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•   Social surveys take 2 basic forms: written questionnaires and interviews.
•   Whichever method of survey we choose, our questions are either open-
    ended or closed-ended.
•   Closed-ended questions= is where the respondent must choose
    answers from a limited range of possible answers, that the researcher
    has decided upon in advance, like yes, no, not sure or multiple choice.
    Close-ended questions are often pre-coded, which helps to ease
    analysis after, data collected from this type of question is easy to
    quantify.
•   Open-ended questions= is when the respondent is allowed to give
    whatever answer they wish, in their own words, without being offered
    any pre-selected choices.
Choosing a topic . . .

   Choosing a topic is the first step for
   research. Sociologists use surveys to
  study a wide variety of issues, however
  they’re not suitable for all subjects. E.g.
     historical topics can’t be surveyed
        unless they’re any survivors.
Formulating an aim or
hypothesis
   Most surveys have a general aim or seek to test a specific
    hypothesis for the research.
   An aim is the holistic statement which states the intention of the
    study or a statement which is to be tested.
   The census of the entire population is conducted by the
    government every 10years and is designed to collect large
    quantities of data about many aspects of British society.
   A hypothesis is more specific than an aim . Its an explanation that
    can be tested by collecting evidence to prove whether it’s true or
    false.
   Hypothesis gives direction to research, it gives a focus and
    questionnaires and interviews are based around as the aim is to
    either prove or disprove the hypothesis.
   From our research, if the evidence suggest that the hypothesis, is
    false we must discard it, but this helps us to rule out factors and
    allows us to formulate new hypothesise.
Operationalizing concepts

   Means turning a sociological concept/theory
    into some thing which can be measured.

   Defining: key concepts/ your terms
The pilot study
   Is the same idea as a ‘prototype’ it’s a study based on your
    research to test first, so that you’re research is carried out
    well and all things to take into consideration can be adhered
    to, pilot studies are used to indicate any problems which
    need to be dealt with or that may arise, when conducting the
    research.
   The basic aim of a pilot study is to iron out any
    creases(problems), refine/ clarify questions and they’re
    wording and give researcher/interviewers practice, so that
    the actual survey goes as smooth as possible.
   Pilot studies indicate issues which need to be altered, after
    the pilot study is carried out, it is then possible to finalise the
    research preparation and then to carry it out.
Sampling
   Because sociologists often want to
    establish generalisations, so that they’re
    theory can be applied to everyone in the
    population and because we can’t study
    everyone within the population, we
    therefore need to have a sample. A
    sample is a small group drawn from the
    wider group(all the people relevant to
    our study). This is known as sampling
    (selecting + creating sample).
The sampling frame…
 In order to select a sample to study, we first
  need a sampling frame. A sampling frame is
  all those people who are relevant to the study.
 It’s important that our sampling frame is as
  complete and as accurate as possible,
  otherwise the sample chosen from it may not
  be representative.
 Once we have our sampling frame, we then
  need to select our sample, though we must
  ensure that our sample is typical of the wider
  population which is of interest to us.
Sampling techniques
Sociologist use various techniques to attain a
representative sample:

Random sampling:
It’s the simplest form of sampling, where the sample is
selected purely at random e.g. names drawn out of a hat.

Quasi-random sample:
Is similar, but it’s a method like selecting every tenth
person on a list etc.
Sampling techniques
However, with the above 2 techniques there is always the possibility of
achieving an un-representative sample. There are other more
sophisticated ways to achieving a truly representative sample like:

 Stratified random sampling:
 Involves dividing a main variable into groups and then picking equal numbers from there
 e.g. if the study is concerned with gender that means splitting males and females and
 then selecting an equal number from each of these sub groups, this can be applied to
 other important variables in a study such as age, income etc.

 Quota-sampling:
 Is similar, to the above method of sampling, but rather from choosing from the sub-
 divided groups, the researcher goes out and collects the write amount of participant
 they need e.g. 500 men and 500 women.

Whatever sampling technique a researcher may use, they will often create a
reserve sample, so that in case anyone in the selected sample cannot be
contacted they can rely on the reserve sample to compensate, yet still attain
representative data.
Non-representative
sampling
   The purpose of sampling, is generally to
    ensure that people we include in our study
    are typical of the general research
    population.

   However, for both practical and theoretical
    reasons not all studies use representative
    sampling techniques.
Practical reasons
There are several practical reasons which may limit achieving a
representative sample, even if the researcher wishes to.


o   The social characteristics of the research population, may not be
    known e.g. age, class, gender, therefore it’s impossible to get a
    sample which is an exact cross-section of society.
o   It may be impossible to find or create a sampling frame, in the area
    which you choose to study as not everyone is included in that frame.
o   Potential respondents may refuse to participate in the survey, e.g.
    criminals may not want to participate if they believe that information
    will be passed onto the police.
Sometimes it is not possible to get a representative sample, in such
cases sociologists use 2 alternative types of sampling.

Snowball sampling:
Involves, collecting a sample through contacting a number of key
individuals. Who are than asked to suggest other people who maybe
relevant to the study, in this way the sample gets bigger and bigger
until enough data is collected. This method allows people who
would otherwise be reluctant to be studied.

Opportunity sampling:
Is based on convenience, it involves choosing a sample from those
who are easiest to access, e.g. selecting passers by or a captive
audience, like a class of pupils.

In neither case is the sample likely to be representative of
the target research population.
Theoretical reasons
   Even when it’s possible to create a representative
    sample, sociologists may choose not to, due to their
    sociological perspective.

