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AMERICAN DIABETES ASSOCIATION
GUIDELINE ON DIABETES-2015
DIABETES CARE VOL 38, SUPPLEMENT 1, JANUARY 2015
Dr Shahjada Selim
MBBS MD (EM)
Department of Medicine
Shaheed Suhrawardy medical College Hospital, Dhaka
Introduction
Diabetes is a complex, chronic illness requiring
continuous medical care with multifactorial risk reduction
Strategies beyond glycemic control. Ongoing patient self
management education and support are critical to
preventing acute complications and reducing the risk of
long-term complications. Significant evidence exists that
supports a range of interventions to improve diabetes
outcomes.
ADA Evidence Grading System for
Clinical Recommendations
Changes in 2015 Guideline
01
The BMI cut point for screening overweight
or obese Asian Americans for prediabetes
and type 2 diabetes was changed
to 23 kg/m2 (vs. 25 kg/m2) to reflect
the evidence that this population is at an
increased risk for diabetes at lower BMI
levels relative to the general population.
Cont…
02
Patient should be encouraged to limit the
amount of time they spend being
sedentary by breaking up extended
amounts of time (>90min) spent sitting.
Cont…
Immunization recommendations were
revised to reflect recent Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention guidelines
Regarding PCV13 and PPSV23 vaccinations in
older adults.
Cont…
The ADA now recommends a premeal
Blood glucose target of 80–130 mg/dL,
rather than 70 -130 mg/dL, to better reflect
new data comparing actual average
glucose levels with A1C targets.
Cont…
03
The recommended goal for diastolic blood
pressure was changed from 80 mmHg to 90
mmHg for most people with diabetes and
hypertension to better reflect evidence
From randomized clinical trials. Lower
Diastolic targets may still be appropriate
for certain individuals.
Cont…
04
Treatment initiation (and initial statin dose) is
Now driven primarily by risk status rather than
LDL cholesterol level.
A screening lipid profile is reasonable at
Diabetes diagnosis, at an initial medical
evaluation and/or at age 40 years, and
periodically thereafter.
Cont…
05
To better target those at high risk for foot
complications, the Standards emphasize
that all patients with insensate feet, foot
deformities, or a history of foot ulcers have
their feet examined at every visit.
Cont…
06
To reflect new evidence regarding the
Risks And benefits of tight glycemic
control in children and adolescents with
diabetes, the Standards now Recommend a
targetA1C of ,7.5% for all Pediatric age
groups; however, individualization is still
encouraged.
Diabetes classification
1.Type 1 diabetes (due to b-cell destruction, usually leading to
absolute insulin deficiency)
2.Type 2 diabetes (due to a progressive insulin secretory defect
on the background of insulin resistance)
3. Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) (diabetes diagnosed in
the second or third trimester of pregnancy that is not clearly
overt diabetes)
4. Specific types of diabetes due to other causes, e.g.,
monogenic diabetes syndromes (such as neonatal diabetes
and maturity-onset diabetes of the young [MODY]), diseases
of the exocrine pancreas (such as cystic fibrosis), and drug- or
chemical-induced diabetes (such as in the treatment of
HIV/AIDS or after organ transplantation)
A1C ≥6.5%
OR
Fasting plasma glucose (FPG)
≥126 mg/dl (7.0 mmol/l)
OR
Two-hour plasma glucose ≥200 mg/dl (11.1 mmol/l)
during an OGTT
OR
A random plasma glucose ≥200 mg/dl (11.1 mmol/l)
Criteria for the Diagnosis of Diabetes
ADA. I. Classification and Diagnosis. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S9. Table 2.1.
A1C ≥6.5%
The test should be performed in a laboratory using
an NGSP-certified method standardized to the
DCCT assay*
Criteria for the Diagnosis of Diabetes
*In the absence of unequivocal hyperglycemia, result should be confirmed by repeat testing.
ADA. I. Classification and Diagnosis. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S9. Table 2.1.
Fasting plasma glucose (FPG)
≥126 mg/dl (7.0 mmol/l)
Fasting: no caloric intake for
at least 8 h*
Criteria for the Diagnosis of Diabetes
*In the absence of unequivocal hyperglycemia, result should be confirmed by repeat testing.
ADA. I. Classification and Diagnosis. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S9. Table 2.1.
Two-hour plasma glucose ≥200 mg/dl (11.1 mmol/l)
during an OGTT
The test should be performed as described by the
World Health Organization, using a glucose load
containing the equivalent of 75 g anhydrous
glucose dissolved in water*
Criteria for the Diagnosis of Diabetes
*n the absence of unequivocal hyperglycemia, result should be confirmed by repeat testing.
ADA. I. Classification and Diagnosis. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S9. Table 2.1
In a patient with classic symptoms of
hyperglycemia or hyperglycemic crisis,
a random plasma glucose ≥200 mg/dl (11.1 mmol/l)
Criteria for the Diagnosis of Diabetes
Categories of increased risk for diabetes (Prediabetes)*
FPG 100-125 mg/dl (5.6-6.9 mmol/l): IFG
or
2-h plasma glucose in the 75-g OGTT
140-199 mg/dl (7.8-11.0 mmol/l): IGT
Or
A1C 5.7-6.4%
Prediabetes: IFG, IGT, Increased A1C
*For all three tests, risk is continuous, extending below the lower limit of a range and becoming disproportionately greater at
higher ends of the range.
II. Testing for Diabetes in
Asymptomatic Patients
 Consider testing overweight/obese(BMI ≥25 or ≥23 in
Asian Americans) adults with one or more additional risk
factors
 In those without risk factors, begin testing at age 45 years (B)
 If tests are normal
 Repeat testing at least at 3-year intervals (E)
 Use A1C, FPG, or 2-h 75-g OGTT (B)
 In those with increased risk for future diabetes
 Identify and, if appropriate, treat other CVD risk factors (B)
Recommendations: Testing for Diabetes
in Asymptomatic Patients
ADA. II. Testing in Asymptomatic Patients. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S09-S10.
Criteria for Testing for Diabetes
in Asymptomatic Adult Individuals
(1)
• Physical inactivity
• First-degree relative with diabetes
• High-risk race/ethnicity (e.g.,African
American, Latino, Native American,
Asian American, Pacific Islander)
• Women who delivered a baby
weighing >9 lb or were diagnosed
with GDM
• Hypertension (≥140/90 mmHg or on
therapy for hypertension)
• HDL cholesterol level
<35 mg/dl (0.90 mmol/l) and/or a
triglyceride level >250 mg/dl (2.82
mmol/l)
• Women with polycystic ovarian
syndrome (PCOS)
• A1C ≥5.7%, IGT, or IFG on previous
testing
• Other clinical conditions associated
with insulin resistance (e.g., severe
obesity, acanthosis nigricans)
• History of CVD
1. Testing should be considered in all adults who are overweight (BMI
≥25 kg/m2 or ≥23 kg/m2 in AsianAmericans) and have additional risk
factors:
ADA. Testing in Asymptomatic Patients. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S10. Table 2.2
2. In the absence of criteria (risk factors on previous
slide), testing for diabetes should begin at age 45
years
3. If results are normal, testing should be repeated at
least at 3-year intervals, with consideration of more
frequent testing depending on initial results and
risk status.
ADA. Testing in Asymptomatic Patients. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S10. Table 2.2
Criteria for Testing for Diabetes in
Asymptomatic Adult Individuals (2)
Criteria
* Overweight (BMI>85th percentile for age and sex, weight for height >85th
percentile, or weight >120% of ideal for weight)
Plus any two of the following risk factors-
• Family history of type 2 diabetes in 1st or 2nd degree relative.
• Race/ethnicity (e.g.,African American, Latino, NativeAmerican, Asian
American, Pacific Islander)
• Signs of insulin resistance or conditions associated with insulin
resistance (HTN, dyslipidaemia, PCOS, acanthosis nigricans or small for
gestational age birth weight)
• Maternal history of diabetes or GDM during the child’s gestation.
Age of initiation: Age 10 years or at onset of puberty, if puberty occurs at a
younger age.
• Frequency of testing: every 3 years
* Persons aged ≤18 years.
ADA. Testing in Asymptomatic Patients. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S10. Table 2.2
Testing for Type 2 diabetes or
prediabetes in asymptomatic children*
III. Detection and Diagnosis of
Gestational diabetes mellitus
 Screen for undiagnosed type 2 diabetes at
the first prenatal visit in those with risk
factors, using standard diagnostic criteria (B)
 In pregnant women not previously known to
have diabetes, screen for GDM at 24-28
weeks gestation, using a 75-g OGTT and the
diagnostic cutpoints inTable 2.5 (B)
Recommendations:
Detection and Diagnosis of GDM (1)
ADA. III. Detection and Diagnosis of GDM. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S10
• Perform a 75-g OGTT, with plasma glucose
measurement fasting and at 1 and 2 h, at 24-28
weeks of gestation in women not previously
diagnosed with overt diabetes
• Perform OGTT in the morning after an overnight fast
of at least 8 h
• GDM diagnosis: when any of the following plasma
glucose values are exceeded
– Fasting ≥92 mg/dl (5.1 mmol/l)
– 1 h ≥180 mg/dl (10.0 mmol/l)
– 2 h ≥153 mg/dl (8.5 mmol/l)
Screening for and Diagnosis of GDM
ADA. III. Detection and Diagnosis of GDM. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S14. Table 2.5.
 Screen women with GDM for persistent
diabetes 6-12 weeks postpartum (E)
 Women with a history of GDM should have
lifelong screening for the development of
diabetes or prediabetes at least every three
years (E)
Recommendations:
Detection and Diagnosis of GDM (2)
ADA. III. Detection and Diagnosis of GDM. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S14.
IV. Prevention/Delay of Type 2
Diabetes
 Refer patients with IGT (A), IFG (E), or A1C 5.7-6.4% (E) to
support program
– Weight loss 7% of body weight
– At least 150 min/week moderate activity
 Follow-up counseling important (B);
third-party payers should cover (E)
 Consider metformin if multiple risk factors, especially if
hyperglycemia (e.g., A1C>6%) progresses despite lifestyle
interventions (B), especially for those with BMI >35, aged <60
years, and women with prior GDM.(A)
 In those with prediabetes, monitor for development of diabetes
annually (E)
 Screening for and treatment of modifiable risk factors for
cardiovascular disease is suggested.
Recommendations:
Prevention/Delay of Type 2 Diabetes
ADA.5. Prevention/Delay of Type 2 Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S31.
V. Diabetes Care
 A complete medical evaluation should be performed to
– Classify the diabetes
– Detect presence of diabetes complications
– Review previous treatment, glycemic control in patients with
established diabetes
– Assist in formulating a management plan
– Provide a basis for continuing care
 Perform laboratory tests necessary to evaluate each patient’s
medical condition
 Consider assessing for and addressing common comorbid
conditions- depression, obstructive sleep apnea that may
complicate diabetes management. (B)
Diabetes Care: Medical
Evaluation
ADA. V. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S17
Medical history
• Age and characteristics of onset of diabetes
(e.g., DKA, asymptomatic laboratory finding)
• Eating patterns, physical activity habits, nutritional
status, and weight history; growth and development
in children and adolescents
• Diabetes education history
• Review of previous treatment regimens and
response to therapy (A1C records)
Components of the Comprehensive
Diabetes Evaluation (1)
ADA.3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S18. Table 3.1.
Current treatment of diabetes, including
medications, meal plan, physical activity
patterns, and results of glucose monitoring and
patient’s use of data (1)
• DKA frequency, severity, and cause
• Hypoglycemic episodes
– Hypoglycemia awareness
– Any severe hypoglycemia: frequency and cause
Components of the Comprehensive
Diabetes Evaluation (2)
ADA.3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S18. Table 3.1.
Current treatment of diabetes, including medications, meal
plan, physical activity patterns, and results of glucose
monitoring and patient’s use of data (2)
• History of diabetes-related complications
– Microvascular: retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy
• Sensory neuropathy, including history of foot lesions
• Autonomic neuropathy, including sexual dysfunction and
gastroparesis
– Macrovascular: CHD, cerebrovascular disease, PAD
– Other: psychosocial problems*, dental disease*
Components of the Comprehensive
Diabetes Evaluation (3)
ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S18. Table 3.1
Physical examination (1)
• Height, weight, BMI
• Blood pressure determination, including orthostatic
measurements when indicated
• Fundoscopic examination*
• Thyroid palpation
• Skin examination (for acanthosis nigricans and insulin
injection sites)
Components of the Comprehensive
Diabetes Evaluation (4)
ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S18. Table 3.1
Physical examination (2)
• Comprehensive foot examination
– Inspection
– Palpation of dorsalis pedis and posterior tibial
pulses
– Presence/absence of patellar and Achilles reflexes
– Determination of proprioception, vibration, and
monofilament sensation
Components of the Comprehensive
Diabetes Evaluation (5)
ADA. V. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S18. Table 3.1.
Laboratory evaluation
• A1C, if results not available within past 2–3 months
• If not performed/available within past year
–Fasting lipid profile, including total, LDL- and HDL-
cholesterol and triglycerides
–Liver function tests
–Test for urine albumin excretion with spot urine
albumin/creatinine ratio
–Serum creatinine and calculated GFR
–TSH in type 1 diabetes, dyslipidemia, or women
>50 years of age
Components of the Comprehensive
Diabetes Evaluation (6)
ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S18. Table 3.1.
Referrals
• Annual dilated eye exam
• Family planning for women of reproductive age
• Registered dietitian for MNT
• Diabetes self-management education(DSME/DSMS)
• Dental examination
• Mental health professional, if needed
Components of the Comprehensive
Diabetes Evaluation (7)
ADA. V. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S18. Table 3.1.
 Self-monitoring of blood glucose should be carried
out 3+ times daily for patients using multiple insulin
injections or insulin pump therapy (A)
 For patients using less frequent insulin injections,
noninsulin therapy, or medical nutrition therapy
alone
 SMBG may be useful as a guide to success of therapy (E)
 However, several recent trials have called into question
clinical utility, cost-effectiveness, of routine SMBG in non–
insulin-treated patients
Recommendations: Glucose Monitoring
ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S18.
 Perform A1C test at least twice yearly in patients
meeting treatment goals (and have stable glycemic
control) (E)
 Perform A1C test quarterly in patients whose
therapy has changed or who are not meeting
glycemic goals (E)
 Use of point-of-care testing for A1C allows for
timely decisions on therapy changes, when needed
(E)
Recommendations: A1C
ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S18.
Mean plasma glucose
A1C (%) mg/dl mmol/l
6 126 7.0
7 154 8.6
8 183 10.2
9 212 11.8
10 240 13.4
11 269 14.9
12 298 16.5
Correlation of A1C with Estimated
Average Glucose (eAG)
ADA. V. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S18. Table 9.
These estimates are based on ADAG data of ~2,700 glucose measurements over 3 months per A1C measurement in 507 adults with
type 1, type 2, and no diabetes.The correlation betweenA1C and average glucose was 0.92. A calculator for convertingA1C results
into estimated average glucose (eAG), in either mg/dl or mmol/l, is available at
http://professional.diabetes.org/GlucoseCalculator.aspx.
Recommendations:
Glycemic Goals in Adults (1)
ADA. 12. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S77.
• Lowering A1C to below or around 7%
–Shown to reduce microvascular and neuropathic
complications of diabetes
–If implemented soon after diagnosis of diabetes,
associated with long-term reduction in
macrovascular disease
• Therefore, a reasonableA1C goal for many
non-pregnant adults is <7% (B)
Recommendations:
Glycemic Goals in Adults (2)
ADA. V. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S77
• Additional analysis from several randomized trials
suggest a small but incremental benefit in
microvascular outcomes with A1C values closer to
normal
• Providers might reasonably suggest more stringent
A1C goals for selected individual patients, if this can
be achieved without significant hypoglycemia or
other adverse effects of treatment
–Such patients might include those with short duration of
diabetes, long life expectancy, and no significant
cardiovascular disease (B)
Recommendations:
Glycemic Goals in Adults (3)
ADA. 12. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S77.
• Conversely, less stringent A1C goals may be
appropriate for patients with
–History of severe hypoglycemia, limited life expectancy,
advanced microvascular or macrovascular complications,
extensive comorbid conditions
–Those with longstanding diabetes in whom the general goal
is difficult to attain despite diabetes self-management
education, appropriate glucose monitoring, and effective
doses of multiple glucose lowering agents including insulin
(C)
Intensive Glycemic Control and
Cardiovascular Outcomes: ACCORD
Gerstein HC, et al, for the Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes Study Group.
N Engl J Med 2008;358:2545-2559.
©2008 New England Journal of Medicine. Used with permission.
Primary Outcome: Nonfatal MI, nonfatal stroke, CVD death
HR=0.90 (0.78-1.04)
Intensive Glycemic Control and
Cardiovascular Outcomes: ADVANCE
©2008 New England Journal of Medicine. Used with permission.
Primary Outcome: Microvascular plus macrovascular
(nonfatal MI, nonfatal stroke, CVD death)
Patel A, et al,. for the ADVANCE Collaborative Group. N Engl J Med 2008;358:2560-2572.
HR=0.90 (0.82-0.98)
Intensive Glycemic Control and
Cardiovascular Outcomes: VADT
Duckworth W, et al., for the VADT Investigators. N Engl J Med 2009;360:129-139.
Primary Outcome: Nonfatal MI, nonfatal stroke, CVD death,
hospitalization for heart failure, revascularization
HR=0.88 (0.74-1.05)
©2009 New England Journal of Medicine. Used with permission.
A1C <7.0%*
Preprandial capillary plasma
glucose
70–130 mg/dl* (3.9–
7.2 mol/l)
Peak postprandial capillary plasma
glucose†
<180 mg/dl* (<10.0
mmol/l)
Glycemic Recommendations for Non-Pregnant
Adults with Diabetes (1)
*Postprandial glucose measurements should be made 1–2 h after the beginning of the meal, generally peak levels in patients with
diabetes.
ADA. V. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2011;34(suppl 1):S21. Table 10.
• Goals should be individualized based on
–Duration of diabetes
–Age/life expectancy
–Comorbid conditions
–Known CVD or advanced microvascular
complications
–Hypoglycemia unawareness
–Individual patient considerations
–Hypoglycemia unawareness
–Individual patient considerations
Glycemic Recommendations for Non-Pregnant
Adults with Diabetes (2)
ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;34(suppl 1):S77. Table 6.1
• Postprandial glucose may be targeted ifA1C
goals are not met despite reaching preprandial
glucose goals
• More or less stringent glycemic goals may be
appropriate for individual patients
Glycemic Recommendations for Non-Pregnant
Adults with Diabetes (3)
ADA. V. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S21. Table 10.
 People with diabetes should receive DSME according to
national standards at diagnosis and as needed
thereafter (B)
 Effective self-management, quality of life are key
outcomes of DSME; should be measured, monitored as
part of care (C)
 DSME should address psychosocial issues; emotional
well-being is associated with positive outcomes (C)
 DSME should be reimbursed by third-party payers (E)
Recommendations: Diabetes
Self-Management Education
ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S77.
 Individuals who have prediabetes or diabetes
should receive individualized MNT as needed
to achieve treatment goals (A)
 For people with diabetes, it is unlikely one
optimal mix of macronutrients for meal plans
exists
 The best mix of carbohydrate, protein, and fat
appears to vary depending on individual
circumstances
Recommendations:
Medical Nutrition Therapy (MNT)
ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S21.
 Intensive lifestyle intervention resulted in1
 Average 8.6% weight loss
 Significant reduction of A1C
 Reduction in several CVD risk factors
 Benefits sustained at 4 years2
 Final results of Look AHEAD to provide insight into
effects of long-term weight loss on important
clinical outcomes
Look AHEAD (Action for Health in
Diabetes): One-Year Results
1. Look AHEAD Research Group. Diabetes Care. 2007;30:1374-1383;
2. Look AHEAD Research Group. Arch Intern Med. 2010;170:1566–1575.
 Advise people with diabetes to perform at least 150
min/week of moderate-intensity aerobic physical
activity (50-70% of maximum heart rate) (A)
 In absence of contraindications, people with type 2
diabetes should be encouraged to perform
resistance training three times per week (A)
Recommendations: Physical Activity
ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S24.
 Ongoing part of medical management of diabetes
(E)
 Psychosocial screening/follow-up: attitudes about
diabetes, medical management/outcomes
expectations, affect/mood, quality of life, resources,
psychiatric history (E)
 When self-management is poor, screen for
psychosocial problems: depression, diabetes-
related anxiety, eating disorders, cognitive
impairment (C)
Recommendations:
Psychosocial Assessment and Care
ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S25.
 Glucose (15-20 g) is preferred treatment for
conscious individual with hypoglycemia (E)
 Glucagon should be prescribed for all individuals at
significant risk of severe hypoglycemia, and
caregivers/family members instructed in
administration (E)
 Those with hypoglycemia unawareness or one or
more episodes of severe hypoglycemia should raise
glycemic targets to reduce risk of future episodes
(B)
Recommendations: Hypoglycemia
ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S41.
 Consider bariatric surgery for adults with BMI >35 kg/m2
and type 2 diabetes (B)
 After surgery, life-long lifestyle support and medical
monitoring is necessary (E)
 Insufficient evidence to recommend surgery in patients
with BMI <35 kg/m2 outside of a research protocol (E)
 Well-designed, randomized controlled trials comparing
optimal medical/lifestyle therapy needed to determine
long-term benefits, cost-effectiveness, risks (E)
Recommendations: Bariatric Surgery
ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S27.
 Provide an influenza vaccine annually to all diabetic
patients ≥6 months of age (C)
 Administer pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine to
all diabetic patients ≥2 years
 One-time revaccination recommended for those
>64 years previously immunized at <65 years if
administered >5 years ago
 Other indications for repeat vaccination: nephrotic
syndrome, chronic renal disease,
immunocompromised states (C)
Recommendations: Immunization
ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S27.
