3. ATHLETICS
Athletics is an exclusive collection of sporting events that involve competitive
running, jumping, throwing, and walking. The most common types of
athletics competitions are track and field, road running, cross country
running, and race walking. The simplicity of the competitions, and the lack
of a need for expensive equipment, makes athletics one of the most commonly
competed sports in the world. Athletics is mostly an individual sport, with the
exception of relay races and competitions that combine athletes’ performances
for a team score, such as cross-country.
Organized athletics are traced back to the Ancient Olympic Games from 776
BC, and the member clubs of the International Association of Athletics
Federations conducts most modern events. The athletics meeting forms the
backbone of the modern Summer Olympics, and other leading international
meetings include the IAAF World Championships and World Indoor
Championships, and athletes with a physical disability compete at the
Summer Paralympics and the IPC Athletics World Championships.
5. Track Events
A. Sprints or Short Distance
Sprints are short running events in athletics and track and field. Races over short
distances are among the oldest running competitions. The first 13 editions of the
Ancient Olympic Games featured only one event—the stadion race, which was a race
from one end of the stadium to the other. There are three sprinting events which
are currently held at the Summer Olympics and outdoor World Championships: the
100 metres, 200 metres, and 400 metres. These events have their roots in races of
imperial measurements which were later altered to metric: the 100 m evolved from
the 100 yard dash, the 200 m distances came from the furlong (or 1/8 of a mile),
and the 400 m was the successor to the 440 yard dash or quarter-mile race.
At the professional level, sprinters begin the race by assuming a crouching position
in the starting blocks before leaning forward and gradually moving into an upright
position as the race progresses and momentum is gained. The set position differs
depending on the start. Body alignment is of key importance in producing the
optimal amount of force. Ideally the athlete should begin in a 4-point stance and
push off of both legs for the most force production. Athletes remain in the same
lane on the running track throughout all sprinting events, with the sole exception of
the 400 m indoors. Races up to 100 m are largely focused upon acceleration to an
athlete's maximum speed. All sprints beyond this distance increasingly incorporate
an element of endurance. Human physiology dictates that a runner's near-top speed
cannot be maintained for more than 30–35 seconds due to the accumulation of
lactic acid in muscles.
6.
7. B. Middle Distance Races
Middle distance running events are track races longer than sprints, up to 3000
metres. The standard middle distances are the 800 metres, 1500 metres and
mile run, although the 3000 metres may also be classified as a middle distance
event. The 880 yard run, or half mile, was the forebear to the 800 m distance
and it has its roots in competitions in the United Kingdom in the 1830s. The 1500
m came about as a result of running three laps of a 500 m track, which was
commonplace in continental Europe in the 20th century.
8. C. Long Distance Races
Long-distance track event races require runners to balance their energy. These
types of races are predominantly aerobic in nature and at the highest level,
exceptional levels of aerobic endurance are required more than anything else.
Elite long distance athletes typically train over 100 miles a week.
9.
10. D. Relay
Relay races are the only track and field event in which a team of runners directly
competes against other teams. Typically, a team is made up of four runners of
the same sex. Each runner completes their specified distance (referred to as a
leg) before handing over a baton to a teammate, who then begins their leg upon
receiving the baton. There is usually a designated area where athletes must
exchange the baton. Teams may be disqualified if they fail to complete the
change within the area, or if the baton is dropped during the race. A team may
also be disqualified if its runners are deemed to have willfully impeded other
competitors.
11.
12. E. Hurdles
Races with hurdles as obstacles were first popularized in the 19th century in
England. The first known event, held in 1830, was a variation of the 100-yard
dash that included heavy wooden barriers as obstacles. A competition between
the Oxford and Cambridge Athletic Clubs in 1864 refined this, holding a 120-yard
race (109.72 m) with ten hurdles of 3-foot and 6 inches (1.06 m) in height (each
placed 10 yards (9.14 m) apart), with the first and final hurdles 15 yards from
the start and finish, respectively.
French organisers adapted the race into metric (adding 28 cm) and the basics of
this race, the men's 110 metres hurdles, has remained largely unchanged. The
origin of the 400 metres hurdles also lies in Oxford, where (around 1860) a
competition was held over 440 yards and twelve 1.06 m high wooden barriers
were placed along the course. The modern regulations stem from the 1900
Summer Olympics: the distance was fixed to 400 m while ten 3-foot (91.44 cm)
hurdles were placed 35 m apart on the track, with the first and final hurdles
being 45 m and 40 m away from the start and finish, respectively. Women's
hurdles are slightly lower at 84 cm for the 100 m event and 76 cm (2 ft 6in) for
the 400 m event.
