  • 17. MAIN TENETS  The second main idea is related to the theory of linguistic meaning. Most cognitive linguists reject ‘objectivist’ theories of meaning. For Cognitive Linguistics, meanings do not exist independently from the people that create and use them; all linguistic forms do not have inherent form in themselves, they act as clues activating the meanings that reside in our minds and brains. This activation of meaning is not necessarily entirely the same in every person, because meaning is based on individual experience as well as collective experience.
  • 18. MAIN TENETS  Therefore, for Cognitive Linguistics, we have no access to a reality independent of human categorisation, and that is why the structure of reality as reflected in language is a product of the human mind. Semantic structure reflects the mental categories which people have formed from their experience and understanding of the world.
  • 19. METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES  Human categorisation is one of the major issues in Linguistics. The ability to categorise, i.e., to judge that a particular thing is or is not an instance of a particular category, is an essential part of cognition. Categorisation is often automatic and unconscious, except in problematic cases. This can cause us to make mistakes and make us think that our categories are categories of things, when in fact they are categories of abstract entities. When experience is used to guide the interpretation of a new experience, the ability to categorise becomes indispensable.
  • 20. METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES  The classical view on categorisation, that of Aristotle, claims that categories are defined in terms of a conjunction of necessary and sufficient binary features, that is to say that linguistic analytical categories impose a set of necessary and sufficient conditions for the membership in the category. This requirement not only implies that categories have clear boundaries and that all members of a category have equal status but also that there is an abstract, general definition with which all the members of that category must comply.
  • 21. METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES  Instead of relating these different senses to an abstract default sense that includes all of them, the cognitive approach adopts a prototype categorization model. In this model human categories have two types of members: the ‘prototype’ and several less- central members related to the former in a motivated way. The prototype is the best, the most prominent and the most typical member of a category.
  • 22. METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES  Another consequence of the primacy of cognitive abilities is that there is no strict distinction between encyclopaedic and linguistic knowledge. Objectivists differentiate between these two different epistemological types of knowledge. On the one hand, ‘linguistic’ or ‘definitional’ knowledge that “corresponds to the essential properties of the entities and categories that the words designate”; and on the other, ‘encyclopaedic’ knowledge “corresponds to the contingent properties of the entities and properties that the words designate”.
  • 23. METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES  This dictionary-encyclopaedia distinction leads objectivists to postulate a ‘meaning per se’, independent of whatever the speaker may know about the states of affairs that he is referring to. This paradigm also induces the distinction between literal (objectively true or false) and figurative meaning (no direct correspondence to entities and categories in the real world).
  • 24. METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES  This continuum between language and experience has led cognitive linguists to study how conceptual structures or cognitive models are reflected in language. According to Langacker, most concepts invoke other concepts and without making an explicit reference to them, they cannot be adequately defined.
  • 25. METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES  Research on metaphor occupies a central position in Cognitive Linguistics. One of the major problems that cognitive linguists still face is the question of how to constrain metaphorical mappings. Attempts to constrain the mapping process in metaphorical production and comprehension can be found in Lakoff’s ‘Invariance Principle’, i.e. “metaphorical mappings preserve the cognitive topology of the source domain in a way consistent with the inherent structure of the target domain”.
  • 26. METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES  The Invariance Principle is useful in order to constrain the nature of those mappings: that is to say, it is not possible to map from the source domain structure that does not preserve the inherent structure of the target domain. The only problem with this principle is that it does not show exactly what part of the source domain is the one that must be consistent with the structure of the target domain.
  • 27. METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES  Another important and interesting area of research is the interaction between metaphor and metonymy. Goossens proposes the term ‘metaphtonymy’ to cover the possible interrelations between metaphor and metonymy. Among these interrelations, he distinguishes two as the dominant patterns: one where the experiential basis for metaphor is a metonymy (‘metaphor from metonymy’) and another where a metonymy functioning in the target domain is embedded within a metaphor (‘metonymy within metaphor’).
  • 28. Thank you for your attention