VI. Prevention and management of
diabetes complications
 CVD is a major cause of morbidity, mortality for
those with diabetes
 Common conditions coexisting with type 2 diabetes
(e.g., hypertension, dyslipidemia) are clear risk
factors for CVD
 Diabetes itself confers independent risk
 Benefits observed when individual cardiovascular
risk factors are controlled to prevent/slow CVD in
people with diabetes
Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) in
Individuals with Diabetes
ADA. . Prevention, Management of Complications. Diabetes Care 2011;34(suppl 1):S27.
Screening and diagnosis
 Measure blood pressure at every routine diabetes
visit
 If patients have systolic blood pressure
≥130 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure ≥80 mmHg
 Confirm blood pressure on a separate day
 Repeat systolic blood pressure ≥130 mmHg or diastolic
blood pressure ≥80 confirms a diagnosis of hypertension
(C)
Recommendations: Hypertension/Blood
Pressure Control
ADA. VI. Prevention, Management of Complications. Diabetes Care 2011;34(suppl 1):S27.
Goals
 A goal systolic blood pressure <130 mmHg is
appropriate for most patients with diabetes (C)
 Based on patient characteristics and response to
therapy, higher or lower systolic blood pressure
targets may be appropriate (B)
 Patients with diabetes should be treated to a
diastolic blood pressure <80 mmHg (B)
Recommendations: Hypertension/Blood
Pressure Control
Treatment (1)
 Patients with a systolic blood pressure 130–
139 mmHg or a diastolic blood pressure 80–
89 mmHg
 May be given lifestyle therapy alone for a
maximum of 3 months
 If targets are not achieved, patients should be
treated with the addition of pharmacological
agents (E)
Recommendations: Hypertension/Blood
Pressure Control
Treatment (2)
 Patients with more severe hypertension
(systolic blood pressure ≥140 mmHg or
diastolic blood pressure ≥90 mmHg) at
diagnosis or follow-up
 Should receive pharmacologic therapy in addition
to lifestyle therapy (A)
Recommendations: Hypertension/Blood
Pressure Control
Treatment (3)
 Lifestyle therapy for hypertension
 Weight loss if overweight
 DASH-style dietary pattern including reducing
sodium, increasing potassium intake
 Moderation of alcohol intake
 Increased physical activity (B)
Recommendations: Hypertension/Blood
Pressure Control
Treatment (4)
 Pharmacologic therapy for patients with diabetes and
hypertension
 Pair with a regimen that includes either an ACE inhibitor or angiotensin II
receptor blocker
 If one class is not tolerated, the other should be substituted
 If needed to achieve blood pressure targets
 Thiazide diuretic should be added to those with estimated GFR ≥30 ml x
min/1.73 m2
 Loop diuretic for those with an estimated GFR <30 ml x min/1.73 m2 (C)
Recommendations: Hypertension/Blood
Pressure Control
Treatment (5)
 Multiple drug therapy (two or more agents at
maximal doses)
 Generally required to achieve blood pressure targets (B)
 If ACE inhibitors, ARBs, or diuretics are used
 Kidney function, serum potassium levels should be
monitored (E)
Recommendations: Hypertension/Blood
Pressure Control
ADA. VI. Prevention, Management of Complications. Diabetes Care 2011;34(suppl 1):S27.
Treatment (6)
 In pregnant patients with diabetes and chronic
hypertension
 Blood pressure target goals of 110–129/65–79 mmHg are
suggested in interest of long-term maternal health and
minimizing impaired fetal growth
 ACE inhibitors, ARBs, contraindicated during
pregnancy (E)
Recommendations:
Hypertension/Blood Pressure Control
Screening
 In most adult patients
 Measure fasting lipid profile at least annually
 In adults with low-risk lipid values (LDL cholesterol
<100 mg/dl, HDL cholesterol >50 mg/dl, and
triglycerides <150 mg/dl)
 Lipid assessments may be repeated every 2 years (E)
Recommendations:
Dyslipidemia/Lipid Management
Treatment recommendations and goals (1)
 To improve lipid profile in patients with diabetes,
recommend lifestyle modification (A), focusing on
 Reduction of saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol intake
 Increased n-3 fatty acids, viscous fiber,
plant stanols/sterols
 Weight loss (if indicated)
 Increased physical activity
Recommendations:
Dyslipidemia/Lipid Management
Treatment recommendations and goals (2)
 Statin therapy should be added to lifestyle
therapy, regardless of baseline lipid levels, for
diabetic patients:
 with overt CVD (A)
 without CVD who are >40 years of age and have
one or more other CVD risk factors (A)
Recommendations:
Dyslipidemia/Lipid Management
Treatment recommendations and goals (3)
 For patients at lower risk (e.g., without overt
CVD and <40 years of age) (E)
 Statin therapy should be considered in addition to
lifestyle therapy if LDL cholesterol remains >100
mg/dl
 In those with multiple CVD risk factors
Recommendations:
Dyslipidemia/Lipid Management
Treatment recommendations and goals (4)
 In individuals without overt CVD
 Primary goal is an LDL cholesterol
<100 mg/dl (2.6 mmol/l) (A)
 In individuals with overt CVD
 Lower LDL cholesterol goal of <70 mg/dl
(1.8 mmol/l), using a high dose of a statin, is an option (B)
Recommendations:
Dyslipidemia/Lipid Management
Treatment recommendations and goals (5)
 If targets not reached on maximal tolerated statin
therapy
 Alternative therapeutic goal: reduce LDL cholesterol ~30–
40% from baseline (A)
 Triglyceride levels <150 mg/dl (1.7 mmol/l), HDL
cholesterol >40 mg/dl (1.0 mmol/l) in men and >50
mg/dl (1.3 mmol/l) in women, are desirable
 However, LDL cholesterol–targeted statin therapy remains
the preferred strategy (C)
Recommendations:
Dyslipidemia/Lipid Management
Treatment recommendations and goals (6)
 If targets are not reached on maximally tolerated
doses of statins
 Combination therapy using statins and other lipid
lowering agents may be considered to achieve lipid
targets
 Has not been evaluated in outcome studies for either CVD
outcomes or safety (E)
 Statin therapy is contraindicated in pregnancy
Recommendations:
Dyslipidemia/Lipid Management
Studyref.
Statin dose and
comparator
Risk
reduction
Relative risk
reduction
Absolute
risk
reduction
LDL
cholesterol
reduction,
mg/dl (%)
4S-DM1 Simvastatin 20-40 mg vs.
placebo
85.7 to 43.2% 50% 42.5%
186 to 119
(36%)
ASPEN2 Atorvastatin 10 mg vs.
placebo
39.5 to
24.5%
34% 12.7% 112 to 79 (29%)
HPS-DM3 Simvastatin 40 mg vs.
placebo
43.8 to 36.3% 17% 7.5% 123 to 84 (31%)
CARE-DM4 Pravastatin 40 mg vs.
placebo
40.8 to
35.4%
13% 5.4% 136 to 99 (27%)
TNT-DM5 Atorvastatin 80 mg vs. 10
mg
26.3 to
21.6%
18% 4.7% 99 to 77 (22%)
Statins: Reduction in 10-Year Risk of
Major CVD* in Patients with Diabetes
*Endpoints=CHD death, nonfatal MI
Secondary Prevention
Studyref.
Statin dose and
comparator
Risk
reduction
Relative risk
reduction
Absolute
risk
reduction
LDL
cholesterol
reduction,
mg/dl (%)
HPS-DM1 Simvastatin 40 mg vs.
placebo
17.5 to 11.5% 34% 6.0% 124 to 86 (31%)
CARDS2 Atorvastatin 10 mg vs.
placebo
11.5 to 7.5% 35% 4.0% 118 to 71 (40%)
ASPEN3 Atorvastatin 10 mg vs.
placebo
9.8 to 7.9% 19% 1.9% 114 to 80 (30%)
ASCOT-DM4 Atorvastatin 10 mg vs.
placebo
11.1 to 10.2% 8% 0.9% 125 to 82 (34%)
*Endpoints=CHD death, nonfatal MI
Primary Prevention
Statins: Reduction in 10-Year Risk of
Major CVD* in Patients with Diabetes
A1C <7.0%*
Blood pressure <130/80 mmHg†
Lipids
LDL cholesterol <100 mg/dl (<2.6
mmol/l)‡
Recommendations: Glycemic, Blood Pressure,
Lipid Control in Adults
*More or less stringent glycemic goals may be appropriate for individual patients. Goals should be individualized based on:
duration of diabetes, age/life expectancy, comorbid conditions, known CVD or advanced microvascular complications,
hypoglycemia unawareness, and individual patient considerations.
†Based on patient characteristics and response to therapy, higher or lower systolic blood pressure targets may be appropriate.
‡In individuals with overt CVD, a lower LDL cholesterol goal of <70 mg/dl (1.8 mmol/l), using a high dose of statin, is an option.
 Consider aspirin therapy (75–162 mg/day) (C)
 As a primary prevention strategy in those with type 1 or
type 2 diabetes at increased cardiovascular risk (10-year
risk >10%)
 Includes most men >50 years of age or women >60 years
of age who have at least one additional major risk factor
 Family history of CVD
 Hypertension
 Smoking
 Dyslipidemia
 Albuminuria
Recommendations:
Antiplatelet Agents (1)
 Aspirin should not be recommended forCVD prevention for
adults with diabetes at low CVD risk, since potential adverse
effects from bleeding likely offset potential benefits (C)
 10-yearCVD risk <5%: men <50 and women <60 years of age with no
major additionalCVD risk factors
• In patients in these age groups with multiple other risk
factors (e.g., 10-year risk 5%-10%) clinical judgment is
required (E)
Recommendations:
Antiplatelet Agents (2)
 Use aspirin therapy (75–162 mg/day)
 Secondary prevention strategy in those with diabetes
with a history of CVD (A)
 For patients with CVD, documented aspirin allergy
 Clopidogrel (75 mg/day) should be used (B)
 Combination therapy with ASA (75–162 mg/day)
and clopidogrel (75 mg/day)
 Reasonable for up to a year after an acute coronary
syndrome (B)
Recommendations:
Antiplatelet Agents (3)
 Advise all patients not to smoke (A)
 Include smoking cessation counseling and
other forms of treatment as a routine
component of diabetes care (B)
Recommendations:
Smoking Cessation
 In asymptomatic patients, routine screening
for CAD is not recommended, as it does not
improve outcomes as long as CVD risk factors
are treated (A)
Recommendations:
Coronary Heart Disease Screening
 To reduce risk of cardiovascular events in patients
with known CVD, use
 ACE inhibitor* (C)
 Aspirin* (A)
 Statin therapy* (A)
 In patients with a prior MI
 Beta-blockers should be continued for at least 2 years
after the event (B)
Recommendations:
Coronary Heart Disease Treatment (1)
*If not contraindicated.
 Longer-term use of beta-blockers in the absence of
hypertension
 Reasonable if well tolerated, but data are lacking (E)
 AvoidTZD treatment
 In patients with symptomatic heart failure (C)
 Metformin use in patients with stable CHF
 Indicated if renal function is normal
 Should be avoided in unstable or hospitalized patients
with CHF (C)
Recommendations:
Coronary Heart Disease Treatment (2)
 To reduce risk or slow the progression of
nephropathy
 Optimize glucose control (A)
 Optimize blood pressure control (A)
Recommendations: Nephropathy
 Assess urine albumin excretion annually (E)
 In type 1 diabetic patients with diabetes duration of 5
years
 In all type 2 diabetic patients at diagnosis
 Measure serum creatinine at least annually (E)
 In all adults with diabetes regardless of degree of urine
albumin excretion
 Serum creatinine should be used to estimate GFR and
stage level of chronic kidney disease, if present
Recommendations:
Nephropathy Screening
 Nonpregnant patient with micro- or
macroalbuminuria
 Either ACE inhibitors or ARBs should be used (A)
Recommendations:
Nephropathy Treatment (1)
 In patients with type 1 diabetes, hypertension, and
any degree of albuminuria
 ACE inhibitors have been shown to delay progression of
nephropathy (A)
 In patients with type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and
microalbuminuria
 Both ACE inhibitors and ARBs have been shown to delay
progression to macroalbuminuria (A)
Recommendations:
Nephropathy Treatment (2)
 In patients with type 2 diabetes,
hypertension, macroalbuminuria, and renal
insufficiency (serum creatinine >1.5 mg/dl)
 ARBs have been shown to delay progression of
nephropathy (A)
 If one class is not tolerated, the other should
be substituted (E)
Recommendations:
Nephropathy Treatment (3)
 Reduction of protein intake may improve measures
of renal function (urine albumin excretion rate, GFR)
(B)
 To 0.8 –1.0 g x kg body wt–1 x day–1 in those with diabetes,
earlier stages of CKD
 To 0.8 g x kg body wt–1 x day–1 in later stages of CKD
 When ACE inhibitors, ARBs, or diuretics are used,
monitor serum creatinine, potassium levels for
development of acute kidney disease, hyperkalemia
(E)
Recommendations:
Nephropathy Treatment (4)
 Continue monitoring urine albumin excretion to
assess both response to therapy, disease
progression (E)
 When eGFR <60 ml/min/1.73 m2, evaluate, manage
potential complications of CKD (E)
 Consider referral to a physician experienced in care
of kidney disease (B)
 Uncertainty about etiology of kidney disease
 Difficult management issues
 Advanced kidney disease
Recommendations:
Nephropathy Treatment (5)
Category
Spot collection
(µg/mg creatinine)
Normal <30
Microalbuminuria 30-299
Macroalbuminuria (clinical) ≥300
Definitions of Abnormalities in
Albumin Excretion
Stage Description
GFR (ml/min per 1.73
m2 body surface area)
1 Kidney damage* with normal or
increased GFR
≥90
2 Kidney damage* with mildly
decreased GFR
60–89
3 Moderately decreased GFR 30–59
4 Severely decreased GFR 15–29
5 Kidney failure <15 or dialysis
Stages of Chronic Kidney Disease
*Kidney damage defined as abnormalities on pathologic, urine, blood, or imaging tests.
GFR = glomerular filtration rate
GFR (ml/min/ 1.73
m2) Recommended
All patients Yearly measurement of creatinine, urinary albumin
excretion, potassium
45-60 Referral to nephrology if possibility for nondiabetic
kidney disease exists
Consider dose adjustment of medications
Monitor eGFR every 6 months
Monitor electrolytes, bicarbonate, hemoglobin, calcium,
phosphorus, parathyroid hormone at least yearly
Assure vitamin D sufficiency
Consider bone density testing
Referral for dietary counselling
Management of CKD in Diabetes (1)
Management of CKD in Diabetes (2)
GFR (ml/min/ 1.73
m2) Recommended
30-44 Monitor eGFR every 3 months
Monitor electrolytes, bicarbonate, calcium,
phosphorus, parathyroid hormone, hemoglobin,
albumin, weight every 3–6 months
Consider need for dose adjustment of medications
<30 Referral to nephrologist
 To reduce risk or slow progression of
retinopathy
 Optimize glycemic control (A)
 Optimize blood pressure control (A)
Recommendations: Retinopathy
 Initial dilated and comprehensive eye examination
by an ophthalmologist or optometrist
 Adults and children aged 10 years or older with type 1
diabetes
 Within 5 years after diabetes onset (B)
 Patients with type 2 diabetes
 Shortly after the diagnosis of diabetes (B)
Recommendations:
Retinopathy Screening (1)
 Subsequent examinations for type 1 and type 2
diabetic patients
 Should be repeated annually by an ophthalmologist or
optometrist
 Less frequent exams (every 2–3 years)
 May be considered following one or more normal eye
exams
 More frequent examinations required if retinopathy
is progressing (B)
Recommendations:
Retinopathy Screening (2)
 High-quality fundus photographs
 Can detect most clinically significant diabetic retinopathy
 Interpretation of the images
 Performed by a trained eye care provider
 While retinal photography may serve as a screening tool for
retinopathy, it is not a substitute for a comprehensive eye
exam
 Perform comprehensive eye exam at least initially and at intervals
thereafter as recommended by an eye care professional (E)
Recommendations:
Retinopathy Screening (3)
 Women with preexisting diabetes who are planning
pregnancy or who have become pregnant
 Comprehensive eye examination
 Counseled on risk of development and/or progression of
diabetic retinopathy
 Eye examination should occur in the first trimester
 Close follow-up throughout pregnancy
 For 1 year postpartum (B)
Recommendations:
Retinopathy Screening (4)
 Promptly refer patients with any level of macular
edema, severe NPDR, or any PDR
 To an ophthalmologist knowledgeable and experienced in
management, treatment of diabetic retinopathy (A)
 Laser photocoagulation therapy is indicated
 To reduce risk of vision loss in patients with
 High-risk PDR
 Clinically significant macular edema
 Some cases of severe NPDR (A)
Recommendations:
Retinopathy Treatment (1)
 Presence of retinopathy
 Not a contraindication to aspirin therapy for
cardioprotection, as this therapy does not
increase the risk of retinal hemorrhage (A)
Recommendations:
Retinopathy Treatment (2)
 All patients should be screened for distal symmetric
polyneuropathy (DPN)
 At diagnosis
 At least annually thereafter using simple clinical tests (B)
 Electrophysiological testing rarely needed
 Except in situations where clinical features are atypical (E)
Recommendations:
Neuropathy Screening, Treatment (1)
 Screening for signs and symptoms of cardiovascular
autonomic neuropathy
 Should be instituted at diagnosis of type 2 diabetes and 5
years after the diagnosis of type 1 diabetes
 Special testing rarely needed; may not affect
management or outcomes (E)
 Medications for relief of specific symptoms related
to DPN, autonomic neuropathy are recommended
 Improve quality of life of the patient (E)
Recommendations:
Neuropathy Screening, Treatment (2)
 For all patients with diabetes, perform an
annual comprehensive foot examination to
identify risk factors predictive of ulcers and
amputations
 Inspection
 Assessment of foot pulses
 Test for loss of protective sensation: 10-g monofilament
plus testing any one of
 Vibration using 128-Hz tuning fork
 Pinprick sensation
 Ankle reflexes
 Vibration perception threshold (B)
Recommendations: Foot Care (1)
Upper panel
• To perform the 10-g
monofilament test, place the
device perpendicular to the
skin, with pressure applied until
the monofilament buckles
• Hold in place for 1 second and
then release
Lower panel
• The monofilament test should
be performed at the
highlighted sites while the
patient’s eyes are closed
Recommendations: Foot Care (2)
 Provide general foot self-care education
 All patients with diabetes (B)
 Use multidisciplinary approach
 Individuals with foot ulcers, high-risk feet; especially prior
ulcer or amputation (B)
 Refer patients to foot care specialists for ongoing
preventive care, life-long surveillance (C)
 Smokers
 Loss of protective sensation or structural abnormalities
 History of prior lower-extremity complications
Recommendations: Foot Care (3)
 Initial screening for peripheral arterial disease (PAD)
 Include a history for claudication, assessment of pedal
pulses
 Consider obtaining an ankle-brachial index (ABI); many
patients with PAD are asymptomatic (C)
 Refer patients with significant claudication or a
positive ABI for further vascular assessment
 Consider exercise, medications, surgical options (C)
Recommendations: Foot Care (4)
VII. diabetes care in specific
populations
 Consider age when setting glycemic goals in
children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes
(E)
Recommendations: Pediatric
Glycemic Control (Type 1 Diabetes)
 Annual screening for microalbuminuria, with a
random spot urine sample for albumin-to-creatinine
(ACR)ratio
 Consider once child is 10 years of age and has had
diabetes for 5 years (E)
 Confirmed, persistently elevated ACR on two
additional urine specimens from different days
 Treat with an ACE inhibitor, titrated to normalization of
albumin excretion, if possible (E)
Recommendations: Pediatric
Nephropathy (Type 1 Diabetes)
 Treat high-normal blood pressure (systolic or
diastolic blood pressure consistently above the 90th
percentile for age, sex, and height) with
 Dietary intervention
 Exercise aimed at weight control and increased physical
activity, if appropriate
 If target blood pressure is not reached with 3-6
months of lifestyle intervention
 Consider pharmacologic treatment (E)
Recommendations: Pediatric
Hypertension (Type 1 Diabetes) (1)
 Pharmacologic treatment of hypertension
(systolic or diastolic blood pressure
consistently above the 95th percentile for age,
sex, and height or consistently >130/80
mmHg, if 95% exceeds that value)
 Initiate as soon as diagnosis is confirmed (E)
Recommendations: Pediatric
Hypertension (Type 1 Diabetes) (2)
 ACE inhibitors
 Consider for initial treatment of hypertension,
following appropriate reproductive counseling
due to potential teratogenic effects (E)
 Goal of treatment
 Blood pressure consistently <130/80 mmHg or
below the 90th percentile for age, sex, and height,
whichever is lower (E)
Recommendations: Pediatric
Hypertension (Type 1 Diabetes) (3)
Screening (1)
 If family history of hypercholesterolemia (total
cholesterol >240 mg/dl) or a cardiovascular event
before age 55 years, or if family history is unknown
 Perform fasting lipid profile on children
>2 years of age soon after diagnosis (after glucose control
has been established)
Recommendations: Pediatric
Dyslipidemia (Type 1 Diabetes) (1)
Screening (2)
 If family history is not of concern
 Consider first lipid screening at puberty
(≥10 years)
 All children diagnosed with diabetes at or after
puberty
 Perform fasting lipid profile soon after diagnosis (after
glucose control has been established) (E)
Recommendations: Pediatric
Dyslipidemia (Type 1 Diabetes) (2)
Screening (3)
 For both age-groups, if lipids are abnormal
 Annual monitoring is recommended
 If LDL cholesterol values are within accepted
risk levels (<100 mg/dl [2.6 mmol/l])
 Repeat lipid profile every 5 years (E)
Recommendations: Pediatric
Dyslipidemia (Type 1 Diabetes) (3)
Treatment
 Initial therapy: optimize glucose control, MNT using
Step II AHA diet aimed at decreasing dietary
saturated fat (E)
 > age 10 years, statin reasonable in those (after MNT
and lifestyle changes) with
 LDL cholesterol >160 mg/dl (4.1 mmol/l) or
 LDL cholesterol >130 mg/dl (3.4 mmol/l) and
 One or more CVD risk factors (E)
 Goal of therapy: LDL cholesterol
<100 mg/dl (2.6 mmol/l) (E)
MNT=medical nutrition therapy
Recommendations: Pediatric
Dyslipidemia (Type 1 Diabetes) (4)
 First ophthalmologic examination
 Obtain once child is 10 years of age; has had
diabetes for 3–5 years (E)
 After initial examination
 Annual routine follow-up generally
recommended
 Less frequent examinations may be acceptable
on advice of an eye care professional (E)
Recommendations: Pediatric
Retinopathy (Type 1 Diabetes)
 Children with type 1 diabetes
 Screen for celiac disease by measuring tissue
transglutaminase or antiendomysial antibodies, with
documentation of normal total serum IgA levels, soon
after the diagnosis of diabetes (E)
 Repeat testing in children with
 Growth failure
 Failure to gain weight, weight loss
 Diarrhea, flatulence, abdominal pain, or signs of