   For example, interpretivists believe that it’s more
    important to gain valid data and a true understanding of
    social actors’ meanings than to discover general laws of
    behaviour. Because they're less concerned with making
    generalisations, they therefor don’t require a
    representative sample.

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  • 1. Social surveys take 2 basic forms: written questionnaires and interviews. • Whichever method of survey we choose, our questions are either open- ended or closed-ended. • Closed-ended questions= is where the respondent must choose answers from a limited range of possible answers, that the researcher has decided upon in advance, like yes, no, not sure or multiple choice. Close-ended questions are often pre-coded, which helps to ease analysis after, data collected from this type of question is easy to quantify. • Open-ended questions= is when the respondent is allowed to give whatever answer they wish, in their own words, without being offered any pre-selected choices.
  • 2. Choosing a topic . . .  Choosing a topic is the first step for research. Sociologists use surveys to study a wide variety of issues, however they’re not suitable for all subjects. E.g. historical topics can’t be surveyed unless they’re any survivors.
  • 3. Formulating an aim or hypothesis  Most surveys have a general aim or seek to test a specific hypothesis for the research.  An aim is the holistic statement which states the intention of the study or a statement which is to be tested.  The census of the entire population is conducted by the government every 10years and is designed to collect large quantities of data about many aspects of British society.  A hypothesis is more specific than an aim . Its an explanation that can be tested by collecting evidence to prove whether it’s true or false.  Hypothesis gives direction to research, it gives a focus and questionnaires and interviews are based around as the aim is to either prove or disprove the hypothesis.  From our research, if the evidence suggest that the hypothesis, is false we must discard it, but this helps us to rule out factors and allows us to formulate new hypothesise.
  • 4. Operationalizing concepts  Means turning a sociological concept/theory into some thing which can be measured.  Defining: key concepts/ your terms
  • 5. The pilot study  Is the same idea as a ‘prototype’ it’s a study based on your research to test first, so that you’re research is carried out well and all things to take into consideration can be adhered to, pilot studies are used to indicate any problems which need to be dealt with or that may arise, when conducting the research.  The basic aim of a pilot study is to iron out any creases(problems), refine/ clarify questions and they’re wording and give researcher/interviewers practice, so that the actual survey goes as smooth as possible.  Pilot studies indicate issues which need to be altered, after the pilot study is carried out, it is then possible to finalise the research preparation and then to carry it out.
  • 6. Sampling  Because sociologists often want to establish generalisations, so that they’re theory can be applied to everyone in the population and because we can’t study everyone within the population, we therefore need to have a sample. A sample is a small group drawn from the wider group(all the people relevant to our study). This is known as sampling (selecting + creating sample).
  • 7. The sampling frame…  In order to select a sample to study, we first need a sampling frame. A sampling frame is all those people who are relevant to the study.  It’s important that our sampling frame is as complete and as accurate as possible, otherwise the sample chosen from it may not be representative.  Once we have our sampling frame, we then need to select our sample, though we must ensure that our sample is typical of the wider population which is of interest to us.
  • 8. Sampling techniques Sociologist use various techniques to attain a representative sample: Random sampling: It’s the simplest form of sampling, where the sample is selected purely at random e.g. names drawn out of a hat. Quasi-random sample: Is similar, but it’s a method like selecting every tenth person on a list etc.
  • 9. Sampling techniques However, with the above 2 techniques there is always the possibility of achieving an un-representative sample. There are other more sophisticated ways to achieving a truly representative sample like: Stratified random sampling: Involves dividing a main variable into groups and then picking equal numbers from there e.g. if the study is concerned with gender that means splitting males and females and then selecting an equal number from each of these sub groups, this can be applied to other important variables in a study such as age, income etc. Quota-sampling: Is similar, to the above method of sampling, but rather from choosing from the sub- divided groups, the researcher goes out and collects the write amount of participant they need e.g. 500 men and 500 women. Whatever sampling technique a researcher may use, they will often create a reserve sample, so that in case anyone in the selected sample cannot be contacted they can rely on the reserve sample to compensate, yet still attain representative data.
  • 10. Non-representative sampling  The purpose of sampling, is generally to ensure that people we include in our study are typical of the general research population.  However, for both practical and theoretical reasons not all studies use representative sampling techniques.
  • 11. Practical reasons There are several practical reasons which may limit achieving a representative sample, even if the researcher wishes to. o The social characteristics of the research population, may not be known e.g. age, class, gender, therefore it’s impossible to get a sample which is an exact cross-section of society. o It may be impossible to find or create a sampling frame, in the area which you choose to study as not everyone is included in that frame. o Potential respondents may refuse to participate in the survey, e.g. criminals may not want to participate if they believe that information will be passed onto the police.
  • 12. Sometimes it is not possible to get a representative sample, in such cases sociologists use 2 alternative types of sampling. Snowball sampling: Involves, collecting a sample through contacting a number of key individuals. Who are than asked to suggest other people who maybe relevant to the study, in this way the sample gets bigger and bigger until enough data is collected. This method allows people who would otherwise be reluctant to be studied. Opportunity sampling: Is based on convenience, it involves choosing a sample from those who are easiest to access, e.g. selecting passers by or a captive audience, like a class of pupils. In neither case is the sample likely to be representative of the target research population.
  • 13. Theoretical reasons  Even when it’s possible to create a representative sample, sociologists may choose not to, due to their sociological perspective.  For example, interpretivists believe that it’s more important to gain valid data and a true understanding of social actors’ meanings than to discover general laws of behaviour. Because they're less concerned with making generalisations, they therefor don’t require a representative sample.