13.
14. F. Walking Races
Racewalking, or race walking, is a long-distance athletic event. Although it is a
foot race, it is different from running in that one foot must appear to be in
contact with the ground at all times. Stride length is reduced, so to achieve
competitive speeds, racewalkers must attain cadence rates comparable to those
achieved by Olympic 400-metre runners—and they must do so for hours at a
time since the Olympic events are the 20-kilometre (12 mi) race walk (men and
women) and 50-kilometre (31 mi) race walk (men only).
15.
16. Field Events
A. Jumping Events
1. Long Jump
The long jump is a track and field event in which athletes combine
speed, strength, and agility in an attempt to leap as far as possible from a take
off point. This event has been an Olympic medal event since the first modern
Olympics in 1896 and has a history in the Ancient Olympic Games.
17. 2. Triple Jump
The triple jump (sometimes referred to as the hop, step and jump or the hop,
skip and jump) is a track and field sport, similar to the long jump, but involving a
―hop, bound and jump‖ routine, whereby the competitor runs down the track
and performs a hop, a bound and then a jump into the sand pit.
The triple jump has its origins in the ancient Olympic Games and has been a
modern Olympics event since the Games' inception in 1896.
The current male and female world record holders are Jonathan Edwards of
Great Britain, with a jump of 18.29 metres (60.0 ft), and InessaKravets of
Ukraine, with a jump of 15.5 metres (51 ft). Both records were set during 1995
World Championships in Gothenburg.
18. 3. High Jump
The high jump is a track and field athletics event in which competitors must
jump over a horizontal bar placed at measured heights without the aid of certain
devices. In its modern most practiced format, auxiliary weights and mounds have
been used for assistance; rules have changed over the years. It has been
contested since the Olympic Games of ancient Greece. Over the centuries since,
competitors have introduced increasingly more effective techniques to arrive at
the current form. Javier Sotomayor (Cuba) is the current men's record holder
with a jump of 2.45 metres set in 1993, the longest standing record in the
history of the men's high jump. StefkaKostadinova (Bulgaria) has held the
women's world record at 2.09 metres since 1987, also the longest-held record in
the event.
19. 4. Pole Vault
Pole-vaulting is a track and field event in which a person uses a long, flexible
pole (which today is usually made either of fiberglass or carbon fiber) as an aid
to leap over a bar. The ancient Greeks, Cretans and Celts knew pole-jumping
competitions. It has been a full medal event at the Olympic Games since 1896
for men and 2000 for women.
20. B. Throwing Events
1. Shot Put
The shot put is a track and field event involving "putting" (throwing in a pushing
motion) a heavy metal ball—the shot—as far as possible. It is common to use
the term "shot put" to refer to both the shot itself and to the putting (throwing)
action.
Competitors take their throw from inside a marked circle 2.135 metres (7.00 ft)
in diameter, with a stopboard approximately 10 centimetres (3.9 in) high at the
front of the circle. The distance thrown is measured from the inside of the
circumference of the circle to the nearest mark made in the ground by the falling
shot, with distances rounded down to the nearest centimetre under IAAF, WMA,
USATF, and NCAA rules.
21. 2. Discus Throw
The discus throw is an event in track and field athletics competition, in which an
athlete throws a heavy disc—called a discus—in an attempt to mark a farther
distance than his or her competitors. It is an ancient sport, as evidenced by the
5th century BC Myron statue, Discobolus. Although not part of the modern
pentathlon, it was one of the events of the ancient pentathlon, which can be
dated at least back to 708 BC.
22. 3. Javelin Throw
The javelin throw is a track and field athletics throwing event where the object to
be thrown is the javelin, a spear approximately 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) in length. Javelin
is an event of both the men's decathlon and the women's heptathlon. The javelin
thrower gains momentum by running within a predetermined area.