malabsorption
 Frequent unexplained hypoglycemia or deterioration in
glycemic control (E)
Recommendations: Pediatric
Celiac Disease (Type 1 Diabetes) (1)
 Children with positive antibodies
 Refer to a gastroenterologist for evaluation with
endoscopy and biopsy (E)
 Children with biopsy-confirmed celiac disease
 Place on a gluten-free diet
 Consult with a dietitian experienced in managing
both diabetes and celiac disease (E)
Recommendations: Pediatric
Celiac Disease (Type 1 Diabetes)
(2)
 Children with type 1 diabetes
 Screen for thyroid peroxidase, thyroglobulin
antibodies at diagnosis (E)
 Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
concentrations
 Measure after metabolic control established
 If normal, recheck every 1-2 years; or
 If patient develops symptoms of thyroid dysfunction,
thyromegaly, or an abnormal growth rate
Recommendations: Pediatric
Hypothyroidism (Type 1 Diabetes)
 Before conception is attempted, A1C levels
 Close to normal as possible (<7%) (B)
 Starting at puberty
 Incorporate preconception counseling in routine diabetes clinic visit
for all women of child-bearing potential (C)
 Evaluate women contemplating pregnancy; if
indicated, treat for
 Diabetic retinopathy
 Nephropathy
 Neuropathy
 CVD (E)
Recommendations:
Preconception Care (1)
 Evaluate medications used prior to conception
 Drugs commonly used to treat diabetes,
complications may be contraindicated or not
recommended in pregnancy, including
 Statins, ACE inhibitors, ARBs, most noninsulin therapies
(E)
 Since many pregnancies are unplanned, consider
potential risks/benefits of medications
contraindicated in pregnancy in all women of
childbearing potential; counsel accordingly (E)
Recommendations:
Preconception Care (2)
 Functional, cognitively intact older adults with
significant life expectancies should receive diabetes
care using goals developed for younger adults (E)
 Glycemic goals for those not meeting the above
criteria may be relaxed using individual criteria, but
hyperglycemia leading to symptoms or risk of acute
hyperglycemic complications should be avoided in
all patients (E)
Recommendations: Older Adults (1)
 Treat other cardiovascular risk factors with
consideration of time frame of benefit, individual
patient
 Treatment of hypertension is indicated in virtually
all older adults; lipid, aspirin therapy may benefit
those with life expectancy equal to time frame of
primary/secondary prevention trials (E)
 Individualize screening for diabetes complications
with attention to those leading to functional
impairment (E)
Recommendations: Older Adults (2)
VIII. diabetes care in specific
settings
 All patients with diabetes admitted to the
hospital should have
 Their diabetes clearly identified in the medical
record (E)
 An order for blood glucose monitoring, with
results available to the health care team (E)
Recommendations:
Diabetes Care in the Hospital (1)
 Goals for blood glucose levels
 Critically ill patients: 140-180 mg/dl
(10 mmol/l) (A)
 More stringent goals, such as 110-140 mg/dl (6.1-7.8
mmol/l) may be appropriate for selected patients, if
achievable without significant hypoglycemia (C)
 Non-critically ill patients: base goals on glycemic control,
severe comorbidities (E)
Recommendations:
Diabetes Care in the Hospital (2)
 Scheduled subcutaneous insulin with basal,
nutritional, correction components (C)
 Use correction dose or “supplemental insulin” to
correct premeal hyperglycemia in addition to
scheduled prandial and basal insulin (E)
 Initiate glucose monitoring in any patients not
known to be diabetic who receives therapy
associated with high risk for hyperglycemia (B)
Recommendations:
Diabetes Care in the Hospital (3)
 A hypoglycemia management protocol should be adopted
and implemented by each hospital or hospital system
 Establish a plan for treating hypoglycemia for each patient; document
episodes of hypoglycemia in medical recoard and track (E)
 Obtain A1C for all patients if results within previous 2-3
months unavailable (E)
 Patients with hyperglycemia who do not have a diagnosis of
diabetes should have appropriate plans for follow-up testing
and care documented at discharge (E)
Recommendations:
Diabetes Care in the Hospital (4)
 Largest randomized controlled trial to date
 Tested effect of tight glycemic control (target
81-108 mg/dl) on outcomes among 6,104
critically ill participants
 Majority (>95%) required mechanical
ventilation
Diabetes Care in the Hospital:
NICE-SUGAR Study (1)
 In both surgical/medical patients, 90-day mortality
significantly higher in intensively treated vs
conventional group (target 144-180 mg/dl)
 78 more deaths (27.5% vs 24.9%; P=0.02)
 76 more deaths from cardiovascular causes
(41.6% vs 35.8%; P=0.02)
 Severe hypoglycemia more common
(6.8% vs 0.5%; P<0.001)
Diabetes Care in the Hospital:
NICE-SUGAR Study (2)
Ix. Strategies for improving
diabetes care
 Facilitate timely and appropriate
intensification of lifestyle and/or
pharmaceutical therapy of patients who have
not achieved beneficial levels of blood
pressure, lipid, or glucose control
Objective 1
Provider and Team Behavior Change
 Implement a systematic approach to support
patients’ behavior change efforts as needed
including
 1) healthy lifestyle (physical activity, healthy eating,
nonuse of tobacco, weight management, effective
coping, medication taking and management)
 2) prevention of diabetes complications (screening for
eye, foot, and renal complications; immunizations)
 3) achievement of appropriate blood pressure, lipid, and
glucose goals
Objective 2
Patient Behavior Change
 Research on the comprehensive chronic care (CCM)
model suggests additional strategies to improve
diabetes care
 Consistent, evidence-based care guidelines
 Collaborative, multidisciplinary teams
 Audit and feedback of process and outcome data to
providers
 Care management
 Identifying and/or developing community resources and
public policy that supports healthy lifestyles
 Alterations in reimbursement
Objective 3
Change the Systems of Care
ThankYou All

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ADA guideline2015 dr shahjadaselim

  • 1. AMERICAN DIABETES ASSOCIATION GUIDELINE ON DIABETES-2015 DIABETES CARE VOL 38, SUPPLEMENT 1, JANUARY 2015 Dr Shahjada Selim MBBS MD (EM) Department of Medicine Shaheed Suhrawardy medical College Hospital, Dhaka
  • 2. Introduction Diabetes is a complex, chronic illness requiring continuous medical care with multifactorial risk reduction Strategies beyond glycemic control. Ongoing patient self management education and support are critical to preventing acute complications and reducing the risk of long-term complications. Significant evidence exists that supports a range of interventions to improve diabetes outcomes.
  • 3. ADA Evidence Grading System for Clinical Recommendations
  • 4. Changes in 2015 Guideline 01 The BMI cut point for screening overweight or obese Asian Americans for prediabetes and type 2 diabetes was changed to 23 kg/m2 (vs. 25 kg/m2) to reflect the evidence that this population is at an increased risk for diabetes at lower BMI levels relative to the general population.
  • 5. Cont… 02 Patient should be encouraged to limit the amount of time they spend being sedentary by breaking up extended amounts of time (>90min) spent sitting.
  • 6. Cont… Immunization recommendations were revised to reflect recent Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guidelines Regarding PCV13 and PPSV23 vaccinations in older adults.
  • 7. Cont… The ADA now recommends a premeal Blood glucose target of 80–130 mg/dL, rather than 70 -130 mg/dL, to better reflect new data comparing actual average glucose levels with A1C targets.
  • 8. Cont… 03 The recommended goal for diastolic blood pressure was changed from 80 mmHg to 90 mmHg for most people with diabetes and hypertension to better reflect evidence From randomized clinical trials. Lower Diastolic targets may still be appropriate for certain individuals.
  • 9. Cont… 04 Treatment initiation (and initial statin dose) is Now driven primarily by risk status rather than LDL cholesterol level. A screening lipid profile is reasonable at Diabetes diagnosis, at an initial medical evaluation and/or at age 40 years, and periodically thereafter.
  • 10. Cont… 05 To better target those at high risk for foot complications, the Standards emphasize that all patients with insensate feet, foot deformities, or a history of foot ulcers have their feet examined at every visit.
  • 11. Cont… 06 To reflect new evidence regarding the Risks And benefits of tight glycemic control in children and adolescents with diabetes, the Standards now Recommend a targetA1C of ,7.5% for all Pediatric age groups; however, individualization is still encouraged.
  • 12. Diabetes classification 1.Type 1 diabetes (due to b-cell destruction, usually leading to absolute insulin deficiency) 2.Type 2 diabetes (due to a progressive insulin secretory defect on the background of insulin resistance) 3. Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) (diabetes diagnosed in the second or third trimester of pregnancy that is not clearly overt diabetes) 4. Specific types of diabetes due to other causes, e.g., monogenic diabetes syndromes (such as neonatal diabetes and maturity-onset diabetes of the young [MODY]), diseases of the exocrine pancreas (such as cystic fibrosis), and drug- or chemical-induced diabetes (such as in the treatment of HIV/AIDS or after organ transplantation)
  • 13. A1C ≥6.5% OR Fasting plasma glucose (FPG) ≥126 mg/dl (7.0 mmol/l) OR Two-hour plasma glucose ≥200 mg/dl (11.1 mmol/l) during an OGTT OR A random plasma glucose ≥200 mg/dl (11.1 mmol/l) Criteria for the Diagnosis of Diabetes ADA. I. Classification and Diagnosis. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S9. Table 2.1.
  • 14. A1C ≥6.5% The test should be performed in a laboratory using an NGSP-certified method standardized to the DCCT assay* Criteria for the Diagnosis of Diabetes *In the absence of unequivocal hyperglycemia, result should be confirmed by repeat testing. ADA. I. Classification and Diagnosis. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S9. Table 2.1.
  • 15. Fasting plasma glucose (FPG) ≥126 mg/dl (7.0 mmol/l) Fasting: no caloric intake for at least 8 h* Criteria for the Diagnosis of Diabetes *In the absence of unequivocal hyperglycemia, result should be confirmed by repeat testing. ADA. I. Classification and Diagnosis. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S9. Table 2.1.
  • 16. Two-hour plasma glucose ≥200 mg/dl (11.1 mmol/l) during an OGTT The test should be performed as described by the World Health Organization, using a glucose load containing the equivalent of 75 g anhydrous glucose dissolved in water* Criteria for the Diagnosis of Diabetes *n the absence of unequivocal hyperglycemia, result should be confirmed by repeat testing. ADA. I. Classification and Diagnosis. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S9. Table 2.1
  • 17. In a patient with classic symptoms of hyperglycemia or hyperglycemic crisis, a random plasma glucose ≥200 mg/dl (11.1 mmol/l) Criteria for the Diagnosis of Diabetes
  • 18. Categories of increased risk for diabetes (Prediabetes)* FPG 100-125 mg/dl (5.6-6.9 mmol/l): IFG or 2-h plasma glucose in the 75-g OGTT 140-199 mg/dl (7.8-11.0 mmol/l): IGT Or A1C 5.7-6.4% Prediabetes: IFG, IGT, Increased A1C *For all three tests, risk is continuous, extending below the lower limit of a range and becoming disproportionately greater at higher ends of the range.
  • 19. II. Testing for Diabetes in Asymptomatic Patients
  • 20.  Consider testing overweight/obese(BMI ≥25 or ≥23 in Asian Americans) adults with one or more additional risk factors  In those without risk factors, begin testing at age 45 years (B)  If tests are normal  Repeat testing at least at 3-year intervals (E)  Use A1C, FPG, or 2-h 75-g OGTT (B)  In those with increased risk for future diabetes  Identify and, if appropriate, treat other CVD risk factors (B) Recommendations: Testing for Diabetes in Asymptomatic Patients ADA. II. Testing in Asymptomatic Patients. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S09-S10.
  • 21. Criteria for Testing for Diabetes in Asymptomatic Adult Individuals (1) • Physical inactivity • First-degree relative with diabetes • High-risk race/ethnicity (e.g.,African American, Latino, Native American, Asian American, Pacific Islander) • Women who delivered a baby weighing >9 lb or were diagnosed with GDM • Hypertension (≥140/90 mmHg or on therapy for hypertension) • HDL cholesterol level <35 mg/dl (0.90 mmol/l) and/or a triglyceride level >250 mg/dl (2.82 mmol/l) • Women with polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) • A1C ≥5.7%, IGT, or IFG on previous testing • Other clinical conditions associated with insulin resistance (e.g., severe obesity, acanthosis nigricans) • History of CVD 1. Testing should be considered in all adults who are overweight (BMI ≥25 kg/m2 or ≥23 kg/m2 in AsianAmericans) and have additional risk factors: ADA. Testing in Asymptomatic Patients. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S10. Table 2.2
  • 22. 2. In the absence of criteria (risk factors on previous slide), testing for diabetes should begin at age 45 years 3. If results are normal, testing should be repeated at least at 3-year intervals, with consideration of more frequent testing depending on initial results and risk status. ADA. Testing in Asymptomatic Patients. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S10. Table 2.2 Criteria for Testing for Diabetes in Asymptomatic Adult Individuals (2)
  • 23. Criteria * Overweight (BMI>85th percentile for age and sex, weight for height >85th percentile, or weight >120% of ideal for weight) Plus any two of the following risk factors- • Family history of type 2 diabetes in 1st or 2nd degree relative. • Race/ethnicity (e.g.,African American, Latino, NativeAmerican, Asian American, Pacific Islander) • Signs of insulin resistance or conditions associated with insulin resistance (HTN, dyslipidaemia, PCOS, acanthosis nigricans or small for gestational age birth weight) • Maternal history of diabetes or GDM during the child’s gestation. Age of initiation: Age 10 years or at onset of puberty, if puberty occurs at a younger age. • Frequency of testing: every 3 years * Persons aged ≤18 years. ADA. Testing in Asymptomatic Patients. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S10. Table 2.2 Testing for Type 2 diabetes or prediabetes in asymptomatic children*
  • 24. III. Detection and Diagnosis of Gestational diabetes mellitus
  • 25.  Screen for undiagnosed type 2 diabetes at the first prenatal visit in those with risk factors, using standard diagnostic criteria (B)  In pregnant women not previously known to have diabetes, screen for GDM at 24-28 weeks gestation, using a 75-g OGTT and the diagnostic cutpoints inTable 2.5 (B) Recommendations: Detection and Diagnosis of GDM (1) ADA. III. Detection and Diagnosis of GDM. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S10
  • 26. • Perform a 75-g OGTT, with plasma glucose measurement fasting and at 1 and 2 h, at 24-28 weeks of gestation in women not previously diagnosed with overt diabetes • Perform OGTT in the morning after an overnight fast of at least 8 h • GDM diagnosis: when any of the following plasma glucose values are exceeded – Fasting ≥92 mg/dl (5.1 mmol/l) – 1 h ≥180 mg/dl (10.0 mmol/l) – 2 h ≥153 mg/dl (8.5 mmol/l) Screening for and Diagnosis of GDM ADA. III. Detection and Diagnosis of GDM. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S14. Table 2.5.
  • 27.  Screen women with GDM for persistent diabetes 6-12 weeks postpartum (E)  Women with a history of GDM should have lifelong screening for the development of diabetes or prediabetes at least every three years (E) Recommendations: Detection and Diagnosis of GDM (2) ADA. III. Detection and Diagnosis of GDM. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S14.
  • 28. IV. Prevention/Delay of Type 2 Diabetes
  • 29.  Refer patients with IGT (A), IFG (E), or A1C 5.7-6.4% (E) to support program – Weight loss 7% of body weight – At least 150 min/week moderate activity  Follow-up counseling important (B); third-party payers should cover (E)  Consider metformin if multiple risk factors, especially if hyperglycemia (e.g., A1C>6%) progresses despite lifestyle interventions (B), especially for those with BMI >35, aged <60 years, and women with prior GDM.(A)  In those with prediabetes, monitor for development of diabetes annually (E)  Screening for and treatment of modifiable risk factors for cardiovascular disease is suggested. Recommendations: Prevention/Delay of Type 2 Diabetes ADA.5. Prevention/Delay of Type 2 Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S31.
  • 31.  A complete medical evaluation should be performed to – Classify the diabetes – Detect presence of diabetes complications – Review previous treatment, glycemic control in patients with established diabetes – Assist in formulating a management plan – Provide a basis for continuing care  Perform laboratory tests necessary to evaluate each patient’s medical condition  Consider assessing for and addressing common comorbid conditions- depression, obstructive sleep apnea that may complicate diabetes management. (B) Diabetes Care: Medical Evaluation ADA. V. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S17
  • 32. Medical history • Age and characteristics of onset of diabetes (e.g., DKA, asymptomatic laboratory finding) • Eating patterns, physical activity habits, nutritional status, and weight history; growth and development in children and adolescents • Diabetes education history • Review of previous treatment regimens and response to therapy (A1C records) Components of the Comprehensive Diabetes Evaluation (1) ADA.3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S18. Table 3.1.
  • 33. Current treatment of diabetes, including medications, meal plan, physical activity patterns, and results of glucose monitoring and patient’s use of data (1) • DKA frequency, severity, and cause • Hypoglycemic episodes – Hypoglycemia awareness – Any severe hypoglycemia: frequency and cause Components of the Comprehensive Diabetes Evaluation (2) ADA.3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S18. Table 3.1.
  • 34. Current treatment of diabetes, including medications, meal plan, physical activity patterns, and results of glucose monitoring and patient’s use of data (2) • History of diabetes-related complications – Microvascular: retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy • Sensory neuropathy, including history of foot lesions • Autonomic neuropathy, including sexual dysfunction and gastroparesis – Macrovascular: CHD, cerebrovascular disease, PAD – Other: psychosocial problems*, dental disease* Components of the Comprehensive Diabetes Evaluation (3) ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S18. Table 3.1
  • 35. Physical examination (1) • Height, weight, BMI • Blood pressure determination, including orthostatic measurements when indicated • Fundoscopic examination* • Thyroid palpation • Skin examination (for acanthosis nigricans and insulin injection sites) Components of the Comprehensive Diabetes Evaluation (4) ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S18. Table 3.1
  • 36. Physical examination (2) • Comprehensive foot examination – Inspection – Palpation of dorsalis pedis and posterior tibial pulses – Presence/absence of patellar and Achilles reflexes – Determination of proprioception, vibration, and monofilament sensation Components of the Comprehensive Diabetes Evaluation (5) ADA. V. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S18. Table 3.1.
  • 37. Laboratory evaluation • A1C, if results not available within past 2–3 months • If not performed/available within past year –Fasting lipid profile, including total, LDL- and HDL- cholesterol and triglycerides –Liver function tests –Test for urine albumin excretion with spot urine albumin/creatinine ratio –Serum creatinine and calculated GFR –TSH in type 1 diabetes, dyslipidemia, or women >50 years of age Components of the Comprehensive Diabetes Evaluation (6) ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S18. Table 3.1.
  • 38. Referrals • Annual dilated eye exam • Family planning for women of reproductive age • Registered dietitian for MNT • Diabetes self-management education(DSME/DSMS) • Dental examination • Mental health professional, if needed Components of the Comprehensive Diabetes Evaluation (7) ADA. V. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S18. Table 3.1.
  • 39.  Self-monitoring of blood glucose should be carried out 3+ times daily for patients using multiple insulin injections or insulin pump therapy (A)  For patients using less frequent insulin injections, noninsulin therapy, or medical nutrition therapy alone  SMBG may be useful as a guide to success of therapy (E)  However, several recent trials have called into question clinical utility, cost-effectiveness, of routine SMBG in non– insulin-treated patients Recommendations: Glucose Monitoring ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S18.
  • 40.  Perform A1C test at least twice yearly in patients meeting treatment goals (and have stable glycemic control) (E)  Perform A1C test quarterly in patients whose therapy has changed or who are not meeting glycemic goals (E)  Use of point-of-care testing for A1C allows for timely decisions on therapy changes, when needed (E) Recommendations: A1C ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S18.
  • 41. Mean plasma glucose A1C (%) mg/dl mmol/l 6 126 7.0 7 154 8.6 8 183 10.2 9 212 11.8 10 240 13.4 11 269 14.9 12 298 16.5 Correlation of A1C with Estimated Average Glucose (eAG) ADA. V. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S18. Table 9. These estimates are based on ADAG data of ~2,700 glucose measurements over 3 months per A1C measurement in 507 adults with type 1, type 2, and no diabetes.The correlation betweenA1C and average glucose was 0.92. A calculator for convertingA1C results into estimated average glucose (eAG), in either mg/dl or mmol/l, is available at http://professional.diabetes.org/GlucoseCalculator.aspx.
  • 42. Recommendations: Glycemic Goals in Adults (1) ADA. 12. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S77. • Lowering A1C to below or around 7% –Shown to reduce microvascular and neuropathic complications of diabetes –If implemented soon after diagnosis of diabetes, associated with long-term reduction in macrovascular disease • Therefore, a reasonableA1C goal for many non-pregnant adults is <7% (B)
  • 43. Recommendations: Glycemic Goals in Adults (2) ADA. V. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S77 • Additional analysis from several randomized trials suggest a small but incremental benefit in microvascular outcomes with A1C values closer to normal • Providers might reasonably suggest more stringent A1C goals for selected individual patients, if this can be achieved without significant hypoglycemia or other adverse effects of treatment –Such patients might include those with short duration of diabetes, long life expectancy, and no significant cardiovascular disease (B)
  • 44. Recommendations: Glycemic Goals in Adults (3) ADA. 12. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S77. • Conversely, less stringent A1C goals may be appropriate for patients with –History of severe hypoglycemia, limited life expectancy, advanced microvascular or macrovascular complications, extensive comorbid conditions –Those with longstanding diabetes in whom the general goal is difficult to attain despite diabetes self-management education, appropriate glucose monitoring, and effective doses of multiple glucose lowering agents including insulin (C)
  • 45. Intensive Glycemic Control and Cardiovascular Outcomes: ACCORD Gerstein HC, et al, for the Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes Study Group. N Engl J Med 2008;358:2545-2559. ©2008 New England Journal of Medicine. Used with permission. Primary Outcome: Nonfatal MI, nonfatal stroke, CVD death HR=0.90 (0.78-1.04)
  • 46. Intensive Glycemic Control and Cardiovascular Outcomes: ADVANCE ©2008 New England Journal of Medicine. Used with permission. Primary Outcome: Microvascular plus macrovascular (nonfatal MI, nonfatal stroke, CVD death) Patel A, et al,. for the ADVANCE Collaborative Group. N Engl J Med 2008;358:2560-2572. HR=0.90 (0.82-0.98)
  • 47. Intensive Glycemic Control and Cardiovascular Outcomes: VADT Duckworth W, et al., for the VADT Investigators. N Engl J Med 2009;360:129-139. Primary Outcome: Nonfatal MI, nonfatal stroke, CVD death, hospitalization for heart failure, revascularization HR=0.88 (0.74-1.05) ©2009 New England Journal of Medicine. Used with permission.
  • 48. A1C <7.0%* Preprandial capillary plasma glucose 70–130 mg/dl* (3.9– 7.2 mol/l) Peak postprandial capillary plasma glucose† <180 mg/dl* (<10.0 mmol/l) Glycemic Recommendations for Non-Pregnant Adults with Diabetes (1) *Postprandial glucose measurements should be made 1–2 h after the beginning of the meal, generally peak levels in patients with diabetes. ADA. V. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2011;34(suppl 1):S21. Table 10.
  • 49. • Goals should be individualized based on –Duration of diabetes –Age/life expectancy –Comorbid conditions –Known CVD or advanced microvascular complications –Hypoglycemia unawareness –Individual patient considerations –Hypoglycemia unawareness –Individual patient considerations Glycemic Recommendations for Non-Pregnant Adults with Diabetes (2) ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;34(suppl 1):S77. Table 6.1
  • 50. • Postprandial glucose may be targeted ifA1C goals are not met despite reaching preprandial glucose goals • More or less stringent glycemic goals may be appropriate for individual patients Glycemic Recommendations for Non-Pregnant Adults with Diabetes (3) ADA. V. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S21. Table 10.
  • 51.  People with diabetes should receive DSME according to national standards at diagnosis and as needed thereafter (B)  Effective self-management, quality of life are key outcomes of DSME; should be measured, monitored as part of care (C)  DSME should address psychosocial issues; emotional well-being is associated with positive outcomes (C)  DSME should be reimbursed by third-party payers (E) Recommendations: Diabetes Self-Management Education ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S77.
  • 52.  Individuals who have prediabetes or diabetes should receive individualized MNT as needed to achieve treatment goals (A)  For people with diabetes, it is unlikely one optimal mix of macronutrients for meal plans exists  The best mix of carbohydrate, protein, and fat appears to vary depending on individual circumstances Recommendations: Medical Nutrition Therapy (MNT) ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S21.
  • 53.  Intensive lifestyle intervention resulted in1  Average 8.6% weight loss  Significant reduction of A1C  Reduction in several CVD risk factors  Benefits sustained at 4 years2  Final results of Look AHEAD to provide insight into effects of long-term weight loss on important clinical outcomes Look AHEAD (Action for Health in Diabetes): One-Year Results 1. Look AHEAD Research Group. Diabetes Care. 2007;30:1374-1383; 2. Look AHEAD Research Group. Arch Intern Med. 2010;170:1566–1575.
  • 54.  Advise people with diabetes to perform at least 150 min/week of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity (50-70% of maximum heart rate) (A)  In absence of contraindications, people with type 2 diabetes should be encouraged to perform resistance training three times per week (A) Recommendations: Physical Activity ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S24.
  • 55.  Ongoing part of medical management of diabetes (E)  Psychosocial screening/follow-up: attitudes about diabetes, medical management/outcomes expectations, affect/mood, quality of life, resources, psychiatric history (E)  When self-management is poor, screen for psychosocial problems: depression, diabetes- related anxiety, eating disorders, cognitive impairment (C) Recommendations: Psychosocial Assessment and Care ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S25.
  • 56.  Glucose (15-20 g) is preferred treatment for conscious individual with hypoglycemia (E)  Glucagon should be prescribed for all individuals at significant risk of severe hypoglycemia, and caregivers/family members instructed in administration (E)  Those with hypoglycemia unawareness or one or more episodes of severe hypoglycemia should raise glycemic targets to reduce risk of future episodes (B) Recommendations: Hypoglycemia ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S41.
  • 57.  Consider bariatric surgery for adults with BMI >35 kg/m2 and type 2 diabetes (B)  After surgery, life-long lifestyle support and medical monitoring is necessary (E)  Insufficient evidence to recommend surgery in patients with BMI <35 kg/m2 outside of a research protocol (E)  Well-designed, randomized controlled trials comparing optimal medical/lifestyle therapy needed to determine long-term benefits, cost-effectiveness, risks (E) Recommendations: Bariatric Surgery ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S27.
  • 58.  Provide an influenza vaccine annually to all diabetic patients ≥6 months of age (C)  Administer pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine to all diabetic patients ≥2 years  One-time revaccination recommended for those >64 years previously immunized at <65 years if administered >5 years ago  Other indications for repeat vaccination: nephrotic syndrome, chronic renal disease, immunocompromised states (C) Recommendations: Immunization ADA. 3. Diabetes Care. Diabetes Care 2015;38(suppl 1):S27.
  • 59. VI. Prevention and management of diabetes complications
  • 60.  CVD is a major cause of morbidity, mortality for those with diabetes  Common conditions coexisting with type 2 diabetes (e.g., hypertension, dyslipidemia) are clear risk factors for CVD  Diabetes itself confers independent risk  Benefits observed when individual cardiovascular risk factors are controlled to prevent/slow CVD in people with diabetes Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) in Individuals with Diabetes ADA. . Prevention, Management of Complications. Diabetes Care 2011;34(suppl 1):S27.
  • 61. Screening and diagnosis  Measure blood pressure at every routine diabetes visit  If patients have systolic blood pressure ≥130 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure ≥80 mmHg  Confirm blood pressure on a separate day  Repeat systolic blood pressure ≥130 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure ≥80 confirms a diagnosis of hypertension (C) Recommendations: Hypertension/Blood Pressure Control ADA. VI. Prevention, Management of Complications. Diabetes Care 2011;34(suppl 1):S27.
  • 62. Goals  A goal systolic blood pressure <130 mmHg is appropriate for most patients with diabetes (C)  Based on patient characteristics and response to therapy, higher or lower systolic blood pressure targets may be appropriate (B)  Patients with diabetes should be treated to a diastolic blood pressure <80 mmHg (B) Recommendations: Hypertension/Blood Pressure Control
  • 63. Treatment (1)  Patients with a systolic blood pressure 130– 139 mmHg or a diastolic blood pressure 80– 89 mmHg  May be given lifestyle therapy alone for a maximum of 3 months  If targets are not achieved, patients should be treated with the addition of pharmacological agents (E) Recommendations: Hypertension/Blood Pressure Control
  • 64. Treatment (2)  Patients with more severe hypertension (systolic blood pressure ≥140 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure ≥90 mmHg) at diagnosis or follow-up  Should receive pharmacologic therapy in addition to lifestyle therapy (A) Recommendations: Hypertension/Blood Pressure Control
  • 65. Treatment (3)  Lifestyle therapy for hypertension  Weight loss if overweight  DASH-style dietary pattern including reducing sodium, increasing potassium intake  Moderation of alcohol intake  Increased physical activity (B) Recommendations: Hypertension/Blood Pressure Control
  • 66. Treatment (4)  Pharmacologic therapy for patients with diabetes and hypertension  Pair with a regimen that includes either an ACE inhibitor or angiotensin II receptor blocker  If one class is not tolerated, the other should be substituted  If needed to achieve blood pressure targets  Thiazide diuretic should be added to those with estimated GFR ≥30 ml x min/1.73 m2  Loop diuretic for those with an estimated GFR <30 ml x min/1.73 m2 (C) Recommendations: Hypertension/Blood Pressure Control
  • 67. Treatment (5)  Multiple drug therapy (two or more agents at maximal doses)  Generally required to achieve blood pressure targets (B)  If ACE inhibitors, ARBs, or diuretics are used  Kidney function, serum potassium levels should be monitored (E) Recommendations: Hypertension/Blood Pressure Control ADA. VI. Prevention, Management of Complications. Diabetes Care 2011;34(suppl 1):S27.
  • 68. Treatment (6)  In pregnant patients with diabetes and chronic hypertension  Blood pressure target goals of 110–129/65–79 mmHg are suggested in interest of long-term maternal health and minimizing impaired fetal growth  ACE inhibitors, ARBs, contraindicated during pregnancy (E) Recommendations: Hypertension/Blood Pressure Control
  • 69. Screening  In most adult patients  Measure fasting lipid profile at least annually  In adults with low-risk lipid values (LDL cholesterol <100 mg/dl, HDL cholesterol >50 mg/dl, and triglycerides <150 mg/dl)  Lipid assessments may be repeated every 2 years (E) Recommendations: Dyslipidemia/Lipid Management
  • 70. Treatment recommendations and goals (1)  To improve lipid profile in patients with diabetes, recommend lifestyle modification (A), focusing on  Reduction of saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol intake  Increased n-3 fatty acids, viscous fiber, plant stanols/sterols  Weight loss (if indicated)  Increased physical activity Recommendations: Dyslipidemia/Lipid Management
  • 71. Treatment recommendations and goals (2)  Statin therapy should be added to lifestyle therapy, regardless of baseline lipid levels, for diabetic patients:  with overt CVD (A)  without CVD who are >40 years of age and have one or more other CVD risk factors (A) Recommendations: Dyslipidemia/Lipid Management
  • 72. Treatment recommendations and goals (3)  For patients at lower risk (e.g., without overt CVD and <40 years of age) (E)  Statin therapy should be considered in addition to lifestyle therapy if LDL cholesterol remains >100 mg/dl  In those with multiple CVD risk factors Recommendations: Dyslipidemia/Lipid Management
  • 73. Treatment recommendations and goals (4)  In individuals without overt CVD  Primary goal is an LDL cholesterol <100 mg/dl (2.6 mmol/l) (A)  In individuals with overt CVD  Lower LDL cholesterol goal of <70 mg/dl (1.8 mmol/l), using a high dose of a statin, is an option (B) Recommendations: Dyslipidemia/Lipid Management
  • 74. Treatment recommendations and goals (5)  If targets not reached on maximal tolerated statin therapy  Alternative therapeutic goal: reduce LDL cholesterol ~30– 40% from baseline (A)  Triglyceride levels <150 mg/dl (1.7 mmol/l), HDL cholesterol >40 mg/dl (1.0 mmol/l) in men and >50 mg/dl (1.3 mmol/l) in women, are desirable  However, LDL cholesterol–targeted statin therapy remains the preferred strategy (C) Recommendations: Dyslipidemia/Lipid Management
  • 75. Treatment recommendations and goals (6)  If targets are not reached on maximally tolerated doses of statins  Combination therapy using statins and other lipid lowering agents may be considered to achieve lipid targets  Has not been evaluated in outcome studies for either CVD outcomes or safety (E)  Statin therapy is contraindicated in pregnancy Recommendations: Dyslipidemia/Lipid Management
  • 76. Studyref. Statin dose and comparator Risk reduction Relative risk reduction Absolute risk reduction LDL cholesterol reduction, mg/dl (%) 4S-DM1 Simvastatin 20-40 mg vs. placebo 85.7 to 43.2% 50% 42.5% 186 to 119 (36%) ASPEN2 Atorvastatin 10 mg vs. placebo 39.5 to 24.5% 34% 12.7% 112 to 79 (29%) HPS-DM3 Simvastatin 40 mg vs. placebo 43.8 to 36.3% 17% 7.5% 123 to 84 (31%) CARE-DM4 Pravastatin 40 mg vs. placebo 40.8 to 35.4% 13% 5.4% 136 to 99 (27%) TNT-DM5 Atorvastatin 80 mg vs. 10 mg 26.3 to 21.6% 18% 4.7% 99 to 77 (22%) Statins: Reduction in 10-Year Risk of Major CVD* in Patients with Diabetes *Endpoints=CHD death, nonfatal MI Secondary Prevention
  • 77. Studyref. Statin dose and comparator Risk reduction Relative risk reduction Absolute risk reduction LDL cholesterol reduction, mg/dl (%) HPS-DM1 Simvastatin 40 mg vs. placebo 17.5 to 11.5% 34% 6.0% 124 to 86 (31%) CARDS2 Atorvastatin 10 mg vs. placebo 11.5 to 7.5% 35% 4.0% 118 to 71 (40%) ASPEN3 Atorvastatin 10 mg vs. placebo 9.8 to 7.9% 19% 1.9% 114 to 80 (30%) ASCOT-DM4 Atorvastatin 10 mg vs. placebo 11.1 to 10.2% 8% 0.9% 125 to 82 (34%) *Endpoints=CHD death, nonfatal MI Primary Prevention Statins: Reduction in 10-Year Risk of Major CVD* in Patients with Diabetes
  • 78. A1C <7.0%* Blood pressure <130/80 mmHg† Lipids LDL cholesterol <100 mg/dl (<2.6 mmol/l)‡ Recommendations: Glycemic, Blood Pressure, Lipid Control in Adults *More or less stringent glycemic goals may be appropriate for individual patients. Goals should be individualized based on: duration of diabetes, age/life expectancy, comorbid conditions, known CVD or advanced microvascular complications, hypoglycemia unawareness, and individual patient considerations. †Based on patient characteristics and response to therapy, higher or lower systolic blood pressure targets may be appropriate. ‡In individuals with overt CVD, a lower LDL cholesterol goal of <70 mg/dl (1.8 mmol/l), using a high dose of statin, is an option.
  • 79.  Consider aspirin therapy (75–162 mg/day) (C)  As a primary prevention strategy in those with type 1 or type 2 diabetes at increased cardiovascular risk (10-year risk >10%)  Includes most men >50 years of age or women >60 years of age who have at least one additional major risk factor  Family history of CVD  Hypertension  Smoking  Dyslipidemia  Albuminuria Recommendations: Antiplatelet Agents (1)
  • 80.  Aspirin should not be recommended forCVD prevention for adults with diabetes at low CVD risk, since potential adverse effects from bleeding likely offset potential benefits (C)  10-yearCVD risk <5%: men <50 and women <60 years of age with no major additionalCVD risk factors • In patients in these age groups with multiple other risk factors (e.g., 10-year risk 5%-10%) clinical judgment is required (E) Recommendations: Antiplatelet Agents (2)
  • 81.  Use aspirin therapy (75–162 mg/day)  Secondary prevention strategy in those with diabetes with a history of CVD (A)  For patients with CVD, documented aspirin allergy  Clopidogrel (75 mg/day) should be used (B)  Combination therapy with ASA (75–162 mg/day) and clopidogrel (75 mg/day)  Reasonable for up to a year after an acute coronary syndrome (B) Recommendations: Antiplatelet Agents (3)
  • 82.  Advise all patients not to smoke (A)  Include smoking cessation counseling and other forms of treatment as a routine component of diabetes care (B) Recommendations: Smoking Cessation
  • 83.  In asymptomatic patients, routine screening for CAD is not recommended, as it does not improve outcomes as long as CVD risk factors are treated (A) Recommendations: Coronary Heart Disease Screening
  • 84.  To reduce risk of cardiovascular events in patients with known CVD, use  ACE inhibitor* (C)  Aspirin* (A)  Statin therapy* (A)  In patients with a prior MI  Beta-blockers should be continued for at least 2 years after the event (B) Recommendations: Coronary Heart Disease Treatment (1) *If not contraindicated.