23. 4. Hammer Throw
The modern or Olympic hammer throw is an athletic throwing event where the
object is to throw a heavy metal ball attached to a wire and handle. The name
"hammer throw" is derived from older competitions where an actual sledge
hammer was thrown. Such competitions are still part of the Scottish Highland
Games, where the implement used is a steel or lead weight at the end of a cane
handle.
25. Playing Venue
A. The Stadium
Stadium" comes
from the Greek word
"stadion" (στάδιον),
a measure of length
equalling the length
of 600 human feet.
As feet are of
variable length the
exact length of a
stadion depends on
the exact length
adopted for 1 foot at
a given place and
time. Although in
modern terms 1
stadion = 600 ft
(180 m), in a given
historical context it
may actually signify
a length up to 15%
larger or smaller. A
Roman stadium was
defined somewhat differently to be a distance of 125 passus (double-paces),
equal to about 185 m (607 ft).Although most dictionaries provide for both
"stadiums" and "stadia" as valid plurals, etymological sticklers sometimes apply
"stadia" only to measures of length in excess of 1 stadium. (That the "stadium"
measurement is used only in historical contexts perhaps explains the sustained
use of the archaic plural.)The English use of stadium comes from the tiered
infrastructure surrounding a Roman track of such length.
The oldest known stadium is the one in Olympia, in the western Peloponnese,
Greece, where the Olympic Games of antiquity were held from 776 BC. Initially
'the Games' consisted of a single event, a sprint along the length of the stadium.
According to the article Stadium at Olympia the track at Olympia was longer than
even the longest definition for stadion given in the article Stadion (unit of
length). In turn. Greek and Roman stadiums have been found in numerous
ancient cities, perhaps the most famous being the Stadium of Domitian, in Rome.
The first stadium to be used in modern times, and the only one to be used
during the 19th century, was the excavated and refurbished ancient Panathenaic
stadium which has hosted Olympic Games in 1870, 1875, 1896, 1906, and 2004.
26. B. The Infield
Found at the center of the track, includes runways for jumping events and has
circular areas of material such as concrete or asphalt for most throwing events.
27. Equipment
A. Baton
The hollow cylinder that is carried
by each member of a relay team in
a running race and passed to the
next team member.
B. Hurdles
A light portable barrier over which
competitors must leap in certain
races. It consists of 2 adjustable
meta; stands which support
central wooden bar.
C. Barriers
The circuit has four ordinary barriers
and one water jump. Over 3,000 m,
each runner must clear a total of 28
ordinary barriers and seven water
jumps. This entails seven complete
laps after starting with a fraction of a
lap run without barriers.
D. Shot
In open competitions the men's shot
weighs 7.260 kilograms (16.01 lb), and
the women's shot weighs 4 kilograms
(8.8 lb). Junior, school, and
masterscompetitions often use different
weights of shots, typically below the
weights of those used in open
competitions;
28. E. Discus
The discus, the object to be thrown, is
a heavy lenticular disc with a weight of
2 kilograms (4.4 lb) and diameter of
219–221 millimetres (8.6–8.7 in) for
the men's event, and a weight of 1
kilogram (2.2 lb) and diameter of 180–
182 millimetres (7.1–7.2 in) for the
women's event.
F. Javelin
The size, shape, minimum
weight,andcenter of gravity of the javelin
implement itself are all defined by IAAF
rules. In international competition, men
throw a javelin between 2.6 and 2.7 m
(8 ft 6 in and 8 ft 10 in) in length and 800 g
(28 oz) in weight, and women throw a
javelin between 2.2 and 2.3 m
(7 ft 3 in and 7 ft 7 in) in length and 600 g
(21 oz) in weight. The javelin is equipped
with a grip, approximately 150 mm (5.9 in)
wide, made of cord and located at the
javelin's center of gravity (0.9 to 1.06 m
(2 ft 10 in to 3 ft 6 in) or 0.8 to 0.92 m (2 ft
7 in to 3 ft 0.2 in) from the tip of the javelin
for men's and women's implements,
respectively).
G. Hammer
The men's hammer weighs 16 pounds
(7.257 kg) and measures 3 feet 11 3⁄4
inches (121.5 cm) in length and the
women's hammer weighs 8.82 lb (4 kg)
and 3 feet 11 inches (119.5 cm) in length.
Competitors gain maximum distance by
swinging the hammer above their head to
set up the circular motion. Then they
apply force and pick up speed by
completing one to four turns in the circle.