  • 85.  Longer-term use of beta-blockers in the absence of hypertension  Reasonable if well tolerated, but data are lacking (E)  AvoidTZD treatment  In patients with symptomatic heart failure (C)  Metformin use in patients with stable CHF  Indicated if renal function is normal  Should be avoided in unstable or hospitalized patients with CHF (C) Recommendations: Coronary Heart Disease Treatment (2)
  • 86.  To reduce risk or slow the progression of nephropathy  Optimize glucose control (A)  Optimize blood pressure control (A) Recommendations: Nephropathy
  • 87.  Assess urine albumin excretion annually (E)  In type 1 diabetic patients with diabetes duration of 5 years  In all type 2 diabetic patients at diagnosis  Measure serum creatinine at least annually (E)  In all adults with diabetes regardless of degree of urine albumin excretion  Serum creatinine should be used to estimate GFR and stage level of chronic kidney disease, if present Recommendations: Nephropathy Screening
  • 88.  Nonpregnant patient with micro- or macroalbuminuria  Either ACE inhibitors or ARBs should be used (A) Recommendations: Nephropathy Treatment (1)
  • 89.  In patients with type 1 diabetes, hypertension, and any degree of albuminuria  ACE inhibitors have been shown to delay progression of nephropathy (A)  In patients with type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and microalbuminuria  Both ACE inhibitors and ARBs have been shown to delay progression to macroalbuminuria (A) Recommendations: Nephropathy Treatment (2)
  • 90.  In patients with type 2 diabetes, hypertension, macroalbuminuria, and renal insufficiency (serum creatinine >1.5 mg/dl)  ARBs have been shown to delay progression of nephropathy (A)  If one class is not tolerated, the other should be substituted (E) Recommendations: Nephropathy Treatment (3)
  • 91.  Reduction of protein intake may improve measures of renal function (urine albumin excretion rate, GFR) (B)  To 0.8 –1.0 g x kg body wt–1 x day–1 in those with diabetes, earlier stages of CKD  To 0.8 g x kg body wt–1 x day–1 in later stages of CKD  When ACE inhibitors, ARBs, or diuretics are used, monitor serum creatinine, potassium levels for development of acute kidney disease, hyperkalemia (E) Recommendations: Nephropathy Treatment (4)
  • 92.  Continue monitoring urine albumin excretion to assess both response to therapy, disease progression (E)  When eGFR <60 ml/min/1.73 m2, evaluate, manage potential complications of CKD (E)  Consider referral to a physician experienced in care of kidney disease (B)  Uncertainty about etiology of kidney disease  Difficult management issues  Advanced kidney disease Recommendations: Nephropathy Treatment (5)
  • 93. Category Spot collection (µg/mg creatinine) Normal <30 Microalbuminuria 30-299 Macroalbuminuria (clinical) ≥300 Definitions of Abnormalities in Albumin Excretion
  • 94. Stage Description GFR (ml/min per 1.73 m2 body surface area) 1 Kidney damage* with normal or increased GFR ≥90 2 Kidney damage* with mildly decreased GFR 60–89 3 Moderately decreased GFR 30–59 4 Severely decreased GFR 15–29 5 Kidney failure <15 or dialysis Stages of Chronic Kidney Disease *Kidney damage defined as abnormalities on pathologic, urine, blood, or imaging tests. GFR = glomerular filtration rate
  • 95. GFR (ml/min/ 1.73 m2) Recommended All patients Yearly measurement of creatinine, urinary albumin excretion, potassium 45-60 Referral to nephrology if possibility for nondiabetic kidney disease exists Consider dose adjustment of medications Monitor eGFR every 6 months Monitor electrolytes, bicarbonate, hemoglobin, calcium, phosphorus, parathyroid hormone at least yearly Assure vitamin D sufficiency Consider bone density testing Referral for dietary counselling Management of CKD in Diabetes (1)
  • 96. Management of CKD in Diabetes (2) GFR (ml/min/ 1.73 m2) Recommended 30-44 Monitor eGFR every 3 months Monitor electrolytes, bicarbonate, calcium, phosphorus, parathyroid hormone, hemoglobin, albumin, weight every 3–6 months Consider need for dose adjustment of medications <30 Referral to nephrologist
  • 97.  To reduce risk or slow progression of retinopathy  Optimize glycemic control (A)  Optimize blood pressure control (A) Recommendations: Retinopathy
  • 98.  Initial dilated and comprehensive eye examination by an ophthalmologist or optometrist  Adults and children aged 10 years or older with type 1 diabetes  Within 5 years after diabetes onset (B)  Patients with type 2 diabetes  Shortly after the diagnosis of diabetes (B) Recommendations: Retinopathy Screening (1)
  • 99.  Subsequent examinations for type 1 and type 2 diabetic patients  Should be repeated annually by an ophthalmologist or optometrist  Less frequent exams (every 2–3 years)  May be considered following one or more normal eye exams  More frequent examinations required if retinopathy is progressing (B) Recommendations: Retinopathy Screening (2)
  • 100.  High-quality fundus photographs  Can detect most clinically significant diabetic retinopathy  Interpretation of the images  Performed by a trained eye care provider  While retinal photography may serve as a screening tool for retinopathy, it is not a substitute for a comprehensive eye exam  Perform comprehensive eye exam at least initially and at intervals thereafter as recommended by an eye care professional (E) Recommendations: Retinopathy Screening (3)
  • 101.  Women with preexisting diabetes who are planning pregnancy or who have become pregnant  Comprehensive eye examination  Counseled on risk of development and/or progression of diabetic retinopathy  Eye examination should occur in the first trimester  Close follow-up throughout pregnancy  For 1 year postpartum (B) Recommendations: Retinopathy Screening (4)
  • 102.  Promptly refer patients with any level of macular edema, severe NPDR, or any PDR  To an ophthalmologist knowledgeable and experienced in management, treatment of diabetic retinopathy (A)  Laser photocoagulation therapy is indicated  To reduce risk of vision loss in patients with  High-risk PDR  Clinically significant macular edema  Some cases of severe NPDR (A) Recommendations: Retinopathy Treatment (1)
  • 103.  Presence of retinopathy  Not a contraindication to aspirin therapy for cardioprotection, as this therapy does not increase the risk of retinal hemorrhage (A) Recommendations: Retinopathy Treatment (2)
  • 104.  All patients should be screened for distal symmetric polyneuropathy (DPN)  At diagnosis  At least annually thereafter using simple clinical tests (B)  Electrophysiological testing rarely needed  Except in situations where clinical features are atypical (E) Recommendations: Neuropathy Screening, Treatment (1)
  • 105.  Screening for signs and symptoms of cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy  Should be instituted at diagnosis of type 2 diabetes and 5 years after the diagnosis of type 1 diabetes  Special testing rarely needed; may not affect management or outcomes (E)  Medications for relief of specific symptoms related to DPN, autonomic neuropathy are recommended  Improve quality of life of the patient (E) Recommendations: Neuropathy Screening, Treatment (2)
  • 106.  For all patients with diabetes, perform an annual comprehensive foot examination to identify risk factors predictive of ulcers and amputations  Inspection  Assessment of foot pulses  Test for loss of protective sensation: 10-g monofilament plus testing any one of  Vibration using 128-Hz tuning fork  Pinprick sensation  Ankle reflexes  Vibration perception threshold (B) Recommendations: Foot Care (1)
  • 107. Upper panel • To perform the 10-g monofilament test, place the device perpendicular to the skin, with pressure applied until the monofilament buckles • Hold in place for 1 second and then release Lower panel • The monofilament test should be performed at the highlighted sites while the patient’s eyes are closed Recommendations: Foot Care (2)
  • 108.  Provide general foot self-care education  All patients with diabetes (B)  Use multidisciplinary approach  Individuals with foot ulcers, high-risk feet; especially prior ulcer or amputation (B)  Refer patients to foot care specialists for ongoing preventive care, life-long surveillance (C)  Smokers  Loss of protective sensation or structural abnormalities  History of prior lower-extremity complications Recommendations: Foot Care (3)
  • 109.  Initial screening for peripheral arterial disease (PAD)  Include a history for claudication, assessment of pedal pulses  Consider obtaining an ankle-brachial index (ABI); many patients with PAD are asymptomatic (C)  Refer patients with significant claudication or a positive ABI for further vascular assessment  Consider exercise, medications, surgical options (C) Recommendations: Foot Care (4)
  • 110. VII. diabetes care in specific populations
  • 111.  Consider age when setting glycemic goals in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes (E) Recommendations: Pediatric Glycemic Control (Type 1 Diabetes)
  • 112.  Annual screening for microalbuminuria, with a random spot urine sample for albumin-to-creatinine (ACR)ratio  Consider once child is 10 years of age and has had diabetes for 5 years (E)  Confirmed, persistently elevated ACR on two additional urine specimens from different days  Treat with an ACE inhibitor, titrated to normalization of albumin excretion, if possible (E) Recommendations: Pediatric Nephropathy (Type 1 Diabetes)
  • 113.  Treat high-normal blood pressure (systolic or diastolic blood pressure consistently above the 90th percentile for age, sex, and height) with  Dietary intervention  Exercise aimed at weight control and increased physical activity, if appropriate  If target blood pressure is not reached with 3-6 months of lifestyle intervention  Consider pharmacologic treatment (E) Recommendations: Pediatric Hypertension (Type 1 Diabetes) (1)
  • 114.  Pharmacologic treatment of hypertension (systolic or diastolic blood pressure consistently above the 95th percentile for age, sex, and height or consistently >130/80 mmHg, if 95% exceeds that value)  Initiate as soon as diagnosis is confirmed (E) Recommendations: Pediatric Hypertension (Type 1 Diabetes) (2)
  • 115.  ACE inhibitors  Consider for initial treatment of hypertension, following appropriate reproductive counseling due to potential teratogenic effects (E)  Goal of treatment  Blood pressure consistently <130/80 mmHg or below the 90th percentile for age, sex, and height, whichever is lower (E) Recommendations: Pediatric Hypertension (Type 1 Diabetes) (3)
  • 116. Screening (1)  If family history of hypercholesterolemia (total cholesterol >240 mg/dl) or a cardiovascular event before age 55 years, or if family history is unknown  Perform fasting lipid profile on children >2 years of age soon after diagnosis (after glucose control has been established) Recommendations: Pediatric Dyslipidemia (Type 1 Diabetes) (1)
  • 117. Screening (2)  If family history is not of concern  Consider first lipid screening at puberty (≥10 years)  All children diagnosed with diabetes at or after puberty  Perform fasting lipid profile soon after diagnosis (after glucose control has been established) (E) Recommendations: Pediatric Dyslipidemia (Type 1 Diabetes) (2)
  • 118. Screening (3)  For both age-groups, if lipids are abnormal  Annual monitoring is recommended  If LDL cholesterol values are within accepted risk levels (<100 mg/dl [2.6 mmol/l])  Repeat lipid profile every 5 years (E) Recommendations: Pediatric Dyslipidemia (Type 1 Diabetes) (3)
  • 119. Treatment  Initial therapy: optimize glucose control, MNT using Step II AHA diet aimed at decreasing dietary saturated fat (E)  > age 10 years, statin reasonable in those (after MNT and lifestyle changes) with  LDL cholesterol >160 mg/dl (4.1 mmol/l) or  LDL cholesterol >130 mg/dl (3.4 mmol/l) and  One or more CVD risk factors (E)  Goal of therapy: LDL cholesterol <100 mg/dl (2.6 mmol/l) (E) MNT=medical nutrition therapy Recommendations: Pediatric Dyslipidemia (Type 1 Diabetes) (4)
  • 120.  First ophthalmologic examination  Obtain once child is 10 years of age; has had diabetes for 3–5 years (E)  After initial examination  Annual routine follow-up generally recommended  Less frequent examinations may be acceptable on advice of an eye care professional (E) Recommendations: Pediatric Retinopathy (Type 1 Diabetes)
  • 121.  Children with type 1 diabetes  Screen for celiac disease by measuring tissue transglutaminase or antiendomysial antibodies, with documentation of normal total serum IgA levels, soon after the diagnosis of diabetes (E)  Repeat testing in children with  Growth failure  Failure to gain weight, weight loss  Diarrhea, flatulence, abdominal pain, or signs of malabsorption  Frequent unexplained hypoglycemia or deterioration in glycemic control (E) Recommendations: Pediatric Celiac Disease (Type 1 Diabetes) (1)
  • 122.  Children with positive antibodies  Refer to a gastroenterologist for evaluation with endoscopy and biopsy (E)  Children with biopsy-confirmed celiac disease  Place on a gluten-free diet  Consult with a dietitian experienced in managing both diabetes and celiac disease (E) Recommendations: Pediatric Celiac Disease (Type 1 Diabetes) (2)
  • 123.  Children with type 1 diabetes  Screen for thyroid peroxidase, thyroglobulin antibodies at diagnosis (E)  Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) concentrations  Measure after metabolic control established  If normal, recheck every 1-2 years; or  If patient develops symptoms of thyroid dysfunction, thyromegaly, or an abnormal growth rate Recommendations: Pediatric Hypothyroidism (Type 1 Diabetes)
  • 124.  Before conception is attempted, A1C levels  Close to normal as possible (<7%) (B)  Starting at puberty  Incorporate preconception counseling in routine diabetes clinic visit for all women of child-bearing potential (C)  Evaluate women contemplating pregnancy; if indicated, treat for  Diabetic retinopathy  Nephropathy  Neuropathy  CVD (E) Recommendations: Preconception Care (1)
  • 125.  Evaluate medications used prior to conception  Drugs commonly used to treat diabetes, complications may be contraindicated or not recommended in pregnancy, including  Statins, ACE inhibitors, ARBs, most noninsulin therapies (E)  Since many pregnancies are unplanned, consider potential risks/benefits of medications contraindicated in pregnancy in all women of childbearing potential; counsel accordingly (E) Recommendations: Preconception Care (2)
  • 126.  Functional, cognitively intact older adults with significant life expectancies should receive diabetes care using goals developed for younger adults (E)  Glycemic goals for those not meeting the above criteria may be relaxed using individual criteria, but hyperglycemia leading to symptoms or risk of acute hyperglycemic complications should be avoided in all patients (E) Recommendations: Older Adults (1)
  • 127.  Treat other cardiovascular risk factors with consideration of time frame of benefit, individual patient  Treatment of hypertension is indicated in virtually all older adults; lipid, aspirin therapy may benefit those with life expectancy equal to time frame of primary/secondary prevention trials (E)  Individualize screening for diabetes complications with attention to those leading to functional impairment (E) Recommendations: Older Adults (2)
  • 128. VIII. diabetes care in specific settings
  • 129.  All patients with diabetes admitted to the hospital should have  Their diabetes clearly identified in the medical record (E)  An order for blood glucose monitoring, with results available to the health care team (E) Recommendations: Diabetes Care in the Hospital (1)
  • 130.  Goals for blood glucose levels  Critically ill patients: 140-180 mg/dl (10 mmol/l) (A)  More stringent goals, such as 110-140 mg/dl (6.1-7.8 mmol/l) may be appropriate for selected patients, if achievable without significant hypoglycemia (C)  Non-critically ill patients: base goals on glycemic control, severe comorbidities (E) Recommendations: Diabetes Care in the Hospital (2)
  • 131.  Scheduled subcutaneous insulin with basal, nutritional, correction components (C)  Use correction dose or “supplemental insulin” to correct premeal hyperglycemia in addition to scheduled prandial and basal insulin (E)  Initiate glucose monitoring in any patients not known to be diabetic who receives therapy associated with high risk for hyperglycemia (B) Recommendations: Diabetes Care in the Hospital (3)
  • 132.  A hypoglycemia management protocol should be adopted and implemented by each hospital or hospital system  Establish a plan for treating hypoglycemia for each patient; document episodes of hypoglycemia in medical recoard and track (E)  Obtain A1C for all patients if results within previous 2-3 months unavailable (E)  Patients with hyperglycemia who do not have a diagnosis of diabetes should have appropriate plans for follow-up testing and care documented at discharge (E) Recommendations: Diabetes Care in the Hospital (4)
  • 133.  Largest randomized controlled trial to date  Tested effect of tight glycemic control (target 81-108 mg/dl) on outcomes among 6,104 critically ill participants  Majority (>95%) required mechanical ventilation Diabetes Care in the Hospital: NICE-SUGAR Study (1)
  • 134.  In both surgical/medical patients, 90-day mortality significantly higher in intensively treated vs conventional group (target 144-180 mg/dl)  78 more deaths (27.5% vs 24.9%; P=0.02)  76 more deaths from cardiovascular causes (41.6% vs 35.8%; P=0.02)  Severe hypoglycemia more common (6.8% vs 0.5%; P<0.001) Diabetes Care in the Hospital: NICE-SUGAR Study (2)
  • 135. Ix. Strategies for improving diabetes care
  • 136.  Facilitate timely and appropriate intensification of lifestyle and/or pharmaceutical therapy of patients who have not achieved beneficial levels of blood pressure, lipid, or glucose control Objective 1 Provider and Team Behavior Change
  • 137.  Implement a systematic approach to support patients’ behavior change efforts as needed including  1) healthy lifestyle (physical activity, healthy eating, nonuse of tobacco, weight management, effective coping, medication taking and management)  2) prevention of diabetes complications (screening for eye, foot, and renal complications; immunizations)  3) achievement of appropriate blood pressure, lipid, and glucose goals Objective 2 Patient Behavior Change
  • 138.  Research on the comprehensive chronic care (CCM) model suggests additional strategies to improve diabetes care  Consistent, evidence-based care guidelines  Collaborative, multidisciplinary teams  Audit and feedback of process and outcome data to providers  Care management  Identifying and/or developing community resources and public policy that supports healthy lifestyles  Alterations in reimbursement Objective 3 Change the Systems of Care

Notas del editor

  1. Table 2, current diagnostic criteria for the diagnosis of diabetes, is divided into five slides On this slide, all four criteria are included: A1C ≥6.5% Fasting plasma glucose (FPG) ≥126 mg/dl (7.0 mmol/l) Two-hour plasma glucose ≥200 mg/dl (11.1 mmol/l) during an OGTT A random plasma glucose ≥200 mg/dl (11.1 mmol/l), in patients with classic symptoms of hyperglycemia or hyperglycemic crisis The subsequent slides examine each of the four criteria in greater detail
  2. A1C In 2009, an International Expert Committee that included representatives of the American Diabetes Association (ADA), the International Diabetes Federation (IDF), and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD) recommended the use of the A1c test to diagnose diabetes, with a threshold of ≥6.5%1, and ADA adopted this criterion in 20102 The diagnostic test should be performed using a method certified by the National Glycohemoglobin Standardization Program (NGSP) and standardized or traceable to the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT) reference assay3 Point-of-care A1C assays are not sufficiently accurate at this time to use for diagnostic purposes3
  3. Fasting Plasma Glucose (FGP) The established glucose criteria for the diagnosis of diabetes (FPG and two-hour plasma glucose, next slide) remain valid as well
  4. Two-hour plasma glucose (2-h PG) The two-hour plasma glucose test should be performed as described by the World Health Organization, using a glucose load containing the equivalent of 75 g anhydrous glucose dissolved in water The established glucose criteria for the diagnosis of diabetes (FPG, previous slide, and 2-h PG) remain valid
  5. Random Plasma Glucose As with most diagnostic tests, a test result diagnostic of diabetes should be repeated to rule out laboratory error, unless the diagnosis is clear on clinical grounds, such as a patient with a hyperglycemic crisis or classic symptoms of hyperglycemia and a random plasma glucose ≥200 mg/dl
  6. In 1997 and 203, The Expert Committee on the Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes Mellitus1,2 recognized an intermediate group of individuals whose glucose levels, although not meeting criteria for diabetes, are nevertheless too high to be considered normal This group was defined as having impaired fasting glucose (IFG) or impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) IFG: fasting plasma glucose (FPG) of 100-125 mg/dl (5.6-5.9 mmol/l) IGT: two-hour plasma glucose (2-h PG) on the 75-g oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) of 140-199 mg/dl (7.8-11.0 mmol/l) It should be noted that the World Health Organization (WHO) and a number of other diabetes organizations define the cutoff for IFG at 110 mg/dl (6.1 mmol) Individuals with IFG and/or IGT have been referred to as having prediabetes, indicating a relatively high risk for future development of diabetes IFG and IGT should not be viewed as clinical entities in their own right but rather risk factors for diabetes as well as cardiovascular disease (CVD) IFG and IGT are associated with obesity (especially abdominal or visceral obesity), dyslipidemia with high triglycerides and/or low HDL cholesterol, and hypertension Individuals with an A1C of 5.7-6.4% should be informed of their increased risk for diabetes as well as CVD and counseled about effective strategies to lower their risks (see Prevention/Delay of Type 2 Diabetes)
  7. Section II, “Testing for Diabetes in Asymptomatic Patients,” includes three slides: Testing for Diabetes in Asymptomatic Patients Criteria for Testing for Diabetes in Asymptomatic Adult Individuals (2 slides)
  8. Recommendations for testing for diabetes in asymptomatic patients are summarized on this slide For many illnesses, there is major distinction between screening and diagnostic testing; however, for diabetes, the same tests are used for “screening” as for diagnosis A1C, fasting plasma glucose (FPG), or two-hour oral glucose tolerance test (2-h OGTT) are appropriate to test for diabetes The 2-h OGTT identifies people with either impaired fasting glucose (IFG) or impaired glucose tolerance (IGT); therefore, more people at increased risk for the development of diabetes and cardiovascular disease (CVD) Type 2 diabetes has a long asymptomatic phase and significant clinical risk markers Testing for diabetes will also detect individuals at increased future risk for diabetes; i.e., those who may have prediabetes
  9. The three primary criteria for testing for diabetes in asymptomatic adult individuals (Table 4) are summarized on two slides; this slide (Slide 1 of 2) includes: Testing should be considered in all adults who are overweight (BMI ≥25 kg/m2) and have additional risk factors Testing should be considered in adults of any age with BMI ≥25 kg/m2 and one or more of the known risk factors listed on this slide It is important to know that the at-risk BMI may be lower in some ethnic groups, such as Asians
  10. The three primary criteria for testing for diabetes in asymptomatic adult individuals (Table 4) are summarized on two slides; this slide (Slide 2 of 2) includes: In the absence of criteria (risk factors on previous slide), testing diabetes should begin at age 45 years If results are normal, testing should be repeated at least at 3-year intervals, with consideration of more frequent testing depending on initial results and risk status Age is a major risk factor for diabetes; therefore, testing of individuals without other risk factors should begin no later than at age 45 years The rationale for the 3-year interval is that false negatives will be repeated before substantial time elapses, and there is little likelihood that an individual will develop significant complications of diabetes within 3 years of a negative test result Given the need for follow-up and discussion of abnormal results, testing should be conducted within the health care setting Community screening outside a health care setting is not recommended because people with positive tests may not seek, or have access to, appropriate follow-up testing and care Conversely, there may be failure to ensure appropriate repeat testing for individuals who test negative Community screening may also be poorly targeted; i.e., it may fail to reach the groups most at risk and inappropriately test those at low risk (the worried well) or even those already diagnosed
  11. The three primary criteria for testing for diabetes in asymptomatic adult individuals (Table 4) are summarized on two slides; this slide (Slide 2 of 2) includes: In the absence of criteria (risk factors on previous slide), testing diabetes should begin at age 45 years If results are normal, testing should be repeated at least at 3-year intervals, with consideration of more frequent testing depending on initial results and risk status Age is a major risk factor for diabetes; therefore, testing of individuals without other risk factors should begin no later than at age 45 years The rationale for the 3-year interval is that false negatives will be repeated before substantial time elapses, and there is little likelihood that an individual will develop significant complications of diabetes within 3 years of a negative test result Given the need for follow-up and discussion of abnormal results, testing should be conducted within the health care setting Community screening outside a health care setting is not recommended because people with positive tests may not seek, or have access to, appropriate follow-up testing and care Conversely, there may be failure to ensure appropriate repeat testing for individuals who test negative Community screening may also be poorly targeted; i.e., it may fail to reach the groups most at risk and inappropriately test those at low risk (the worried well) or even those already diagnosed
  12. Section III, “Detection and Diagnosis of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus,” includes eight slides: Detection and Diagnosis of GDM (2 slides) Screening for and Diagnosis of GDM (6 slides)
  13. Recommendations for the detection and diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) are summarized on two slides; this slide (Slide 1 of 2) includes: As the ongoing epidemic of obesity and diabetes has led to more type 2 diabetes in women of childbearing age, the number of pregnant women with undiagnosed type 2 diabetes has increased[24] Because of this, it is reasonable to screen women with risk factors for type 2 diabetes for diabetes at their initial prenatal visit, using standard diagnostic criteria; women with diabetes found at this visit should receive a diagnosis of overt, not gestational, diabetes
  14. GDM carries risks for the mother and neonate1 The Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes (HAPO) study,2 a large-scale (25,000 pregnant women) multinational epidemiologic study, demonstrated that risk of adverse maternal, fetal, and neonatal outcomes continuously increased as a function of maternal glycemia at 24–28 weeks, even within ranges previously considered normal for pregnancy. For most complications, there was no threshold for risk. These results have led to careful reconsideration of the diagnostic criteria for GDM After deliberations in 2008–2009, the International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups (IADPSG), an international consensus group with representatives from multiple obstetrical and diabetes organizations, including ADA, developed revised recommendations for diagnosing GDM. The group recommended that all women not known to have diabetes undergo a 75-g OGTT at 24–28 weeks of gestation Additionally, the group developed diagnostic cut points for the fasting, 1-h, and 2-h plasma glucose measurements that conveyed an odds ratio for adverse outcomes of at least 1.75 compared with the mean glucose levels in the HAPO study Current screening and diagnostic strategies, based on the IADPSG statement,3 are outlined in Table 6, which is summarized on this slide
  15. Recommendations for the detection and diagnosis of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) are summarized on two slides; this slide (Slide 2 of 2) includes: Women with a history of GDM have a greatly increased subsequent risk for diabetes2; therefore, they should be screened for diabetes 6-12 weeks postpartum, using nonpregnant oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) criteria, and should be followed for the development of diabetes or prediabetes (see Section II, “Testing for Diabetes in Asymptomatic Patients”) Information on the National Diabetes Education Program campaign to prevent type 2 diabetes in women with GDM can be found at: http://ndep.nih.gov/media/NeverTooEarly_Tipsheet.pdf
  16. Section IV, “Prevention/Delay of Type 2 Diabetes,” includes one slide: Recommendations: Prevention/Delay of Type 2 Diabetes
  17. Recommendations for the prevention/delay of type 2 diabetes are summarized on this slide Individuals at high risk for developing diabetes (i.e., those with impaired fasting glucose [IFG], impaired glucose tolerance [IGT] or both) can be given interventions that significantly decrease rate of onset of diabetes1 Based on results of clinical trials and known risks of progression of prediabetes to diabetes, person with an A1C of 5.7%-6.4%, IGT or IFG should be counseled on lifestyle changes: 7% weight loss and moderate physical activity of at least 150 minutes/week Regarding the more controversial issue of drug therapy for diabetes prevention, a consensus panel believed that metformin should be the only drug considered[39] Metformin may be recommended for very high-risk individuals (those with risk factors for diabetes and/or those with more severe or progressive hyperglycemia) Of note, in the Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP), metformin was most effective compared to lifestyle in individuals with BMI ≥35 kg/m2 and was not significantly better than placebo in those over age 60 years For other drugs, issues of cost, side effects, and lack of persistence of effect in some studies led the panel to not recommend use for diabetes prevention
  18. Section V, “Diabetes Care,” includes 28 slides (1 slide unless otherwise noted): Diabetes Care: Initial Evaluation Components of the Comprehensive Diabetes Evaluation (7 slides) Recommendations: Glucose Monitoring Recommendations: A1C Correlation of A1C with Estimated Average Glucose (eAg) Recommendations: Glycemic Goals in Adults (3 slides) Glycemic Goals in Adults: ACCORD Glycemic Goals in Adults: ADVANCE Glycemic Goals in Adults: VADT Glycemic Recommendations for Non-Pregnant Adults with Diabetes (3 slides) Recommendations: Diabetes Self-Management Education (DSME) Recommendations: Medical Nutrition Therapy Look AHEAD (Action for Health in Diabetes): 1-Year Results Recommendations: Physical Activity Recommendations: Psychosocial Assessment and Care Recommendations: Hypoglycemia Recommendations: Bariatric Surgery Recommendations: Immunization
  19. Initial evaluation of the patient with diabetes consists of a complete medical evaluation, which is performed to classify the diabetes, detect the presence of diabetes complications, review previous treatment and glycemic control in patients with established diabetes, assist in formulating a management plan, and provide a basis for continuing care Laboratory tests appropriate to the evaluation of each patient’s medical condition should be performed
  20. A focus on the components of comprehensive care (as outlined on this and the next 6 slides) will help ensure optimal management of the patient with diabetes Slide 1 of 7 The first component of the comprehensive diabetes evaluation is medical history Age, characteristics of diabetes onset, such as diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) or an asymptomatic laboratory finding Eating patterns, physical activity habits, nutritional status, and weight history as well as growth and development in children and adolescents History of diabetes education Review of previous treatment regimens and response to therapy (i.e., A1C records)
  21. Slide 2 of 7 (Part 1 of 2) During a patient’s comprehensive diabetes evaluation, his or her current treatment of diabetes should be established, including medications, meal plan, patterns of physical activity, and results of glucose monitoring and patient’s use of data This should include frequency, severity, and cause of diabetic ketoacidosis; hypoglycemic episodes and awareness of hypoglycemia; and frequency and cause of any severe hypoglycemia
  22. Slide 3 of 7 (Part 2 of 2) During a patient’s comprehensive diabetes evaluation, his or her current treatment of diabetes should be established, including medications, meal plan, patterns of physical activity, and results of glucose monitoring and patient’s use of data This should include a history of diabetes-related complications Microvascular disease may be signaled by retinopathy, nephropathy, or neuropathy Sensory neuropathy can include a history of lesions on the feet Sexual dysfunction and gastroparesis may be symptomatic of autonomic neuropathy sensory Macrovascular-related complications include coronary heart disease (CHD), cerebrovascular disease, or peripheral artery disease (PAD) Other complications can include psychosocial problems or dental disease; patients should be appropriately referred when necessary
  23. Slide 4 of 7 (Part 1 of 2) A physical examination of the patient with diabetes includes Height, weight, and body mass index (BMI) Determination of blood pressure that includes orthostatic measurements when indicated A fundoscopic examination (patients should be appropriately referred when necessary) Palpation of the thyroid An examination of the skin for acanthosis nigricans and sites of insulin injection
  24. Slide 5 of 7 (Part 2 of 2) The physical examination includes a comprehensive examination of both feet During the inspection, palpation of the dorsalis pedis and posterior tibial pulses is conducted The presence or absence of patellar and Achilles reflexes should also be noted Proprioception, vibration, and monofilament sensation is also determined (See also Section VI. Prevention and Management of Diabetes Complications. Recommendations: Neuropathy Foot Care)
  25. Slide 6 of 7 This slide details the components of a laboratory evaluation If not available within the past 2-3 months, an A1C test is required If the following test results are not available or these tests were not performed during the previous year, the clinician should perform A fasting lipid profile, including total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, and HDL-cholesterol levels as well as triglyceride level Liver function tests Urine albumin excretion test that includes a spot urine albumin/creatinine ratio A serum creatinine test that includes a calculated glomerular filtration rate (GFR) A thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) test in patients with type 1 diabetes, dyslipidemia, or in women older than 50 years of age
  26. Slide 7 of 7 Appropriate referrals for patients with diabetes include those outlined on this slide An annual dilated eye examination For women of reproductive age, family planning counseling For those needing medical nutrition therapy (MNT), a referral to a registered dietitian Tools for diabetes self-management education (DSME) A dental examination A mental health professional, if needed
  27. For patients using multiple insulin injections or insulin pump therapy, self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) should be conducted three or more times daily (A)1 SMBG may be used as a guide to the success of therapy if patients are using less frequent insulin injections, noninsulin therapy, or medical nutrition therapy (MNT) alone (E)1 In non–insulin-treated patients, however, several recent clinical trials have called into question the clinical utility and cost-effectiveness of routine SMBG2-4
  28. A1C testing should be performed routinely in all patients with diabetes, at initial assessment and then as part of continuing care For any individual patient, the frequency of A1C testing depends on the clinical situation, treatment regimen used, and clinician judgment Recommendations for A1C testing are summarized on this slide An A1C test should be performed at least twice a year in patients who are meeting their treatment goals and have stable glycemic control (E) In patients whose therapy has changed or who are not meeting glycemic goals, the A1C test should be performed quarterly (E); this helps determine whether a patient’s glycemic targets are being reached and maintained When needed for timely decisions on when to change therapy, point-of-care testing for A1C may be used (E); availability of A1C results when a patient is seen has been reported to result in increased intensification of therapy and improvement in glycemic control The A1C test is subject to certain limitations: conditions that affect erythrocyte turnover (e.g., hemolysis, blood loss) and hemoglobin variants must be considered, particularly when the A1C result does not correlate with the patient’s clinical situation; in addition, A1C does not provide a measure of glycemic variability or hypoglycemia For patients prone to glycemic variability (especially type 1 diabetic patients, or type 2 diabetic patients with severe insulin deficiency), glycemic control is best judged by the combination of result of self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) testing and A1C The A1C may also serve as a check on the accuracy of a patient’s meter and adequacy of the SMBG testing schedule
  29. Table 9, as shown on this slide, contains the correlation between A1C levels and mean plasma glucose (PG) levels based on data from the international A1C-Derived Average Glucose (ADAG) trial using frequent SMBG and continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) in 507 adults (83% Caucasian) with type 1, type 2, and no diabetes1 The ADA and the American Association of Clinical Chemistry have determined that the correlation (r = 0.92) is strong enough to justify reporting both an A1C result and an estimated average glucose (eAG) when a clinician orders the A1C test2 A calculator for converting A1C results into eAG, in either mg/dl or mmol/l, is available at http://professional.diabetes.org/eAG.
  30. Glycemic control is fundamental to the management of diabetes; recommendations for glycemic goals in nonpregnant adults are reviewed on this slide Lowering A1C to below or around 7% has been shown to reduce microvascular and neuropathic complications of type 1 and type 2 diabetes; therefore, for microvascular disease prevention, the A1C goal is <7% (A) In type 1 and type 2 diabetes, randomized controlled trials of intensive versus standard glycemic control have not shown a significant reduction in cardiovascular disease (CVD) outcomes during the randomized portion. Long-term follow-up of the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT) and UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) cohorts suggests treatment to A1C targets ≤7% in years soon after a diagnosis of diabetes is associated with long-term reduction in risk of macrovascular disease; until more evidence is available, a goal of <7% appears reasonable for many adults for macrovascular risk reduction (B) Subgroup analyses of clinical trials (e.g., DCCT, UKPDS, ADVANCE) suggest a small but incremental benefit in microvascular outcomes with A1C values closer to normal; therefore, providers might reasonably suggest even lower A1C goals than <7%, if achievable without significant hypoglycemia, for example. Such patients might include those with short duration of diabetes, long life expectancy, and no significant CVD (B) Conversely, less-stringent A1C goals than the general goal of <7% may be appropriate for patients with a history of severe hypoglycemia, limited life expectancy, advanced microvascular or macrovascular complications, and extensive comorbid conditions and those with longstanding diabetes in whom the general goal is difficult to attain despite diabetes self-management education, appropriate glucose monitoring, and effective doses of multiple glucose-lowering agents including insulin (C)
  31. Glycemic control is fundamental to the management of diabetes; recommendations for glycemic goals in nonpregnant adults are reviewed on this slide Lowering A1C to below or around 7% has been shown to reduce microvascular and neuropathic complications of type 1 and type 2 diabetes; therefore, for microvascular disease prevention, the A1C goal is <7% (A) In type 1 and type 2 diabetes, randomized controlled trials of intensive versus standard glycemic control have not shown a significant reduction in cardiovascular disease (CVD) outcomes during the randomized portion. Long-term follow-up of the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT) and UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) cohorts suggests treatment to A1C targets ≤7% in years soon after a diagnosis of diabetes is associated with long-term reduction in risk of macrovascular disease; until more evidence is available, a goal of <7% appears reasonable for many adults for macrovascular risk reduction (B) Subgroup analyses of clinical trials (e.g., DCCT, UKPDS, ADVANCE) suggest a small but incremental benefit in microvascular outcomes with A1C values closer to normal; therefore, providers might reasonably suggest even lower A1C goals than <7%, if achievable without significant hypoglycemia, for example. Such patients might include those with short duration of diabetes, long life expectancy, and no significant CVD (B) Conversely, less-stringent A1C goals than the general goal of <7% may be appropriate for patients with a history of severe hypoglycemia, limited life expectancy, advanced microvascular or macrovascular complications, and extensive comorbid conditions and those with longstanding diabetes in whom the general goal is difficult to attain despite diabetes self-management education, appropriate glucose monitoring, and effective doses of multiple glucose-lowering agents including insulin (C)
  32. Glycemic control is fundamental to the management of diabetes; recommendations for glycemic goals in nonpregnant adults are reviewed on this slide Lowering A1C to below or around 7% has been shown to reduce microvascular and neuropathic complications of type 1 and type 2 diabetes; therefore, for microvascular disease prevention, the A1C goal is <7% (A) In type 1 and type 2 diabetes, randomized controlled trials of intensive versus standard glycemic control have not shown a significant reduction in cardiovascular disease (CVD) outcomes during the randomized portion. Long-term follow-up of the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT) and UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) cohorts suggests treatment to A1C targets ≤7% in years soon after a diagnosis of diabetes is associated with long-term reduction in risk of macrovascular disease; until more evidence is available, a goal of <7% appears reasonable for many adults for macrovascular risk reduction (B) Subgroup analyses of clinical trials (e.g., DCCT, UKPDS, ADVANCE) suggest a small but incremental benefit in microvascular outcomes with A1C values closer to normal; therefore, providers might reasonably suggest even lower A1C goals than <7%, if achievable without significant hypoglycemia, for example. Such patients might include those with short duration of diabetes, long life expectancy, and no significant CVD (B) Conversely, less-stringent A1C goals than the general goal of <7% may be appropriate for patients with a history of severe hypoglycemia, limited life expectancy, advanced microvascular or macrovascular complications, and extensive comorbid conditions and those with longstanding diabetes in whom the general goal is difficult to attain despite diabetes self-management education, appropriate glucose monitoring, and effective doses of multiple glucose-lowering agents including insulin (C)
  33. The Action to Control Cardiovascular Risk in Diabetes (ACCORD) study randomized 10,251 participants with either history of a CVD event or significant CVD risk to a strategy of intensive glycemic control (target A1C 6.0%) or standard glycemic control (A1C target 7.0-7.9%); investigators used multiple glycemic medications in both arms From a baseline median A1C of 8.1%, the intensive arm reached a median A1C of 6.4% within 12 months of randomization; the standard group reached a median A1C of 7.5% The glycemic control arm of ACCORD was halted early due to the finding of an increased rate of mortality in the intensive arm compared with the standard arm (1.41% vs. 1.14% per year; HR 1.22 [95% CI 1.01 to 1.46]); with a similar increase in cardiovascular deaths The primary outcome of ACCORD (MI, stroke, or cardiovascular death) was lower in the intensive glycemic control group, due to a reduction in nonfatal MI, but this reduction was not statistically significant when the study was terminated1 The potential cause of excess deaths in the intensive group of the ACCORD has been difficult to pinpoint. Exploratory analyses of the mortality findings of ACCORD (evaluating variables including weight gain, use of any specific drug or drug combination, and hypoglycemia) were reportedly unable to identify a clear explanation for the excess mortality in the intensive arm. The ACCORD investigators subsequently published additional analyses showing no increase in mortality in the intensive arm participants who achieved A1C levels7% or in those who lowered their A1C quickly after trial enrollment In fact, the converse was observed—those at highest risk for mortality were participants in the intensive arm with the highest A1C levels (71).
  34. The ADVANCE study of intensive versus standard glycemic control in type 2 diabetes found a statistically significant reduction in albuminuria with an A1C target of 6.5% (achieved median A1C 6.3%) compared with standard therapy achieving a median A1C of 7.0% (63) ADVANCE randomized participants to intensive glycemic control (with primary therapy being the sulfonylurea gliclazide and additional medications as needed to achieve a target A1C of 6.5%) or to standard therapy (in which any medication but gliclazide could be used and the glycemic target was according to “local guidelines”) Participants in ADVANCE were slightly older than those in ACCORD and VADT and had similar high CVD risk; however, they had an average duration of diabetes that was 2 years shorter, lower baseline A1C (median 7.2%), and almost no use of insulin at enrollment Median A1C levels achieved in the intensive and standard arms were 6.3 and 7.0%, respectively, and maximal separation between the arms took several years to achieve Use of other drugs that favorably impact CVD risk (aspirin, statins, and angiotensin enzyme inhibitors) was lower in ADVANCE than in ACCORD or VADT The primary outcome of ADVANCE was a combination of microvascular events (nephropathy and retinopathy) and major adverse cardiovascular events (MI, stroke, and cardiovascular death) Intensive glycemic control significantly reduced the primary end point, although this was due to a significant reduction in the microvascular outcome, primarily development of macroalbuminuria, with no significant reduction in the macrovascular outcome There was no difference in overall or cardiovascular mortality between the intensive compared with the standard glycemic control arms
  35. The Veterans Affairs Diabetes Trial (VADT) randomized participants with type 2 diabetes uncontrolled on insulin or maximal dose oral agents (median entry A1C 9.4%) to a strategy of intensive glycemic control (goal A1C 6.0%) or standard glycemic control, with a planned A1C separation of at least 1.5%1 Medication treatment algorithms were used to achieve the specified glycemic goals, with a goal of using similar medications in both groups; other CVD risk factors were treated aggressively and equally in both groups Median A1C levels of 6.9 and 8.4% were achieved in the intensive and standard arms, respectively, within the first year of the study; the primary outcome was a composite of CVD events; cumulative primary outcome was nonsignificantly lower in the intensive arm The evidence for a cardiovascular benefit of intensive glycemic control primarily rests on long-term follow-up of study cohorts treated early in the course of type 1 and type 2 diabetes and subset analyses of ACCORD, ADVANCE, and VADT. A recent group-level metaanalysis of the latter three trials suggests that glucose lowering has a modest (9%) but statistically significant reduction in major CVD outcomes, primarily nonfatal MI, with no significant effect on mortality A prespecified subgroup analysis suggested that major CVD outcome reduction occurred in patients without known CVD at baseline (HR 0.84 [95% CI 0.74–0.94]).2 Conversely, the mortality findings in ACCORD and subgroup analyses of VADT suggest that the potential risks of very intensive glycemic control may outweigh its benefits in some patients, such as those with very long duration of diabetes, known history of severe hypoglycemia, advanced atherosclerosis, and advanced age/frailty
  36. Recommended glycemic goals for nonpregnant adults (Table 10) are shown on three slides Slide 1 of 3 These recommendations are based on those for A1C values, with listed blood glucose levels that appear to correlate with achievement of an A1C of <7% The issue of preprandial versus postprandial self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) is complex; in some epidemiological studies, elevated postchallenge two-hour oral glucose tolerance test (2-h OGTT) glucose values have been associated with increased cardiovascular risk independent of fasting plasma glucose (FPG) In diabetic subjects, some surrogate measures of vascular pathology, such as endothelial dysfunction, are negatively affected by postprandial hyperglycemia Postprandial hyperglycemia, like preprandial hyperglycemia, contributes to elevated A1C levels, with its relative contribution being higher at A1C levels that are closer to 7% However, outcome studies have clearly shown A1C to be the primary predictor of complications, and landmark trials such as the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT) and the UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) relied overwhelmingly on preprandial SMBG For individuals who have premeal glucose values within target but A1C values above target, a reasonable recommendation for postprandial testing and targets is monitoring postprandial plasma glucose 1-2 hours after the start of the meal and treatment aimed at reducing PPG values to <180 mg/dl to help lower A1C
  37. Recommended glycemic goals for nonpregnant adults (Table 10) are shown on three slides Slide 2 of 3 Glycemic goals should be individualized, based on a patient’s duration of diabetes, age, life expectancy, comorbid conditions, known cardiovascular disease (CVD) or advanced microvascular complications, unawareness of hypoglycemia, and other considerations
  38. Recommended glycemic goals for nonpregnant adults (Table 10) are shown on three slides Slide 3 of 3 For individual patients, more or less stringent glycemic goals may be appropriate If A1C goals are not met despite reaching preprandial glucose goals, postprandial glucose may be targeted
  39. Diabetes self-management education (DSME) is an essential element of diabetes care; national standards for DSME1 are based on evidence for its benefits Education helps people with diabetes initiate effective self-management and cope with diabetes with they are first diagnosed; DSME is the on-going process of facilitating the knowledge, skill, and ability necessary for diabetes self-care2 Recommendations for DSME are summarized on this slide3 People with diabetes should receive DSME according to national standards when their diabetes is diagnosed and as needed thereafter (B) Effective self-management and quality of life are the key outcomes of DSME and should be measured and monitored as part of care (C) DSME should address psychosocial issues, since emotional well-being is associated with positive diabetes outcomes (C) Because DSME can result in cost-savings and improved outcomes (B), DSME should be reimbursed by third-party payors (E)
  40. The general recommendations for medical nutrition therapy (MNT) are included on this slide Individuals who have pre-diabetes or diabetes should receive individualized MNT as needed to achieve treatment goals, preferably provided by a registered dietitian familiar with the components of diabetes MNT (A) When delivered by a registered dietitian according to nutrition practice guidelines, MNT is reimbursed as part of the Medicare program as overseen by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (http://www.cms.gov/medicalnutritiontherapy/) Because it can result in cost savings and improved outcomes (B), MNT should be covered by insurance and other payors (E) Although numerous studies have attempted to identify the optimal mix of macronutrients for meal plans of people with diabetes, it is unlikely that one such combination of macronutrients exists The best mix of carbohydrates, protein, and fat appears to vary depending on individual circumstances
  41. Look AHEAD (Action for HEAlth in Diabetes) is a large clinical trial designed to determine whether long-term weight loss will improve glycemia and prevent cardiovascular events in subjects with type 2 diabetes1 One-year results of the intensive lifestyle intervention in this trial show an average of 8.6% weight loss, significant reduction of A1C, and reduction in several cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors, with benefits sustained at 4 years2 When completed, the Look AHEAD study should provide insight into the effects of long-term weight loss on important clinical outcomes
  42. Exercise is an important part of the diabetes management plan Regular exercise has been shown to improve blood glucose control, reduce cardiovascular risk factors, contribute to weight loss, and improve well being1 Regular exercise may also prevent type 2 diabetes in high-risk individuals1 A new joint position statement of the American Diabetes Association and the American College of Sports Medicine summarizes the evidence for the benefits of exercise in people with type 2 diabetes2 Recommendations for physical activity for people with diabetes3 are summarized on this slide People with diabetes should be advised to perform at least 150 minutes per week of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity (50-70% of maximum heart rate) (A) In the absence of contraindications, people with type 2 diabetes should be encouraged to perform resistance training three times per week (A)
  43. Psychological and social problems can impair the ability of the individual1-3 or the family to carry out diabetes care tasks and therefore compromise health status Opportunities exist for the clinician to assess psychosocial status in a timely and efficient manner so that referral for appropriate services can be accomplished4 Recommendations for psychosocial assessment and care4 are summarized on this slide Assessment of psychological and social situation should be included as an on-going part of the medical management of diabetes (E) Psychosocial screening and follow-up should include, but is not limited to, attitudes about the illness, expectations for medical management and outcomes, affect/mood, general and diabetes-related quality of life, resources (financial, social, and emotional), and psychiatric history (E) Screen for psychosocial problems such as depression and diabetes-related distress, anxiety, eating disorders, and cognitive impairment when self-management is poor (C)
  44. Hypoglycemia is the leading limiting factor in the glycemic management of patients with type 1 and insulin-treated type 2 diabetes1 Recommendations for treating hypoglycemia2 are summarized on this slide Glucose (15-20 g) is the preferred treatment for the conscious individual with hypoglycemia, although any form of carbohydrate that contains glucose may be used If, after 15 minutes of treatment, SMBG shows continued hypoglycemia, the treatment should be repeated; once SMBG glucose returns to normal, the individual should consume a meal or snack to prevent recurrence of hypoglycemia (E) Glucagon should be prescribed for all individuals at significant risk of severe hypoglycemia, and caregivers or family members of these individuals should be instructed in its administration Glucagon administration is not limited to health care professionals (E) Individuals with hypoglycemia unawareness or one or more episodes of severe hypoglycemia should be advised to their glycemic targets strictly to avoid further hypoglycemia for at least several weeks to reverse hypoglycemia unawareness (at least partially) and reduce risk of future episodes (B)
  45. Recommendations for patients for whom bariatric surgery may be an option as an effective weight loss treatment for severe obesity are summarized on this slide Bariatric surgery should be considered for adults with a body mass index (BMI) >35 kg/m2 and type 2 diabetes, especially if the diabetes or associated comorbidities are difficult to control with lifestyle and pharmacologic therapy (B) Patients with type 2 diabetes who have undergone bariatric surgery need life-long lifestyle support and medical monitoring (E) Although small trials have shown glycemic benefit of bariatric surgery in patients with type 2 diabetes and BMI of 30-35 kg/m2, there is currently insufficient evidence to recommend, in general, surgery in patients with BMI <35 kg/m2 outside of a research protocol (E) The long-term benefits, cost-effectiveness, and risks of bariatric surgery in individuals with type 2 diabetes should be studied in well-designed, randomized controlled trials with optimal medical and lifestyle therapy as the comparator (E)
  46. Influenza and pneumonia are common, preventable infectious diseases associated with high mortality and morbidity in the elderly and in people with chronic disease1 Although studies reporting the morbidity and mortality of influenza and pneumococcal pneumonia specifically in people with diabetes are limited, observational studies of patients with a variety of chronic illnesses, including diabetes, show that these conditions are associated with an increase in hospitalizations for influenza and its complications1 Safe and effective vaccines are available that can greatly reduce the risk of serious complications from these diseases1 Recommendations for the immunization of people with diabetes2 are summarized on this slide Annually provide an influenza vaccine to all diabetes patients ≥6 months of age (C) Administer pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine to all diabetes patients ≥2 years of age (C) A one-time revaccination is recommended for individuals >64 years of age previously immunized when they were <65 years of age if the vaccine was administered >5 years ago (C) Other indications for repeat vaccination include nephrotic syndrome, chronic renal disease, and other immunocompromised states, such as after transplantation (C)
  47. Section VI, “Prevention and Management of Diabetes Complications,” includes 48 slides (1 slide unless otherwise noted): Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) in Individuals with Diabetes Recommendations: Hypertension/Blood Pressure Control (8 slides) Recommendations: Dyslipidemia/Lipid Management (7 slides) Secondary Prevention: Reduction in 10-Year Risk of Major CVD Endpoints Primary Prevention: Reduction in 10-Year Risk of Major CVD Endpoints Recommendations: Glycemic, Blood Pressure, Lipid Control in Adults Recommendations: Antiplatelet Agents (3 slides) Recommendations: Smoking Cessation Recommendations: Coronary Heart Disease Screening Recommendations: Coronary Heart Disease Treatment (2 slides) Recommendations: Nephropathy Recommendations: Nephropathy Screening Recommendations: Nephropathy Treatment (5 slides) Definitions of Abnormalities in Albumin Excretion Stages of Chronic Kidney Disease Management of CKD in Diabetes Recommendations: Retinopathy Recommendations: Retinopathy Screening (4 slides) Recommendations: Retinopathy Treatment (2 slides) Recommendations: Neuropathy Screening/Treatment (2 slides) Recommendations: Neuropathy Foot Care (4 slides)
  48. For those with diabetes, cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the major cause of morbidity and mortality and the largest contributor to the direct and indirect costs of diabetes1,2 Common conditions that coexist with type 2 diabetes, such as hypertension and dyslipidemia, are clear risk factors for CVD, and diabetes itself confers independent risk1,2 Numerous studies have shown the efficacy of controlling individual cardiovascular risk factors in preventing of slowing CVD in people with diabetes1,2 Large benefits are seen when multiple risk factors are addressed globally1,2 Risk for coronary heart disease and CVD in general can be estimated using multivariable risk factors approaches, and such a strategy may be desirable to undertake in adult patients prior to instituting preventive therapy3
  49. Hypertension is a common comorbidity of diabetes that affects the majority of patients, with prevalence depending on type of diabetes, age, obesity, and ethnicity Hypertension is a major risk factor for both CVD and microvascular complications In type 1 diabetes, hypertension is often the result of underlying nephropathy, while in type 2 diabetes it usually coexists with other cardiometabolic risk factors The following eight slides summarize recommendations for screening and diagnosis, goals, and treatment for hypertension/blood pressure control in patients with diabetes Slide 1 of 8 – Screening and Diagnosis Blood pressure should be measured at every routine diabetes visit Patients found to have systolic blood pressure ≥130 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure ≥80 mmHg should have blood pressure confirmed on a separate day Repeat systolic blood pressure ≥130 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure ≥80 mmHg confirms a diagnosis of hypertension (C)
  50. This set of eight slides summarize recommendations for screening and diagnosis, goals, and treatment for hypertension/blood pressure control in patients with diabetes Slide 2 of 8 – Goals A goal systolic blood pressure <130 mmHg is appropriate for most patients with diabetes (C) Based on patient characteristics and response to therapy, higher or lower systolic blood pressure targets may be appropriate (B) Patients with diabetes should be treated to a diastolic blood pressure <80 mmHg (B)
  51. This set of eight slides summarize recommendations for screening and diagnosis, goals, and treatment for hypertension/blood pressure control in patients with diabetes Slide 3 of 8 – Treatment (Slide 1 of 6) Patients with a systolic blood pressure 130-139 mmHg or a diastolic blood pressure 80-89 mmHg may be given lifestyle therapy alone for a maximum of 3 months, and then if targets are not achieved, patients should be treated with the addition of pharmacological agents (E)
  52. This set of eight slides summarize recommendations for screening and diagnosis, goals, and treatment for hypertension/blood pressure control in patients with diabetes Slide 4 of 8 – Treatment (Slide 2 of 6) Patients with more severe hypertension (systolic blood pressure ≥140 mmHg or diastolic blood pressure ≥90 mmHg) at diagnosis or follow-up should receive pharmacologic therapy in addition to lifestyle therapy (A)
  53. This set of eight slides summarize recommendations for screening and diagnosis, goals, and treatment for hypertension/blood pressure control in patients with diabetes Slide 5 of 8 – Treatment (Slide 3 of 6) Lifestyle therapy for hypertension consists of weight loss if overweight, DASH-style dietary pattern including reducing sodium and increasing potassium intake, moderation of alcohol intake, and increased physical activity (B)
  54. This set of eight slides summarize recommendations for screening and diagnosis, goals, and treatment for hypertension/blood pressure control in patients with diabetes Slide 6 of 8 – Treatment (Slide 4 of 6) Pharmacologic therapy for patients with diabetes and hypertension should be paired with a regimen that included either an ACE inhibitor or an angiotensin II receptor blocker (ARB); if one class is not tolerated, the other should be substituted If needed to achieve blood pressure targets, a thiazide diuretic should be added to those with an estimated glomerular filtration rate (GFR) ≥30 ml x min/1.73 m2 and a loop diuretic for those with an estimated GFR <30 ml x min/1.73 m2 (C)
  55. This set of eight slides summarize recommendations for screening and diagnosis, goals, and treatment for hypertension/blood pressure control in patients with diabetes Slide 7 of 8 Treatment (Slide 5 of 6) Multiple drug therapy (two or more agents at maximal doses) is generally required to achieve blood pressure targets (B) If ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs), or diuretics are used, kidney function and serum potassium levels should be closely monitored (E)
  56. This set of eight slides summarize recommendations for screening and diagnosis, goals, and treatment for hypertension/blood pressure control in patients with diabetes Slide 8 of 8 – Treatment (Slide 6 of 6) In pregnant women with diabetes and chronic hypertension, blood pressure target goals of 110-129/65-79 mmHg are suggested in the interest of long-term maternal health and minimizing impaired fetal growth ACE inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) are contraindicated during pregnancy (E)
  57. Patients with type 2 diabetes have an increased prevalence of lipid abnormalities, contributing to their high risk of CVD This set of seven slides summarize recommendations for screening, treatment, and goals for dyslipidemia/lipid management in patients with diabetes Slide 1 of 7 – Screening In most adult patients, measure fasting lipid profile at least annually In adults with low-risk lipid values (LDL cholesterol <100 mg/dl, HDL cholesterol >50 mg/dl, and triglycerides <150 mg/dl), lipid assessments may be repeated every 2 years (E)
  58. This set of seven slides summarize recommendations for screening, treatment, and goals for dyslipidemia/lipid management in patients with diabetes Slide 2 of 7 – Treatment Recommendations and Goals (Slide 1 of 6) Lifestyle modification focusing on the reduction of saturated fat, trans fat, and cholesterol intake; increase of n-3 fatty acids, viscous fiber, and plant stanols/sterols; weight loss (if indicated) and increased physical activity should be recommended to improve the lipid profile in patients with diabetes (A)
  59. This set of seven slides summarize recommendations for screening, treatment, and goals for dyslipidemia/lipid management in patients with diabetes Slide 3 of 7 – Treatment Recommendations and Goals (Slide 2 of 6) Statin therapy should be added to lifestyle therapy, regardless of baseline lipid levels, for diabetic patients With overt CVD (A) Without CVD who are over the age of 40 years and have one or more other CVD risk factors (A)
  60. This set of seven slides summarize recommendations for screening, treatment, and goals for dyslipidemia/lipid management in patients with diabetes Slide 4 of 7 – Treatment Recommendations and Goals (Slide 3 of 6) For patients at lower risk than described on Slide 2 of 6 (e.g., without overt CVD and under the age of 40 years), statin therapy should be considered in addition to lifestyle therapy if LDL cholesterol remains >100 mg/dl or in those with multiple CVD risk factors (E)
  61. This set of seven slides summarize recommendations for screening, treatment, and goals for dyslipidemia/lipid management in patients with diabetes Slide 5 of 7 – Treatment Recommendations and Goals (Slide 4 of 6) In individuals without overt CVD, the primary goal is an LDL cholesterol <100 mg/dl (2.6 mmol/l) (A) In individuals with overt CVD, a lower LDL cholesterol goal of <70 mg/dl (1.8 mmol/l), using a high dose of a statin, is an option (B)
  62. This set of seven slides summarize recommendations for screening, treatment, and goals for dyslipidemia/lipid management in patients with diabetes Slide 6 of 7 – Treatment Recommendations and Goals (Slide 5 of 6) If drug-treated patients do not reach the targets outlined on the previous slide (Slide 4 0f 6) on maximal tolerated statin therapy, a reduction in LDL cholesterol of ~30-40% from baseline is an alternative therapeutic goal (A) Triglyceride levels <150 mg/dl (1.7 mmol/l) and HDL cholesterol >40 mg/dl (1.0 mm/l) in men and >50 mg/dl (1.3 mmol/l) in women, are desirable; however, LDL cholesterol-targeting statin therapy remains the preferred strategy (C)
  63. This set of seven slides summarize recommendations for screening, treatment, and goals for dyslipidemia/lipid management in patients with diabetes Slide 7 of 7 – Treatment Recommendations and Goals (Slide 6 of 6) If targets are not reached on maximally tolerated doses of statins, combination therapy using statins and other lipid-lowering agents may be considered to achieve lipid targets but has not been evaluated in outcome studies for either CVD outcomes or safety (E) Statin therapy is contraindicated in pregnancy (E)
  64. This table summarizes reduction in 10-year risk of major secondary CVD prevention endpoints (CHD death/nonfatal MI) in major statin trials, or sub-studies of major trials, in subjects with diabetes Number of patients in both the secondary and primary CVD prevention trials was 16,032 Studies were of differing lengths (3.3–5.4 years) and used somewhat different outcomes, but all reported rates of CVD death and non-fatal MI In this tabulation, results of the statin on 10-year risk of major CVD endpoints are listed for comparison between studies Correlation between 10-year CVD risk of the control group and the absolute risk reduction with statin therapy is highly significant (P=0.0007) NOTE: Analyses provided by Craig Williams, PharmD, Oregon Health & Science University, 2007
  65. This table summarizes reduction in 10-year risk of major primary CVD prevention endpoints (CHD death/nonfatal MI) in major statin trials, or sub-studies of major trials, in subjects with diabetes Number of patients in both the secondary and primary CVD prevention trials was 16,032 Studies were of differing lengths (3.3–5.4 years) and used somewhat different outcomes, but all reported rates of CVD death and non-fatal MI In this tabulation, results of the statin on 10-year risk of major CVD endpoints are listed for comparison between studies Correlation between 10-year CVD risk of the control group and the absolute risk reduction with statin therapy is highly significant (P=0.0007) NOTE: Analyses provided by Craig Williams, PharmD, Oregon Health & Science University, 2007
  66. This slide represents a summary of recommendations for glycemic, blood pressure, and lipid control for most adults with diabetes
  67. The ADA and the American Heart Association have, in the past, jointly recommended low-dose aspirin therapy be used as a primary prevention strategy in those with diabetes at increased cardiovascular risk, including those who are >40 years of age or with additional risk factors, such as family history of CVD, hypertension, smoking, dyslipidemia, or albuminuria1; these recommendation were derived from several older trials that included small numbers of patients with diabetes Aspirin has been shown to be effective in reducing cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in high-risk patients with previous MI or stroke (secondary prevention); its net benefit in primary prevention among patients with no previous cardiovascular events is more controversial, both for patients with and without a history of diabetes2 Recommendations for the use of antiplatelet agents3 are summarized in three slides Slide 1 of 3 Consider aspirin therapy (75-162 mg/day) as a primary prevention strategy in those with type 1 or type 2 diabetes at increased cardiovascular risk (10-year risk >10%) This includes most men >50 years of age or women >60 years of age who have at least one additional major risk factor (family history of CVD, hypertension, smoking, dyslipidemia, or albuminuria) (C)
  68. Recommendations for the use of antiplatelet agents are summarized in three slides Slide 2 of 3 Aspirin should not be recommended for CVD prevention for adults with diabetes at low CVD risk (10-year CVD risk <5%, such as in men <50 and women <60 years of age with no major additional CVD risk factors), since the potential adverse effects from bleeding likely offset the potential benefits (C) In patients in these age groups with multiple other risk factors (e.g., 10-year risk 5%-10%) clinical judgment is required (E)
  69. Recommendations for the use of antiplatelet agents are summarized in three slides Slide 3 of 3 Use aspirin therapy (75-162 mg/day) as a secondary prevention strategy in those with diabetes with a history of CVD (A) For patients with CVD and documented aspirin allergy, clopidogrel (75 mg/day) should be used (B) Combination therapy with ASA (75-162 mg/day) and clopidogrel (75 mg/day) is reasonable for up to a year after an acute coronary syndrome (B)
  70. A large body of evidence from epidemiological, case-control, and cohort studies provides convincing documentation of the causal link between cigarette smoking and health risks Much of the work documenting the impact of smoking on health did not separately discuss results on subsets of individuals with diabetes, but suggests that the identified risks are at least equivalent to those found in the general population Smoking may have a role in the development of type 2 diabetes and other studies of individuals with diabetes consistently demonstrate that smokers have a heightened risk of CVD, premature death, and increased rate of microvascular complications of diabetes The routine and thorough assessment of tobacco use is important as a means of preventing smoking or encouraging cessation A number of large randomized clinical trials have demonstrated the efficacy and cost-effectiveness of brief counseling in smoking cessation, including the use of quit lines, in the reduction of tobacco use. For the patient motivated to quit, the addition of pharmacological therapy to counseling is more effective than either treatment alone Special considerations should include assessment of level of nicotine dependence, which is associated with difficulty in quitting and relapse1 Recommendations for smoking cessation are summarized on this slide Advise all patients not to smoke (A) Include smoking cessation counseling and other forms of treatment as a routine component of diabetes care (B)
  71. In asymptomatic patients, routine screening for CAD is not recommended, as it does not improve outcomes as long as CVD risk factors are treated (A)
  72. In patients with known CVD, ACE inhibitor (C), aspirin (A), and statin therapy (A) (if not contraindicated) should be used to reduce the risk of cardiovascular events In patients with a prior MI, β-blockers should be continued for at least 2 years after the event (B)
  73. Longer-term use of β-blockers in the absence of hypertension is reasonable if well tolerated, but data are lacking (E) Avoid thiazolidinedione (TZD) treatment in patients with symptomatic heart failure (C) Metformin may be used in patients with stable CHF if renal function is normal; it should be avoided in unstable or hospitalized patients with CHF (C)
  74. Diabetic nephropathy occurs in 20-40% of patients with diabetes and is the single leading cause of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) Persistent albuminuria in the range of 30-299 mg/24 h (microalbuminuria) has been shown to be the earliest stage of diabetic nephropathy in type 1 diabetes and a marker for development of nephropathy in type 2 diabetes Microalbuminuria is also a well-established marker of increased CVD risk1,2 General recommendations for the care of patients with diabetes and nephropathy3 are summarized on this slide To reduce the risk or slow the progression of nephropathy, optimize glucose control (A) To reduce the risk or slow the progression of nephropathy, optimize blood pressure control (A)
  75. Perform an annual test to assess urine albumin excretion in type 1 diabetic patients with diabetes duration of 5 years and in all type 2 diabetic patients, starting at diagnosis (E) Measure serum creatinine at least annually in all adults with diabetes regardless of the degree of urine albumin excretion The serum creatinine should be used to estimate GFR and stage the level of chronic kidney disease (CKD), if present (E)
  76. Recommendations for the treatment of nephropathy in patients with diabetes are summarized in five slides Slide 1 of 5 In the treatment of the nonpregnant patient with micro- or macroalbuminuria, either ACE inhibitors or angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) should be used (A)
  77. Recommendations for the treatment of nephropathy in patients with diabetes are summarized in five slides Slide 2 of 5 While there are no adequate head-to-head comparisons of ACE inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs), there is clinical trial support for each of the following statements: In patients with type 1 diabetes, hypertension, and any degree of albuminuria, ACE inhibitors have been shown to delay the progression of nephropathy (A) In patients with type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and microalbuminuria, both ACE inhibitors and ARBs have been shown to delay the progression to macroalbuminuria (A)
  78. Recommendations for the treatment of nephropathy in patients with diabetes are summarized in five slides Slide 3 of 5 In patients with type 2 diabetes, hypertension, macroalbuminuria, and renal insufficiency (serum creatinine 1.5 mg/dl), angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs) have been shown to delay the progression of nephropathy (A) If one class is not tolerated, the other should be substituted (E)
  79. Studies in patients with varying stages of nephropathy have shown that protein restriction helps slow the progression of albuminuria, GFR decline, and occurrence of ESRD1-4 Protein restriction should be considered particularly in patients whose nephropathy seems to be progressing despite optimal glucose and blood pressure control and use of ACE inhibitor and/or angiotensin II receptor blockers4 Recommendations for the treatment of nephropathy in patients with diabetes5 are summarized in five slides Slide 4 of 5 Reduction of protein intake to 0.8-1.0 g kg body wt–1 day–1 in individuals with diabetes and the earlier stages of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and to 0.8 g kg body wt–1 day–1 in the later stages of CKD may improve measures of renal function (urine albumin excretion rate and GFR) and is recommended (B) When ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs), or diuretics are used, monitor serum creatinine and potassium levels for the development of acute kidney disease and hyperkalemia (E)
  80. Recommendations for the treatment of nephropathy in patients with diabetes are summarized in five slides Slide 5 of 5 Continued monitoring of urine albumin excretion to assess both response to therapy and progression of disease is recommended (E) Consider referral to a physician experienced in the care of kidney disease when there is uncertainty about the etiology of kidney disease (active urine sediment, absence of retinopathy, or rapid decline in GFR), difficult management issues, or advanced kidney disease (B)
  81. This table defines abnormalities of albumin excretion Because of variability in urinary albumin excretion, two of three specimens collected within a 3- to 6-month period should be abnormal before considering a patient to have crossed one of these diagnostic thresholds Exercise within 24 h, infection, fever, CHF, marked hyperglycemia, and marked hypertension may elevate urinary albumin excretion over baseline values
  82. The National Kidney Foundation classification of the stages of chronic kidney disease (Table 14) is primarily based on GFR levels and therefore differs from other systems, in which staging is based primarily on urinary albumin excretion1 Studies have found decreased GFR in the absence of increased urine albumin excretion in a substantial percentage of adults with diabetes2,3 Epidemiologic evidence suggests that a substantial fraction of those with CKD in the setting of diabetes have little or no detectable albuminuria2 Serum creatinine should therefore be measured at least annually in all adults with diabetes, regardless of the degree of urine albumin excretion4 ref. 283.
  83. Management of chronic kidney disease (CKD) is summarized in two slides1,2 Slide 1 of 2 Complications of kidney disease correlate with level of kidney function When the eGFR is <60 ml/min/1.73 m2, screening for complications of CKD is indicated, as summarized on this slide (Table 15) Consider referral to a physician experienced in the care of kidney disease when there is uncertainty about the etiology of kidney disease (heavy proteinuria, active urine sediment, absence of retinopathy, rapid decline in GFR, resistant hypertension), difficult management issues, or advanced kidney disease. The threshold for referral may vary depending on the frequency with which a provider encounters diabetic patients with significant kidney disease Early vaccination against hepatitis B is indicated in patients likely to progress to end-stage kidney disease
  84. Management of chronic kidney disease (CKD) is summarized in two slides1,2 Slide 2 of 2 When the eGFR is <60 ml/min/1.73 m2, screening for complications of CKD is indicated, as summarized on this slide (Table 15) Consultation with a nephrologist when stage 4 CKD develops has been found to reduce cost, improve quality of care, and keep people off dialysis longer3 However, nonrenal specialists should not delay educating their patients about the progressive nature of diabetic kidney disease; the renal preservation benefits of aggressive treatment of blood pressure, blood glucose, and hyperlipidemia; and the potential need for renal replacement therapy
  85. Diabetic retinopathy is a highly specific vascular complication of both type 1 and type 2 diabetes, with prevalence strongly related to duration of diabetes Diabetic retinopathy is the most frequent cause of new cases of blindness among adults aged 20–74 years Glaucoma, cataracts, and other disorders of the eye occur earlier and more frequently in people with diabetes In addition to duration of diabetes, other factors that increase the risk of, or are associated with, retinopathy include chronic hyperglycemia1, the presence of nephropathy2, and hypertension3 Recommendations for the care of patients with diabetes with respect to retinopathy4 are summarized on this slide To reduce the risk or slow the progression of retinopathy, optimize glycemic control (A) To reduce the risk or slow the progression of retinopathy, optimize blood pressure control (A)
  86. Results of eye examinations should be documented and transmitted to the referring health care professional Recommendations for the screening of nephropathy in patients with diabetes are summarized in four slides Slide 1 of 4 Adults and children aged 10 years or older with type 1 diabetes should have an initial dilated and comprehensive eye examination by an ophthalmologist or optometrist within 5 years after the onset of diabetes (B) Patients with type 2 diabetes should have an initial dilated and comprehensive eye examination by an ophthalmologist or optometrist shortly after the diagnosis of diabetes (B)
  87. Recommendations for the screening of nephropathy in patients with diabetes are summarized in four slides Slide 2 of 4 Subsequent examinations for type 1 and type 2 diabetic patients should be repeated annually by an ophthalmologist or optometrist Less frequent exams (every 2-3 years) may be considered following one or more normal eye exams, if recommended by the eye care professional Examinations will be required more frequently if retinopathy is progressing (B)
  88. Recommendations for the screening of nephropathy in patients with diabetes are summarized in four slides Slide 3 of 4 High-quality fundus photographs can detect most clinically significant diabetic retinopathy. Interpretation of the images should be performed by a trained eye care provider While retinal photography may serve as a screening tool for retinopathy, it is not a substitute for a comprehensive eye exam, which should be performed at least initially and at intervals thereafter as recommended by an eye care professional (E)
  89. Recommendations for the screening of nephropathy in patients with diabetes are summarized in four slides Slide 4 of 4 Women with preexisting diabetes who are planning pregnancy or who have become pregnant should have a comprehensive eye examination and be counseled on the risk of development and/or progression of diabetic retinopathy Eye examination should occur in the first trimester with close follow-up throughout pregnancy and for 1 year postpartum (B)
  90. Recommendations for the treatment of nephropathy in patients with diabetes are summarized in two slides Slide 1 of 2 Promptly refer patients with any level of macular edema, severe non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy (NPDR), or any peripheral diabetic retinopathy (PDR) to an ophthalmologist who is knowledgeable and experienced in the management and treatment of diabetic retinopathy (A) Laser photocoagulation therapy is indicated to reduce the risk of vision loss in patients with high-risk PDR, clinically significant macular edema, and in some cases of severe NPDR (A)
  91. Recommendations for the treatment of nephropathy in patients with diabetes are summarized in two slides Slide 1 of 2 The presence of retinopathy is not a contraindication to aspirin therapy for cardioprotection, as this therapy does not increase the risk of retinal hemorrhage (A)
  92. The diabetic neuropathies are heterogeneous with diverse clinical manifestations; they may be focal or diffuse Most common among the neuropathies are chronic sensorimotor diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) and autonomic neuropathy; although DPN is a diagnosis of exclusion, complex investigations to exclude other conditions are rarely needed Early recognition and appropriate management of neuropathy in the patient with diabetes is important for a number of reasons: 1) nondiabetic neuropathies may be present in patients with diabetes and may be treatable; 2) a number of treatment options exist for symptomatic diabetic neuropathy; 3) up to 50% of DPN may be asymptomatic, and patients are at risk of insensate injury to their feet; 4) autonomic neuropathy may involve every system in the body; and 5) cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy causes substantial morbidity and mortality Specific treatment for the underlying nerve damage is not currently available, other than improved glycemic control, which may slow progression but not reverse neuronal loss; effective symptomatic treatments are available for some manifestations of DPN and autonomic neuropathy Recommendations for the screening and treatment of neuropathy in patients with diabetes are summarized in two slides Slide 1 of 2 All patients should be screened for distal symmetric polyneuropathy (DPN) at diagnosis and at least annually thereafter using simple clinical tests (B) Electrophysiological testing is rarely needed, except in situations where the clinical features are atypical (E)
  93. Recommendations for the screening and treatment of neuropathy in patients with diabetes are summarized in two slides Slide 2 of 2 Screening for signs and symptoms of cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy should be instituted at diagnosis of type 2 diabetes and 5 years after the diagnosis of type 1 diabetes; special testing is rarely needed and may not affect management or outcomes (E) Medications for the relief of specific symptoms related to DPN and autonomic neuropathy are recommended, as they improve the quality of life of the patient (E)
  94. Amputation and foot ulceration, consequences of diabetic neuropathy and/or peripheral artery disease (PAD), are common and major causes of morbidity and disability in people with diabetes; early recognition and management of risk factors can prevent or delay adverse outcomes Risk of ulcers or amputations is increased in people who have the following risk factors: Previous amputation Past foot ulcer history Peripheral neuropathy Foot deformity Peripheral vascular disease Visual impairment Diabetic nephropathy (especially patients on dialysis) Poor glycemic control Cigarette smoking Recommendations for foot care in patients with diabetes are summarized in four slides Slide 1 of 4 For all patients with diabetes, perform an annual comprehensive foot examination to identify risk factors predictive of ulcers and amputations The foot examination should include inspection, assessment of foot pulses, and testing for loss of protective sensation (LOPS) (10-g monofilament plus testing any one of: vibration using 128-Hz tuning fork, pinprick sensation, ankle reflexes, or vibration perception threshold) (B)
  95. Recommendations for foot care in patients with diabetes are summarized in four slides Slide 2 of 4 This slide illustrates how to perform the 10-g monofilament test1,2
  96. Recommendations for foot care in patients with diabetes are summarized in four slides Slide 3 of 4 Provide general foot self-care education to all patients with diabetes (B) A multidisciplinary approach is recommended for individuals with foot ulcers and high-risk feet, especially those with a history of prior ulcer or amputation (B) Refer patients who smoke, have LOPS and structural abnormalities, or have history of prior lower-extremity complications to foot care specialists for ongoing preventive care and life-long surveillance (C)
  97. Recommendations for foot care in patients with diabetes are summarized in four slides Slide 4 of 4 Initial screening for peripheral arterial disease (PAD) should include a history for claudication and an assessment of the pedal pulses Consider obtaining an ankle-brachial index (ABI), as many patients with PAD are asymptomatic (C) Refer patients with significant claudication or a positive ABI for further vascular assessment and consider exercise, medications, and surgical options (C)
  98. This section, “VII. Diabetes Care in Specific Populations,” includes 17 slides (1 slide unless otherwise indicated): Recommendations: Pediatric Glycemic Control (Type 1 Diabetes) Recommendations: Pediatric Nephropathy (Type 1 Diabetes) Recommendations: Pediatric Hypertension (Type 1 Diabetes) (3 slides) Recommendations: Pediatric Dyslipidemia (Type 1 Diabetes) (4 slides) Recommendations: Retinopathy (Type 1 Diabetes) Recommendations: Celiac Disease (Type 1 Diabetes) (2 slides) Recommendations: Hypothyroidism (Type 1 Diabetes) Recommendations: Preconception Care (2 slides) Recommendations: Older Adults (2 slides)
  99. While current standards for diabetes management reflect the need to maintain glucose control as near to normal as safely possible, special consideration should be given to the unique risks of hypoglycemia in young children Glycemic goals may need to be modified to take into account the fact that most children <6 or 7 years of age have a form of “hypoglycemic unawareness,” including immaturity of and a relative inability to recognize and response to hypoglycemic symptoms, placing them at greater risk for severe hypoglycemia and its sequelae In addition, and unlike the case in adults, young children under the age of 5 years may be at risk for permanent cognitive impairment after episodes of severe hypoglycemia In selecting glycemic goals, the benefits on long-term health outcomes of achieving a lower A1C should be balanced against the risks of hypoglycemia and the developmental burdens of intensive regimens in children and youth Recommendations Clinicians should consider age when setting glycemic goals in children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes (E)
  100. Recommendations Annual screening for microalbuminuria, for albumin-to-creatinine (ACR) ratio, should be considered once the child is 10 years of age and has had diabetes for 5 years (E) Confirmed, persistently elevated ACR on two additional urine specimens from different days should be treated with an ACE inhibitor, titrated to normalization of albumin excretion if possible (E)
  101. Recommendations for the care of children and adolescents with hypertension are summarized in three slides Slide 1 of 3 Treatment of high-normal blood pressure (systolic or diastolic blood pressure consistently above the 90th percentile for age, sex, and height) should include dietary intervention and exercise aimed at weight control and increased physical activity, if appropriate If target blood pressure is not reached with 3-6 months of lifestyle intervention, pharmacologic treatment should be initiated (E)
  102. Recommendations for the care of children and adolescents with hypertension are summarized in three slides Slide 2 of 3 Pharmacologic treatment of hypertension (systolic or diastolic blood pressure consistently above the 95th percentile for age, sex, and height or consistently 130/80 mmHg, if 95% exceeds that value) should be initiated as soon as the diagnosis is confirmed (E)
  103. Recommendations for the care of children and adolescents with hypertension are summarized in three slides Slide 3 of 3 ACE inhibitors should be considered for the initial treatment of hypertension (E) The goal of treatment is a blood pressure consistently 130/80 mmHg or below the 90th percentile for age, sex, and height, whichever is lower (E)
  104. People diagnosed with type 1 diabetes in childhood have a high risk of early subclinical1-3 and clinical4 CVD Recommendations for the screening and treatment of children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes for dyslipidemia are summarized in four slides5 Slide 1 of 4 If there is a family history of hypercholesterolemia (total cholesterol 240 mg/dl) or a cardiovascular event before age 55 years, or if family history is unknown, then a fasting lipid profile should be performed on children 2 years of age soon after diagnosis (after glucose control has been established)
  105. Recommendations for the screening and treatment of children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes for dyslipidemia are summarized in four slides Slide 2 of 4 If family history is not of concern, then the first lipid screening should be performed at puberty (10 years) All children diagnosed with diabetes at or after puberty should have a fasting lipid profile performed soon after diagnosis (after glucose control has been established) (E)
  106. Recommendations for the screening and treatment of children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes for dyslipidemia are summarized in four slides Slide 3 of 4 For both age-groups, if lipids are abnormal, annual monitoring is recommended If LDL cholesterol values are within the accepted risk levels (100 mg/dl [2.6 mmol/l]), a lipid profile should be repeated every 5 years (E)
  107. Recommendations for the screening and treatment of children and adolescents with type 1 diabetes for dyslipidemia are summarized in four slides Slide 4 of 4 Initial therapy should consist of optimization of glucose control and MNT using a Step II AHA diet aimed at a decrease in the amount of saturated fat in the diet (E) After the age of 10 years, the addition of a statin is recommended in patients who, after MNT and lifestyle changes, have LDL cholesterol 160 mg/dl (4.1 mmol/l) or LDL cholesterol 130 mg/dl (3.4 mmol/l) and one or more CVD risk factors (E) The goal of therapy is an LDL cholesterol value 100 mg/dl (2.6 mmol/l) (E)
  108. Although retinopathy most commonly occurs after the onset of puberty and after 5-10 years of diabetes duration, it has been reported in prepubertal children and with diabetes duration of only 1-2 years Referrals should be made to eye care professionals with expertise in diabetic retinopathy, an understanding of the risk for retinopathy in the pediatric population, and experience in counseling the pediatric patient and family on the importance of early prevention/intervention The first ophthalmologic examination should be obtained once the child is 10 years of age and has had diabetes for 3-5 years (E) After the initial examination, annual routine follow-up is generally recommended; less frequent examinations may be acceptable on the advice of an eye care professional (E)
  109. Celiac disease is an immune-mediated disorder that occurs with increased frequency in patients with type 1 diabetes (1-16% of individuals compared with 0.3-1% in the general population)1,2 Symptoms of celiac disease include diarrhea, weight loss or poor weight gain, growth failure, abdominal pain, chronic fatigue, malnutrition due to malabsorption, other gastrointestinal problems, and unexplained hypoglycemia or erratic blood glucose concentrations3 Recommendations for the care of children with type 1 diabetes and celiac disease are summarized in two slides3 Slide 1 of 2 Children with type 1 diabetes should be screened for celiac disease by measuring tissue transglutaminase or anti-endomysial antibodies, with documentation of normal total serum IgA levels, soon after the diagnosis of diabetes (E) Testing should be repeated in children with growth failure, failure to gain weight, weight loss, diarrhea, flatulence, abdominal pain, or signs of malabsorption, or in children with frequent unexplained hypoglycemia or deterioration in glycemic control (E)
  110. Recommendations for the care of children with type 1 diabetes and celiac disease are summarized in two slides Slide 2 of 2 Children with positive antibodies should be referred to a gastroenterologist for evaluation with endoscopy and biopsy (E) Children with biopsy-confirmed celiac disease should be placed on a gluten-free diet and have consultation with a dietitian experienced in managing both diabetes and celiac disease (E)
  111. Autoimmune thyroid disease is the most common autoimmune disorder associated with diabetes, occurring in 17-30% of patients with type 1 diabetes1 The presence of thyroid auto-antibodies is predictive of thyroid dysfunction, generally hypothyroidism and less commonly hyperthyroidism2 Subclinical hypothyroidism may be associated with increased risk of symptomatic hypoglycemia3 and with reduced linear growth4 Hyperthyroidism alters glucose metabolism, potentially resulting in deterioration of metabolic control5 Children with type 1 diabetes should be screened for thyroid peroxidase and thyroglobulin antibodies at diagnosis (E) TSH concentrations should be measured after metabolic control has been established. If normal, they should be re-checked every 1–2 years, or if the patient develops symptoms of thyroid dysfunction, thyromegaly, or an abnormal growth rate (E)
  112. Recommendations for the preconception care of women with diabetes are summarized in two slides Slide 1 of 2 A1C levels should be as close to normal as possible (7%) in an individual patient before conception is attempted (B) Starting at puberty, preconception counseling should be incorporated in the routine diabetes clinic visit for all women of child-bearing potential (C) Women with diabetes who are contemplating pregnancy should be evaluated and, if indicated, treated for diabetic retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy, and CVD (E)
  113. Recommendations for the preconception care of women with diabetes are summarized in two slides Slide 2 of 2 Medications used by such women should be evaluated prior to conception, since drugs commonly used to treat diabetes and its complications may be contraindicated or not recommended in pregnancy, including statins, ACE inhibitors, ARBs, and most noninsulin therapies (E) Since many pregnancies are unplanned, consider the potential risks and benefits of medications that are contraindicated in pregnancy in all women of childbearing potential, and counsel women using such medications accordingly (E)
  114. Recommendations for the care of diabetes in older adults are summarized in two slides Slide 1 of 2 Older adults who are functional, are cognitively intact, and have significant life expectancy should receive diabetes care using goals developed for younger adults (E) Glycemic goals for older adults not meeting the above criteria may be related using individual criteria, but hyperglycemia leading to symptoms or risk of acute hyperglycemic complications should be avoid in all patients (E)
  115. Recommendations for the care of diabetes in older adults are summarized in two slides Slide 2 of 2 Other cardiovascular risk factors should be treated in older adults with consideration of the time frame of benefit and the individual patient Treatment of hypertension is indicated in virtually all older adults and lipid and aspirin therapy may benefit those with life expectancy at least equal to the time frame of primary or secondary prevention trials (E) Screening for diabetes complications should be individualized in older adults, but particular attention should be paid to complications that would lead to functional impairment (E)
  116. This section, “VIII. Diabetes Care in Specific Settings,” includes six slides: Recommendations: Diabetes Care in the Hospital (4 slides) Diabetes Care in the Hospital: NICE-SUGAR (2 slides)
  117. Recommendations for the care of patients with diabetes who are admitted to the hospital are summarized on four slides Slide 1 of 4 As noted on this slide, patients with diabetes admitted to the hospital should have their diabetes clearly identified in the medical record (E) and an order for blood glucose monitoring, with results available to all members of the health care team (E)
  118. Recommendations for the care of patients with diabetes who are admitted to the hospital are summarized on four slides Slide 2 of 4 Goals for blood glucose levels as are follows: Critically Ill Patients Insulin therapy should be initiated for treatment of persistent hyperglycemia starting at a threshold of ≤180 mg/dl (10 mmol/) Once insulin therapy is started, a glucose range of 140-180 mg/dl (7.8-10 mmol/l) is recommended for the majority of critically ill patients (A) These patients require an intravenous insulin protocol that has demonstrated efficacy and safety in achieving the desired glucose range without increasing risk for severe hypoglycemia (E) Selected Patients More stringent goals, such as 110–140 mg/dl (6.1–7.8 mmol/l) may be appropriate for selected patients, as long as this can be achieved without significant hypoglycemia (C) Non-Critically Ill Patients There is no clear evidence for specific blood glucose goals If treated with insulin, premeal blood glucose target should generally be <140 mg/dl (7.8 mmol/l) with random blood glucose <180 mg/dl (10.0 mmol/l), provided these targets can be safely achieved More stringent targets may be appropriate in stable patients with previous tight glycemic control. Less stringent targets may be appropriate in those with severe comorbidites (E)
  119. Recommendations for the care of patients with diabetes who are admitted to the hospital are summarized on four slides Slide 3 of 4 Scheduled subcutaneous insulin with basal, nutritional, and correction components is the preferred method for achieving and maintaining glucose control in non-critically ill patients (C) Using correction dose or “supplemental” insulin to correct premeal hyperglycemia in addition to scheduled prandial and basal insulin is recommended (E) Glucose monitoring should be initiated in any patient not known to be diabetic who receives therapy associated with high risk for hyperglycemia, including high-dose glucocorticoid therapy, initiation of enteral or parenteral nutrition, or other medications such as octreotide or immunosuppressive medications (B) If hyperglycemia is documented and persistent, treatment is necessary; such patients should be treated to the same glycemic goals as patients with known diabetes (E)
  120. Recommendations for the care of patients with diabetes who are admitted to the hospital are summarized on four slides Slide 4 of 4 A plan for treating hypoglycemia should be established for each patient; episodes of hypoglycemia in the hospital should be tracked (E) All patients with diabetes admitted to the hospital should have an A1C obtained if the result of testing in the previous 2-3 months is not available (E) Patients with hyperglycemia in the hospital who do not have a diagnosis of diabetes should have appropriate plans for follow-up testing and care documented at discharge (E)
  121. Results of the NICE-SUGAR study1,2 are summarized on two slides Slide 1 of 2 A body of literature now supports targeted glucose control in the hospital setting for potential improved clinical outcomes Hyperglycemia in the hospital may result from stress; decompensation of type 1, type 2, or other forms of diabetes; and/or may be iatrogenic due to withholding of antihyperglycemic medications of administration of hyperglycemia-provoking agents such as glucocorticoids or vasopressors People with diabetes are more likely to be hospitalized and to have longer lengths of stay than those without diabetes, and substantial observational evidence links hyperglycemia in hospitalized patients (with or without diabetes) to poor outcomes The largest study to date, NICE-SUGAR, a multicenter, multinational randomized controlled trial, compared the effect of intensive glycemic control (target 81–108 mg/dl, mean blood glucose attained 115 mg/dl) to standard glycemic control (target 144– 180 mg/dl, mean blood glucose attained 144 mg/dl) on outcomes among 6,104 critically ill participants, the majority of whom (95%) required mechanical ventilation2
  122. Results of the NICE-SUGAR study1,2 are summarized on two slides Slide 2 of 2 Ninety-day mortality was significantly higher in the intensive versus the conventional group (target 144-180 mg/dl) in both surgical and medical patients: 78 more deaths occurred; 27.5% vs 24.9%, P=0.02 Mortality from cardiovascular causes was more common in the intensive group: 76 more deaths; 41.6% vs 35.8%, P=0.02 Severe hypoglycemia was also more common in the intensively treated group, 6.8% vs 0.5%; P<0.001 The precise reason for the increased mortality in the tightly controlled group is unknown
  123. This section, “IX. Strategies for Improving Diabetes Care,” includes three slides: Objective 1: Provider and Team Behavior Change Objective 2: Patient Behavior Change Objective 3: Change the System of Care
  124. Objective 1 Provider and team behavior change: facilitate timely and appropriate intensification of lifestyle and/or pharmaceutical therapy of patients who have not achieved beneficial levels of blood pressure, lipid, or glucose control1 Clinical information systems including registries that can prospectively identify and track those requiring assessments and/or treatment modifications by the team Electronic medical record-based clinical decision support at the point of care, both personalize and standardize care and can be used by multiple providers2 Use of checklists and/or flow sheets that mirror guidelines Detailed treatment algorithms enabling multiple team members to “treat to target” and appropriately intensify therapy Availability of care or disease management services3 by nurses, pharmacists, and other providers using detailed algorithms often catalyzing reduction in A1C, blood pressure, and LDL cholesterol4,5
  125. Objective 2 In addition to the approaches on this slide1, support for patient behavior change includes: Delivery of high-quality DSME, which has been shown to improve patient self-management, satisfaction, and glucose control2,3 Delivery of ongoing diabetes self-management support (DSMS) to ensure that gains achieved during DSME are sustained.4,5 National DSME standards call for an integrated approach that includes clinical content and skills, behavioral strategies (goal-setting, problem solving), and addressing emotional concerns in each needed curriculum content area. Provision of continuing education and support (DSMS) improves maintenance of gains regardless of the educational methodology6 Provision of automated reminders via multiple communication channels to various subgroups of diabetic patients7
  126. Objective 3 Change the system of care: additional strategies are outlined on this slide1 The most successful practices have an institutional priority for quality of care, expanding the role of teams and staff, redesigning their delivery system, activating and educating their patients, and using electronic health record tools.2,3 Recent initiatives such as the Patient Centered Medical Home show promise in improving outcomes through coordinated primary care and offer new opportunities for team-based chronic disease care4 It is clear that optimal diabetes management requires an organized, systematic approach and involvement of a coordinated team of dedicated health care professionals working in an environment where patient-centered high-quality care is a priority